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The use of well amongst native speakers of English observed

on the basis of CHILDES database. The comparison of Wells

and Fletcher corpora

Wykorzystanie well ZĤUyGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVMč]\NDQDSRd-stawie bazy danych CHILDES. Porównanie korpusów Wells i Fletcher

Abstract: 'LVFRXUVHPDUNHUVDUHSDUWDQGSDUFHORIOLQJXLVWLFEHKDYLRURIVSHDNHUV RIDOOODQJXDJHV,QPRUHUHVHUYHGVRFLHWLHVSHRSOHWHQGWRH[SUHVV JUHDWHUGLVWDQFH WR RWKHU SHRSOH ,Q PRUH RSHQ VRFLHWLHV VSHDNHUV PDLQWDLQ FORVHU SUR[LPLW\ ZLWK RWKHUVDQGDUHPRUHLQFOLQHGWRSUHVHUYHJUHDWHULQWLPDF\ZLWKSHRSOHWKH\FRPHLn-WRFRQWDFWZLWK$OOWKHVDPHGHSHQGLQJRQWKHVRFLHW\XVLQJWKHODQJXDJHGLIIHUHQW IRUPVRIFRPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIOLWHUDOVHPDQWLFPHDQLQJVDUHXVHG,QVRPHFXOWXUHV VSHDNHUVIHHOWKDWDSDUWIURPZRUGVWKH\QHHGWRUHVSRQGWRZKDWRWKHUSHRSOHVD\ ZLWKEHLWD JHVWXUHDIDFLDOH[SUHVVLRQRUDQLQWHUMHFWLRQ7KLVUHDFWLRQPLJKWEH UHFHLYHGDVDNLQGRIPRFNHU\E\VSHDNHUVRIRWKHUODQJXDJHV1DWLYHVSHDNHUVRI (QJOLVK VHHP WR EH PRUH FRQFHUQHG ZLWK WKH SRLQW RI YLHZ RI WKHLU LQWHUORFXWRUV :KHUHDVLQVRPHODQJXDJHVVLPSOHno! LVHQRXJKWRH[SUHVVGLVDJUHHPHQWLQ(QJ OLVKDPore likely response includes a discourse marker such as wellIRULQVWDQFH This well RSHQVDSOHWKRUDRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQVGLVDJUHHPHQWDPRQJWKHPEXWDWWKH VDPHWLPHGRHVQRWGHSULYHWKHLQWHUORFXWRURIVRPHGHJUHHRIULJKWQHVV7KLVSDSHU discusses the SUREOHPRIWKHXVHRIwell DPRQJVWQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRI(QJOLVKRb-VHUYHGRQWKHEDVLVRI&+,/'(6GDWDEDVH 6ãRZDNOXF]RZH QDWLYHVSHDNHUVRI(QJOLVK:HOOVNRUSXV)OHWFKHUNRr-pus) Keywords: QDWLYHVSHDNHUVRI(QJOLVK:HOOVFRUSRUD)OHWFKHUFRr-pora) 1. Discourse markers ,QRUGHUWRVDWLVI\WKHLUDLPVSHRSOHXVHSUDJPDWLFUHDVRQLQJ 3UDJPDWLVP LV HYLGHQW LQ WKH ODQJXDJH SHRSOH XVH HYHU\GD\ 'Ls-course markers allow interlocutors to understand better what other SHRSOHVD\ZK\WKH\VD\LWLIWKH\UHDOO\PHDQZKDWWKH\VD\DV ZHOODVZKDWLPSDFWWKHLUPHVVDJHPLJKWKDYHRQRWKHUSHRSOH'Ls- FRXUVHPDUNHUVUHIHUWRFRQFHSWVZKLFKDUHGLIILFXOWWRFODVVLI\Xn-GHUXQDQLPRXVWD[RQRP\%ĈF]NRZVNDSURYLGHVDQDFFRXQW RI YDULRXV RXWORRNV FRQFHUQLQJ GLVFRXUVH PDUNHUV /HQN  VWDWHVWKDWSDUWLFOHVDUHH[DPLQHGLQPRVWODQJXDJHVEXWWKHUHLV QRFOHDUDQGFRKHUHQWWHUPLQRORJ\XVHGZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHP,t PLJKWKDSSHQWKXVWKDWWZRSDUDOOHOVWXGLHVLQYHVWLJDWLQJH[DFWO\



