52&=1,.,36<&+2/2*,&=1( $11$/62)36<&+2/2*< '2,KWWSG[GRLRUJUSV\FKHQ (:(/,1$&,&+2ēD 5$'26à$:.5<&,ē6.,D 0$5&,1)/25.2:6.,E 5(0,*,86=6=&=(3$12:6.,D D6:368QLYHUVLW\RI6RFLDO6FLHQFHVDQG+XPDQLWLHV )DFXOW\RI3V\FKRORJ\LQ:URFáDZ E8QLYHUVLW\RI=LHORQD*yUD3RODQG ,QVWLWXWHRI3V\FKRORJ\
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+(6(9(5,7<
2)'(35(66,217+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<
,1$121&/,1,&$/3238/$7,21
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
$GGUHVVIRUFRUUHVSRQGHQFH5(0,*,86=6=&=(3$12:6.,±6:368QLYHUVLW\RI6RFLDO6FLHQ FHVDQG+XPDQLWLHV)DFXOW\RI3V\FKRORJ\LQ:URFODZXO2VWURZVNLHJRE:URFáDZ 3RODQGHPDLOUV]F]HSDQRZVNL#VZSVHGXSO
7KLV UHVHDUFK KDV EHHQ VXSSRUWHG E\ JUDQW QR %+6 IURP WKH 1DWLRQDO 6FLHQFH&HQWHU3RODQGDZDUGHGWR56
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
,1752'8&7,21
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¶V'HSUHVVLRQ,QYHQWRU\ %',VFRUHV%HFN$OIRUG0HQGHOVRQ0RFN (UEDXJK ZKLFKLQGL FDWHVWKDWGHSUHVVLRQSURILOHVIRUWKHFOLQLFDOVDPSOHDQGLWVDQDORJRXVQRQFOLQL FDOFRXQWHUSDUWDUHTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHVDPH7KHUHIRUHWKHULVNIDFWRUVIRUWKHGH YHORSPHQW RI GHSUHVVLYH V\PSWRPV LQ D QRQFOLQLFDO VDPSOH LGHQWLILHG ZLWK WKH %',PD\EHXVHIXOLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSV\FKRSDWKRORJ\WKDWXQGHUOLHVVHYHUH FDVHVRIGHSUHVVLRQ
,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKHUHLVDYDVWERG\RIHYLGHQFHVKRZLQJWKDWDQ[LHW\LVDQDQ WHFHGHQW RI GHSUHVVLYH GLVRUGHUV %HFN $OIRUG )RU LQVWDQFH LW ZDV IRXQGWKDWRISDWLHQWVZLWKPDMRUGHSUHVVLYHGLVRUGHUVKDGFRPRUELGDQ [LHW\GLVRUGHUVZKHUHDVRISDWLHQWVZLWKDQ[LHW\GLVRUGHUVVXIIHUHGIURP FRPRUELGPDMRUGHSUHVVLYHGLVRUGHU%HHNPDQHWDO$QLPSRUWDQWORQJL WXGLQDO VWXG\ E\ :LWWFKHQ DQG FROOHDJXHV :LWWFKHQ .HVVOHU 3ILVWHU +|IOHU /LHERQDYHU\ODUJHVDPSOHN LQGLFDWHGWKDWLQPRVWFDVHV DQ[LHW\ DSSHDUHG WR EH WKH SULPDU\ FRQGLWLRQ IRU GHYHORSLQJ DQG PDLQWDLQLQJ GHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPV
)XUWKHUOLQNVEHWZHHQDQ[LHW\DQGGHSUHVVLRQDUHUHYHDOHGE\WKHPHWDFRJQL WLYHPRGHORIHPRWLRQDOGLVRUGHUVSURSRVHGE\:HOOVDQG0DWWKHZV$F FRUGLQJWRWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJPRGHOWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQPHWDFRJQLWLRQ DQGHPRWLRQDOGLVRUGHUVIROORZVDEQRUPDOHPRWLRQFRJQLWLRQSDWWHUQV:HOOV 0DWWKHZV :HOOV DQG G\VIXQFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH VWUDWHJLHV DQG EHOLHIV FRQWULEXWH VXEVWDQWLDOO\ WR WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI DQ[LHW\ DQG GHSUHVVLRQ 3DSDJHRUJLRX :HOOV,QWKHIUDPHZRUNRIPHWDFRJQLWLYHWKHRU\