WKHVDPHSKHQRPHQRQXVHWRWDOO\GLVSDUDWHWHUPLQRORJ\%ODNPRUH XVHVWKHWHUPGLVFRXUVHFRQQHFWLYHs. +HKLJKOLJKWVRQHRIWKH IHDWXUHVRIGLVFRXUVHPDUNHUVWKDWLVWKH\DUHXVHGwhen there is DQ LQVXIILFLHQF\ RI ZRUGV LQ D FRPPXQLFDWLYH FRQWH[W ĝVWPDQ LQWURGXFHVWKHWHUPSUDJPDWLFSDUWLFOHV)UDVHU%ULn-WRQ$LMPHUHWDOXVHWKHWHUPSUDJPDWLFPDUNHU2WKHU YHUVLRQVRIWHUPLQRORJ\UHIHUULQJWRWKHVDPHSKenomena include – GLVFRXUVHPDUNHU=ZLFN\6FKLIIULQ/HQN&DUWHU DQG0F&FDUWK\'LVFRXUVHSDUWLFOHRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLVWKH WHUPXVHGE\6FKRXUXS/DERYHDQG)DQVKHO$EUDKDP .URRQ2QHRIWKHGLVFRXUVHPDUNHrs is ZHOOIt is used LQPDQ\FRQWH[WVDORQHRUDFFRPSDQLHGE\SUHFHGLQJRUIROORZLQJ

words.

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2. Well as a discourse marker

Well KDVEHHQH[WHQVLYHO\VWXGLHGE\PDQ\VFKRODUs. %ĈF]NRw-VNDSUHVHQWVWKHGLVFXVVLRQRI well DVDGLVFRXUVHPDUNHU /DNRIIVSHFLILHVWKDWwell LVXVHGZKHQWKHUHLVLQVXIILFLHQcy RIUHVSRQVH,QVXFKVLWXDWLRQVZHOOFRPSHQVDWHVIRUWKHSRWHQWLDO JDSVLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQ6YDUWYLNSHUFHLYHVwell DVDPDUNRID WRSLF VKLIW 7R 2ZHQ  well SRVVHVVHV D PLWLJDWLQJ IXQFWLRQ ZKHQ WKH FRQYHUVDWLRQ LV DW ULVN RU FRQIURQWDWion is anticipated. $LMPHU DQG 6LPRQ–9DQGHQEHUJHQ  DVFULEH WR well a multi- IXQFWLRQDOSURVSHFWLYH7KH\FODLPWKDWLWLVWKHXQLWZKRVHLQWHUSUe-WDWLRQVGHSHQGRQWKHVSHDNHUFRQWH[WDVZHOODVWKHUHODWLRQVKLS

between the speaker and the listener. In WKLVYLHZwell may

repre-VHQW D JUHDW QXPEHU RI PHDQLQJV DQG D ZLGH UDQJH RI IXQFWLRQs.

Well OLNH RWKHU '0V PD\ H[SUHVV PDQ\ IXQFWLRQs. $LMPHU 

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Well PD\RFFXULQWKHEHJLQQLQJLQWKHPLGGOHRUDWWKHHQGRIWKH

VHQWHQFH,WLVPRUHFRPPRQLQWKHVSRNHQODQJXDJHWKRXJKXVHG LQZULWLQJWRVXJJHVWPRUHVSRNHQ–OLNHQDWXUHRIWKHVLWXDWLRQSUe-sented.