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
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
,WLVZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJWKDWVHYHUDOVWXGLHVKDYHDWWHPSWHGWRGHWHUPLQHHP SLULFDOO\ WKH PHWDFRJQLWLYH IDFWRUV WKDW FDXVH GHSUHVVLYH V\PSWRPV 3DSDJHRU JLRX :HOOV,QSDUWLFXODUWKHSV\FKRSDWKRORJ\RIPHWDFRJQLWLRQ LQ DQ[LHW\ DQG GHSUHVVLRQ KDV EHHQ H[WHQVLYHO\ H[SORUHG ZLWK WKH0HWDFRJQL WLRQV4XHVWLRQQDLUH0&4&DUWZULJKW+DWWRQ :HOOV7KLVVFDOHLVLQ WHQGHG WR PHDVXUH ILYH IDXOW\ PHWDFRJQLWLRQV SRVLWLYH EHOLHIV DERXW ZRUU\ IRXQGLQLQGLYLGXDOVZKREHOLHYHWKDWSHUVHYHUDWLYHWKLQNLQJLVXVHIXO0&4 QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWZRUU\FRQFHUQLQJXQFRQWUROODELOLW\DQGGDQJHUZKLFK UHIHUV WR LQGLYLGXDOV¶ EHOLHIV WKDW SHUVHYHUDWLYH WKLQNLQJ LV XQFRQWUROODEOH DQG GDQJHURXV0&4FRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH0&4ZKLFKFRQVLVWVLQFRQIL GHQFH LQ RQH¶V RZQ FRJQLWLYH SURFHVVHV LQ WHUPV RI DWWHQWLRQ DQG PHPRU\ EHOLHIVDERXWWKHQHHGWRFRQWUROWKRXJKWVLQYROYLQJDEHOLHIWKDWWKRXJKWVKDYH WR EH FRQWUROOHG 0&4 DQG FRJQLWLYH VHOIFRQVFLRXVQHVV ZKLFK PHDQV PRQLWRULQJ RQH¶V RZQ WKRXJKWV DQG IRFXVLQJ DWWHQWLRQ RQ LQWHUQDO H[SHULHQFHV 0&4,QIDFWDOOG\VIXQFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVPHDVXUHGE\WKH0&4 LQYHQWRU\ZHUHSUHGLFWLYHRIERWKGHSUHVVLRQDQGDQ[LHW\6SDGD1LNþHYLü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
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
WKDW PHWDFRJQLWLRQ H[SODLQHG DERXW RI YDULDQFH LQ DQ[LHW\ DQG RI YDULDQFHLQGHSUHVVLRQ6SDGDHWDOE
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n OLYLQJLQWKHDUHDRI:URFODZDQGVWXGHQWVIURPWKH,QVWLWXWH RI 3V\FKRORJ\ DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI =LHORQD *yUD $OO RI WKHP FRPSOHWHG LQ IRUPHGFRQVHQWIRUPVDQGWKHVWXGHQWVIURP 6:368QLYHUVLW\UHFHLYHGFUHGLW SRLQWV IRU SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH VWXG\ 3DUWLFLSDQWV ZLWK D KLVWRU\ RI SV\FKLDWULF RUQHXURORJLFDOGLVRUGHUVZHUHH[FOXGHG7KLVVWXG\ZDVDSSURYHGE\WKHORFDO (WKLFV&RPPLWWHHV
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