3. Aims of the study

TKHVWXG\ZDVXQGHUWDNHQWRREVHUYHwell LQDQDWXUDOIORZRI

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4. Database and method

4.1 Sources and format of data

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RIDERXWHLJKW\ILOHs. 17KHVHFRQGFRUSXV DOVRWKHSDUWRI&+,/'(6

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GUHQDJHVDQG'LDORJXHVZHUHUHFRUGHGLQDQLQWHUYLHZVLWXa-tion betweeQDIHPDOHDGXOWDQGWKHFKLOG&KLOGUHQKDGQRWNQRZQ

WKHLQYHVWLJDWRUVEHIRUHWKHH[SHULPHQW

4.3 Method

&/$1SURJUDPPHZDVXVHGWRH[WUDFWWKHGHVLUHGILOHs. These ZHUHWKHQWDNHQGRZQDQGDQDO\]HGZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRZKLFKIXQc-WLRQ WKH\ UHSUHVHQWHG $SDUW IURP WKH OLQHV FRQWDLQLQJ WKH FKRVHQ

discourse marker well,

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IHUUHGWRLQRUGHUWRVKHGPRUHOLJKWRQWKHLULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ6RPe-13UHSDUHGRQWKHEDVLVRI0DF:KLQQH\%7KH&+,/'(63URMHFW7RROVIRU



WLPHV WKHZKROH ILOHKDG WR EH YLHZHG WR SURSHUO\ DOORFDWH WKH GLs-FRXUVHPDUNHU·V SUDJPDWLFPHDQLQJ

5. Results

7KH QXPEHU RI XWWHUDQFHV ZKLFK DSSHDUHG LQ WKH GDWDEDVH ZDV  DIWHUH[FOXGLQJ WKRVHLQVWDQFHVZKLFKHOXGHGLQWHUSUHWa-tion and when well was not used as a discourse marker. There were XWWHUDQFHVSURGXFHGE\FKLOGUHQE\FDUHJLYHUV DQGE\SHUVRQVRIXQNQRZQDJH

7DEOH5HVXOWV\LHOGHGIRUwell! IURPWKH:HOOVFRUSXV

RYHUDOO FDUHJLYHU child _XQNQRZQDJH SHUVRQRI

DOODSSHDUDQFHVRIwell   16 

eludes interpretation 17  1 

not used LQWHUMHFWLRQDOO\   1 

analysable utterances    

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Figure 2. The overall use of well

7KHSLHFKDUWDERYHLOOXVWUDWHVWKHIDFWWKDWwell LVPRVWIUHTXHQWO\ XVHGE\FDUHJLYHUVIROORZHGE\SHUVRQVRIXQNQRZQDJHDQGFKLl-GUHQ7KLVPD\EHGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWFDUHJLYHUVKDYHVSRNHQWKH PRVW7KH\H[FKDQJHGYLHZVZLWKRWKHUDGXOWVDVZHOODVWKH\VSRNH WRWKHWDUJHWFKLOGUHQHQFRXUDJLQJWKHPWRVSHDN XQNQRZQDJH FKLOG FDUHJLYHU



Main reasons for the production of well – caregiver. Wells

Figure 3. Three main functions of well for caregivers

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are treated separately and when LQMXQFWLRQH[SODQDWLRQDQGDGYLFH

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Main reasons for the production of well–child. Wells

Figure 4. Three main functions of well for the target child

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Main reasons for the production of well–person of unknown age. Wells

Figure 5. Three main functions of well for the person of unknown age

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discourse DSSHDULQJ WKH VDPH QXPEHU RI WLPHV ZKHQ WKH\ ZHUH

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Main reasons for the production of well together. Wells

Figure 6. Three main functions of well for all participants together LQTXLU\ VWDWHPHQW VXJJHVWLRQ VWDWHPHQW UHFWLILFDWLRQ rHPDUNFRQQHFWLQJGLVFRXUVH



7KHSLHFKDUWDERYHLOOXVWUDWHVWKHPDLQIXQFWLRQVof well when WKUHHPDLQIXQFWLRQVDUHDQDO\]HGLQLVRODWLRQ:KHQFDOFXODWHGWo-JHWKHUZLWKDOORWKHUIXQFWLRQVWKHSHUFHQWDJHVDUHIRULQTXLU\ IRUVWDWHPHQWDQGIRUVXJJHVWLRQ,QTXLU\ZDVDQXPEUHOOD WHUPIRUJHQXLQHTXHVWLRQVDVZHOODVTXHVWLRQWDJVDQGVRPHIRUPV RIUHTXHVW %HORZDOOWKHWKLUW\IRXUIXQFWLRQVZLOOEHDVFULEHGWRDOOSDUWLFLSDQWV RIWKHUHFRUGLQJVDQGSUHVHQWHGZLWKEDUSORWs.