$VVHVVPHQW
7KH %HFN 'HSUHVVLRQ ,QYHQWRU\ %', %HFN HW DO 7KH 3ROLVK
YHUVLRQ RI WKH %', HPSOR\HG LQ WKLV VWXG\ 3DUQRZVNL -HUQDMF]\N LV D LWHP VHOIUHSRUW LQYHQWRU\ LQWHQGHG WR DVVHVV WKH SUHVHQFH DQG VHYHULW\ RI V\PSWRPVRIGHSUHVVLRQ3DUWLFLSDQWVUDWHHDFKVWDWHPHQWEDVHGRQWKHVHYHULW\RI GHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPVLQWKHODVWWZRZHHNVXVLQJDSRLQW/LNHUWVFDOHIURPWR (DFKLWHPFRQVLVWVRIIRXUVWDWHPHQWVRUGHUHGDFFRUGLQJWRLQFUHDVLQJVHYHULW\ RIDSDUWLFXODUGHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRP
0HWDFRJQLWLRQV 4XHVWLRQQDLUH 0&4 &DUWZULJKW+DWWRQ :HOOV
0&4LVDTXHVWLRQQDLUHFRQVLVWLQJRILWHPVWKDWLVXVHGWRDVVHVVG\VIXQFWLRQ DO PHWDFRJQLWLYH EHOLHIV ,W FRPSULVHV ILYH IDFWRUV SRVLWLYH EHOLHIV DERXW ZRUU\0&4HJ³Worrying helps me to avoid problems in the future´&URQ EDFK¶VĮ QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWXQFRQWUROODELOLW\RIWKRXJKWVDQGGDQ JHU0&4HJ³If I let my worrying thoughts get out of control, they will end up controlling me´&URQEDFK¶VĮ EHOLHIVDERXWFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH 0&4HJ³I have a poor memory´&URQEDFK¶VĮ JHQHUDOQHJDWLYH EHOLHIVLQFOXGLQJWKHPHVRIVXSHUVWLWLRQSXQLVKPHQWDQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\0&4 HJ³It is bad to think certain thoughts´&URQEDFK¶VĮ FRJQLWLYHVHOI FRQVFLRXVQHVV D WHQGHQF\ WR IRFXV DWWHQWLRQ RQ WKH WKRXJKW SURFHVV 0&4 HJ³I monitor my thoughts´&URQEDFK¶VĮ 7KHLWHPVDUHUDWHGRQDVFDOH IURPDo not agreeWRVery much agree:HXVHGWKH3ROLVKYHUVLRQRIWKH VFDOHLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\*DZĊGD .RNRV]ND
7KH 6WDWH7UDLW $Q[LHW\ ,QYHQWRU\ 6SLHOEHUJHU HW DO 7KH 67$,
PHDVXUHVWUDLWDQGVWDWHDQ[LHW\6WDWHDQ[LHW\LVXQGHUVWRRGDVWKHVLWXDWLRQDOO\ GHWHUPLQHGFXUUHQWWHPSRUDU\VWDWHRIDQ[LHW\ZKLFKLVDVVHVVHGE\DVNLQJKRZ SDUWLFLSDQWVIHHO³ULJKW QRZ´7UDLWDQ[LHW\UHIHUVWRUHODWLYHO\VWDEOHDVSHFWVRI SURQHQHVVWRDQ[LHW\7KH67$,FRQVLVWVRIWZRDQ[LHW\VXEVFDOHVHDFKLQFOXGHV LWHPVUDWHGRQDSRLQW/LNHUWVFDOH,QWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ZHXVHGWKH3ROLVK YHUVLRQ RIWKH6WDWH7UDLW$Q[LHW\VFDOH6RVQRZVNL:U]HĞQLHZVNL-DZRURVND )HUHQF 6WDWLVWLFDODQDO\VLV