Figure 7. Specific functions of well for the target child

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Figure 8. Specific functions of well for the person of unknown age

1 .r e m a rk 2 .s ta te m e n t 3 .i n q u iry 4 .r e q u e st 5 .c o n fir m a tio n 6 .u n ce rt a n ity 7 .o p in io n 8 .e lu d e s in te rp re ta tio n 9 .n o t u se d in te rje ct io n a lly 1 0 . in ju n ct io n 1 1 . e xp la n a tio n 1 2 . p ra is e 1 3 . q u e st io n t a g 1 4 . a tte n tio n g e tte r 1 5 . se a rc h f o r e xp re ss io n 1 6 . p o st p o n in g d e ci ss io n 1 7 . co n ce rn 1 8 . su rp ris e 1 9 . su g g e st io n 2 0 . d is a g re e m e n t 2 1 . h e d g in g 2 2 . in fe re n ce 2 3 . re p rim a n d 2 4 . a d vi ce 2 5 . o rd e r 2 6 . re ct ifi ca tio n 2 7 . p ro m p tin g 2 8 . co n n e ct in g d is co u rs e 2 9 . fe ig n e d s u rp ris e 3 0 . e m b a ra ss m e n t 3 1 . su p p o si tio n to p ic s h ift 3 3 . th re a t 3 4 . re a ss u ra n ce child 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1 . s ta te m e n t 2 . re c ti fi c a ti o n 3 . re m a rk 4 . c o n n e c ti n g d is c o u rs e 5 . n o t u s e d i n te rj e c ti o n a lly 6 . s u g g e s ti o n 7 . o p in io n 8 . e lu d e s i n te rp re ta ti o n 9 . e x p la n a ti o n 1 0 . d is a g re e m e n t 1 1 . in q u ir y 1 2 . u n c e rt a n it y 1 3 . h e d g in g 1 4 . in fe re n c e 1 5 . re p ri m a n d 1 6 . a d v ic e 1 7 . o rd e r 1 8 . re a s s u ra n c e 1 9 . a tt e n ti o n g e tt e r 2 0 . q u e s ti o n t a g 2 1 . th re a t 2 2 . to p ic s h if t 2 3 . re q u e s t 2 4 . s u p p o s it io n 2 5 . e m b a ra s s e m e n t 2 6 . fe ig n e d s u rp ri s e 2 7 . c o n fi rm a ti o n 2 8 . p ro m p ti n g 2 9 . s u rp ri s e 3 0 . c o n c e rn 3 1 . p o s tp o n in g d e c is s io n 3 2 . s e a rc h f o r e x p re s s io n 3 3 . p ra is e 3 4 . in ju n c ti o n unknown age 0 1 2 3 4



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Figure 9. Specific functions of well for the caregiver

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Figure 10. Specific functions of well for all the participants together

1 . e lu d e s i n te rp re ta ti o n 2 . in q u ir y 3 . s u g g e s ti o n 4 . a d v ic e 5 . n o t u s e d i n te rj e c ti o n a lly 6 . e x p la n a ti o n 7 . in ju n c ti o n 8 . s ta te m e n t 9 . o rd e r 1 0 . c o n n e c ti n g d is c o u rs e 1 1 . re p ri m a n d 1 2 . d is a g re e m e n t 1 3 . re m a rk 1 4 . re c ti fi c a ti o n 1 5 . q u e s ti o n t a g 1 6 . o p in io n 1 7 . a tt e n ti o n g e tt e r 1 8 . u n c e rt a n it y 1 9 . p ro m p ti n g 2 0 . e m b a rr a s s e m e n t 2 1 . p ra is e 2 2 . th re a t 2 3 . to p ic s h if t 2 4 . re q u e s t 2 5 . s u p p o s it io n 2 6 . fe ig n e d s u rp ri s e 2 7 . c o n fi rm a ti o n 2 8 . h e d g in g 2 9 . c o n c e rn 3 0 . p o s tp o n in g d e c is s io n 3 1 . s e a rc h f o r th e f o rm 3 2 . s u rp ri s e 3 3 . in fe re n c e 3 4 . re a s s u ra n c e caregiver 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 . e lu d e s i n te rp re ta ti o n 2 . in q u ir y 3 . s ta te m e n t 4 . n o t u s e d i n te rj e c ti o n a lly 5 . s u g g e s ti o n 6 . e x p la n a ti o n 7 . re m a rk 8 . a d v ic e 9 . in ju n c ti o n 1 0 . c o n n e c ti n g d is c o u rs e 1 1 . re c ti fi c a ti o n 1 2 . o rd e r 1 3 . d is a g re e m e n t 1 4 . re p ri m a n d 1 5 . q u e s ti o n t a g 1 6 . u n c e rt a n it y 1 7 . a tt e n ti o n g e tt e r 1 8 . re q u e s t 1 9 . th re a t 2 0 . e m b a rr a s s e m e n t 2 1 . c o n fi rm a ti o n 2 2 . p ro m p ti n g 2 3 . h e d g in g 2 4 . p ra is e 2 5 . c o n fi rm a ti o n 2 6 . re a s s u ra n c e 2 7 . to p ic s h if t 2 8 . s u p p o s it io n 2 9 . fe ig n e d s u rp ri s e 3 0 . in fe re n c e 3 1 . s u rp ri s e 3 2 . c o n c e rn 3 3 . p o s tp o n in g d e c is s io n 3 4 . s e a rc h f o r e x p re s s io n together 0 5 10 15



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analysable utterances   

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Figure 11. The overall use of well

,QWKLVFRUSXVXQOLNHLQ:HOOVFKLOGUHQXVHGWKHGLVFRXUVHPDUNHU well PRUH$VLWZDVPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUWKHUHFRUGLQJVWRRNSODFHLQ DPRUHIRUPDOFRQWH[W,WPLJKWKDYHLQIOXHQFHGWKHWDUJHWFKLOGUHQ Ratio of usage FDUHJLYHU FKLOG



ZKRDWOHDVWOLQJXLVWLFDOO\ZHUHPRUHKHVLWDQW7KH\ZHUHOHVVFHr-WDLQRIWKHLURSLQLRQVDQGXVHG well more.

Main reasons for the production of well – caregiver. Fletcher

Figure 12. Three main functions of well for caregivers

7KHPDLQUHDVRQVIRUWKHSURGXFWLRQRIwell illustrate the social sit-XDWLRQYHU\ZHOO7KHFRQWH[WZDVIRUPDODQGWKHFKLOGUHQKDGQRW NQRZQWKHLUFDUHJLYHUVEHIRUHDQGYLFHYHUVD7KH\XVHGUHFWLILFDWLRQ WRHQOLJKWHQWKHRWKHUVLGHLIWKH\GLGQRWNQRZVRPHWKLQJ$WRWKHU WLPHV WKH\ FRQQHFWHGGLVFRXUVH ZKLFK WKH\ZRXOG QRW KDYHWR GR ZLWKSHRSOHWKH\ZHUHPRUHIDPLOLDUZLWK7KH\DOVRH[SUHVVHGWKHLU UHVSHFWWRWKHRWKHUVLGHXVLQJPRUHTXHVWLRQWDJVVXJJHVWLQJOHVV authority.

Main reasons for the production of well – the target child. Fletcher

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 Figure 13. Three main functions of well for caregivers

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ZKHUHWKHUHFRUGLQJVZHUHWDNHQ/LNHLQWKHH[DPSOHDERYHFKLl-dren used well

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Main reasons for the production of well – together. Fletcher

Figure 14. Three main functions of well for all participants together

Social situations when people do not know each other are marked E\WKHQHFHVVLW\WRFODULI\H[SODLQDQGLQIRUP7KHVWXG\KDVSURYHQ WKLVIRUPXOD

%HORZDOOWKHIRXUWHHQIXQFWLRQVZLOOEHDVFULEHGWRDOOSDUWLFLSDQWV RIWKHUHFRUGLQJVDQGSresented with bar plots.