'DWD ZHUH DQDO\]HG XVLQJ 6366 YHUVLRQ ,%0 6366 )LUVW ZH FDOFX ODWHG 3HDUVRQ¶V FRUUHODWLRQV WR GHWHUPLQH WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH DQ[LHW\ GH SUHVVLRQDQGPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIV,QWKHQH[WVWHSZHH[DPLQHGWKHPHGLDWLQJ UROHRIWUDLWDQ[LHW\LQWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVDQGGHSUHVVLYH V\PSWRPV7RGRVRZHFRQGXFWHGDPHGLDWLRQDQDO\VLVE\HPSOR\LQJWKH6366
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
ERRWVWUDSSLQJ PHWKRG SURSRVHG E\ +D\HV 7KLV PHGLDWLRQ DQDO\VLV DO ORZHG XV WR HVWLPDWH WRWDO GLUHFW DQG LQGLUHFW HIIHFWV DV UHFRPPHQGHG E\ 3UHDFKHUDQG+D\HV$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVPHWKRGLQRUGHUWRFRQFOXGHWKDW WKHUHLVDPHGLDWLRQHIIHFWLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRWHVWVHYHUDODVVXPSWLRQVKDYHWREH WHVWHG)LUVWDQLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHPHWDFRJQLWLYHIDFWRUVVKRXOGVLJQLILFDQWO\ SUHGLFWDGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHGHSUHVVLRQV\PSWRPVVHHSDWKcLQWKHGLDJUDP ,QDFFRUGDQFH ZLWKWKH PRGHOLWLVH[SHFWHGWKDWWKHLQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH ZLOO SUHGLFWV WKH RFFXUUHQFH RI WKH PHGLDWRU 0 ± DQ[LHW\ VHH SDWK a LQ )LJ 6HFRQG WKH PHGLDWRU PXVW VLJQLILFDQWO\ SUHGLFW WKH< YDULDEOH ZKLOH WKH LQGH SHQGHQW YDULDEOH LV FRQWUROOHG SDWKb7KXV PHGLDWLRQ LV HVWDEOLVKHG ZKHQ ; SUHGLFWV<LQWKHUHJUHVVLRQPRGHOYLDWKHPHGLDWRUYDULDEOHDQGSDWKcLVHOLPL QDWHGRUUHGXFHG%DURQ .HQQ\VHH)LJ )LJXUHD )LJXUHE Figure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b E D a F¶ F¶
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
DQG WRWDO HIIHFWV 7KH ELDVFRUUHFWHG DQG DFFHOHUDWHG FRQILGHQFH LQWHUYDOV ZHUH WKHQ FRPSXWHG IRU HDFK HIIHFW:H DVVXPHG WKDW WKH PHGLDWLRQ HIIHFW RF FXUUHGZKHQFRQILGHQFHLQWHUYDOVGLGQRWLQFOXGH]HURYDOXHVWKXVVKRZLQJWKDW WKHUHZDVDVLJQLILFDQWLQGLUHFWHIIHFW
5(68/76
'HPRJUDSKLFDQGSV\FKRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHJURXSV
)LUVW EHFDXVH RXU VDPSOH LQFOXGHG YROXQWHHUV DQG VWXGHQWV ZH H[DPLQHG ZKHWKHUWKHWZRSRSXODWLRQVGLIIHUHGLQWHUPVRIGHPRJUDSKLFDQGSV\FKRORJLFDO YDULDEOHV7KHUHZHUHQRVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHJURXSVRIVWXGHQWV DQG KHDOWK\ YROXQWHHUV UHJDUGLQJ JHQGHU Ȥ p ! RU DJH
U p !1HLWKHUJURXSGLIIHUHGLQWKHOHYHOVRI0&4IDFWRUV0&4 U p !0&4U p !0&4U p !0&4 U p !0&4U p !7KHUHZHUHQRVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHU HQFHV EHWZHHQ VWXGHQWV DQG YROXQWHHUV UHJDUGLQJ WKH VHYHULW\ RI DQ[LHW\ U p !DQGGHSUHVVLRQU p !
5HODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIV DQ[LHW\DQGV\PSWRPVRIGHSUHVVLRQ
7KHFRUUHODWLRQDQDO\VLVUHVXOWVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQ7DEOH 7DEOH
Relations Between Metacognitive Beliefs, Anxiety, and Symptoms of Depression (1 = 208)
0HWDFRJQLWLRQ $Q[LHW\ 'HSUHVVLRQ
0&4 0&4 0&4 0&4 0&4 67$,7 %', 0&4 ± 0&4 ± 0&4 ± 0&4 ± 0&4 ± 67$,7 ± %', ± Note.%',±%HFN¶V'HSUHVVLRQ,QYHQWRU\67$,7±7UDLW$Q[LHW\0&4±SRVLWLYHZRUU\EHOLHIV0&4± QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWXQFRQWUROODELOLW\RIWKRXJKWVDQGGDQJHU0&4±EHOLHIVDERXWFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH± ORZFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH0&4±JHQHUDOQHJDWLYHEHOLHIVFRQFHUQLQJVXSHUVWLWLRQSXQLVKPHQWDQGUHVSRQVL ELOLW\0&4±FRJQLWLYHVHOIFRQVFLRXVQHVVDWHQGHQF\WRIRFXVDWWHQWLRQRQWKHWKRXJKWSURFHVV p p p
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
:H IRXQG WKH VWURQJHVW UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ 0&4 DQG 0&4 ,W DOVR WXUQHGRXWWKDWGHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPVZHUHPRGHUDWHO\DQGSRVLWLYHO\FRUUHODWHG ZLWK0&40&40&4DQG0&47KHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQGHSUHVVLYHV\PS WRPVDQG0&4ZDVZHDNDQGSRVLWLYH)XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHZHUHPRGHUDWHDQG SRVLWLYH UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ DQ[LHW\ DQG 0&4 0&4 0&4 DQG 0&4 DV ZHOODVDSRVLWLYHDQGZHDNDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQDQ[LHW\DQG0&47KHUHOD WLRQVKLSEHWZHHQGHSUHVVLRQDQGDQ[LHW\ZDVVWURQJDQGSRVLWLYH
0HGLDWLRQDQDO\VLV
)LUVW ZH SHUIRUPHG SUHOLPLQDU\ tWHVWV RQ LQGHSHQGHQW DQG GHSHQGHQW YDU LDEOHV WR ILQG RXW LI WKH\ ZHUH LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH JHQGHU IDFWRU7KHUH ZHUH QR JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPHWDFRJQLWLRQGHSUHVVLRQDQGWUDLWDQ[LHW\VHH7DEOH WKHUHIRUHZHGLGQRWLQFOXGHWKHJHQGHUYDULDEOHLQWKHPHGLDWLRQPRGHO,QWKH QH[WVWHSZHH[DPLQHGWKHHIIHFWVRIDJHRQWKHLQGHSHQGHQWDQGGHSHQGHQWYDU LDEOHV7R WKLV HQG ZH SHUIRUPHG DQ DQDO\VLV RI FRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ DOO YDUL DEOHVDQGWKHDJHIDFWRU,WWXUQHGRXWWKDWWKHUHZHUHQRVLJQLILFDQWFRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQDJHGHSUHVVLRQPHWDFRJQLWLRQDQGWUDLWDQ[LHW\VHH7DEOHWKHUHIRUH ZHGLGQRWLQFOXGHWKHDJHYDULDEOHLQWKHPRGHO
7DEOH
Correlations Between Age, the Dependent and Independent Variables (Depression, Trait Anxiety, and Metacognition) and Sex Differences on the Dependent and Independent Variables
9DULDEOHV
$JH *HQGHU
N 0DOHn )HPDOHn r3HDUVRQ pYDOXH M SD M SD t pYDOXH