1 . re c ti fi c a ti o n 2 . e x p la n a ti o n 3 . n o t u s e d i n te rj e c ti o n a lly 4 . s ta te m e n t 5 . s u g g e s ti o n 6 . e m b a rr a s s m e n t 7 . in q u ir y 8 . a tt e n ti o n g e tt e r 9 . q u e s ti o n t a g 1 0 . s o rr o w 1 1 . o p in io n 1 2 . s u p p o s it io n 1 3 . c o n c e rn 1 4 . c o n n e c ti n g d is c o u rs e child 0 5 10 15

rectification 49%

explanation 34%

statement 1



Figure 15. Specific functions of well for the target children

Figure 16. Specific functions of well for the caregiver

$VLWZDVPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUDQGDVDQWLFLSDWHGUHFWLILFDWLRQZDVWKH main reason to use well,QWKH)OHWFKHUFRUSXVFKLOGUHQKDYHSURY HQWREHPRUHZLOOLQJWRXVHZHOODQGWRH[SUHVVDJUHDWHUQXPEHURI IXQFWLRQs. 7KH IDFW WKDW FDUHJLYHUV KDYH RYHUZKHOPLQJO\ XVHG well QRW DV D GLVFRXUVH PDUNHU EXW DV DQ DGYHUE ZDV GLFWDWHG E\ WKH IDFWWKDWWKH\ZDQWHGWRHQFRXUDJHFKLOGUHQWRSHUIRUP7KH\KDYH

used phrases such as YHU\ZHOORUYHU\ZHOOGRQH ZKLFKLVW\SLFDORI

VLWXDWLRQV ZKHQ DGXOWV ZLWK D SRVLWLYH DWWLWXGH ZDQW WR PRWLYDWH children.

6. Conclusions

7KHDQDO\VLVRIWKHWZRFRUSRUDKDVGLVSOD\HGFHUWDLQVimilari-WLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHs. ,QERWKFRUSRUDSDUWLFLSDQWVKDYHXVHG well in D QXPEHURI GLIIHUHQW IXQFWLRQV WR ILWVRFLDO FRQWH[Ws. In the Wells FRUSXVDGXOWVXVHGwell PRUHIUHTXHQWO\DQGWRDFFRXQWIRUPRUH IXQFWLRQs. In the Wells corpus adults used well mainly when suJ JHVWLQJDOWHUQDWLYHFRXUVHVRIHYHQWVLQTXLULQJVRPHWKLQJZKLFKLV W\SLFDO RI FRQWDFWV EHWZHHQ FKLOGUHQ DQG WKHLU SDUHQWs. In the )OHWFKHUFRUSXVWKHXVHRIwell ZDVWRWDOO\GRPLQDWHGE\UHFWLILFa-WLRQDQGH[SODQDWLRQZKLFKDUHFRPPRQDQGW\SLFDORIHQFRXQWHUV ZKHQVWUDQJHUVFRPHLQWRFRQWDFWs. ,QERWKFRUSRUDLQWKHOLJKWRI WKH VWXGLHV WKH VRFLDO VLWXDWLRQ ZDV FRQILUPHG E\ WKH XVH RI WKH

discourse marker ZHOO

1 . n o t u s e d i n te rj e c ti o n a ll y 2 . re c ti fi c a ti o n 3 . c o n n e c ti n g d is c o u rs e 4 . s ta te m e n t 5 . q u e s ti o n t a g 6 . in q u ir y 7 . e x p la n a ti o n 8 . a tt e n ti o n g e tt e r 9 . o p in io n 1 0 . s o rr o w 1 1 . s u p p o s it io n 1 2 . c o n c e rn 1 3 . s u g g e s ti o n 1 4 . e m b a rr a s s m e n t caregiver 0 5 10 15 20 25 30



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