0DODGDSWLYH 0HWDFRJQLWLRQ 0&4 p ! p ! 0&4 p ! p ! 0&4 p ! p ! 0&4 p ! p ! 0&4 p > p ! 7UDLW$Q[LHW\ 67$, p ! p ! 'HSUHVVLRQ %', p ! p ! Note.0&4±SRVLWLYHZRUU\EHOLHIV0&4±QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWXQFRQWUROODELOLW\RIWKRXJKWVDQGGDQJHU 0&4±EHOLHIVDERXWFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH±ORZFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH0&4±JHQHUDOQHJDWLYHEHOLHIVFRQ FHUQLQJVXSHUVWLWLRQSXQLVKPHQWDQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\%',±%HFN¶V'HSUHVVLRQ,QYHQWRU\ p p p
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
7DEOH
Mediation Analysis. Path Coefficients and Standard Errors Testing the Significance of the Indirect Effect for the Relationship Between MCQ and the STAI-T Mediator as well as BDI as the Dependent Variable ,QGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH ; 0HGLDWRU 0 'HSHQGHQW YDULDEOH < 0HG 6FKHP FRHIILFLHQWV3DWK t / Z (VWLPDWH %RRWVWUDS&, /RZHU 8SSHU 0&4 %', F 0&4 67$,7 D 0&4 67$,7 %', E 0&4 67$,7 %', F¶ QV 0&4 %', F 0&4 67$,7 D 0&4 67$,7 %', E 0&4 67$,7 %', F¶ QV 0&4 %', F 0&4 67$,7 D 0&4 67$,7 %', E 0&4 67$,7 %', F¶ 0&4 %', F 0&4 67$,7 D 0&4 67$,7 %', E 0&4 67$,7 %', F¶ QV 0&4 %', F 0&4 67$,7 D 0&4 67$,7 %', E 0&4 67$,7 %', F¶ QV. Note.0&4±SRVLWLYHZRUU\EHOLHIV0&4±QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWXQFRQWUROODELOLW\RIWKRXJKWVDQGGDQJHU 0&4±EHOLHIVDERXWFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH±ORZFRJQLWLYHFRQILGHQFH0&4±JHQHUDOQHJDWLYHEHOLHIVFRQ FHUQLQJVXSHUVWLWLRQSXQLVKPHQWDQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\%',±%HFN¶V'HSUHVVLRQ,QYHQWRU\ p p p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
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
UHFWO\YLDWUDLWDQ[LHW\,QSDUWLFXODUWKHWHVWVIRUWKHSUHVHQFHRILQGLUHFWHIIHFWV LQGLFDWHGWKDWWKHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQG\VIXQFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIV0&4 &, WR 0&4 &, WR 0&4 &, WR0&4&,WRDQG0&4&,WR DQGWKHVHYHULW\RIGHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPVZHUHPHGLDWHGE\WUDLWDQ[LHW\ :H DOVR REVHUYHG D GLUHFW HIIHFW EHWZHHQ PHWDFRJQLWLRQ DQG GHSUHVVLRQ IRU 0&4t p
',6&866,21
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ĊGDDQG.RNRV]NDKDYHUHFHQWO\ HPSOR\HGWKH%',DQGWKH67$,WRPHDVXUHGHSUHVVLRQDQGVWDWHDQ[LHW\LQWKH JHQHUDOSRSXODWLRQDQGIRXQGWKDW0&40&4DQG0&4DUHUHODWHGWRDQ[ LHW\DQGGHSUHVVLRQ6XFKGLVFUHSDQFLHVEHWZHHQWKHVHUHVXOWVDQGRXURXWFRPHV PD\EHGXHWRGLIIHUHQWPHWKRGRORJLFDODSSURDFKHVWRPHDVXULQJGHSUHVVLRQDQG DQ[LHW\6WDWHDQ[LHW\LVJHQHUDOO\EHOLHYHGWREHUHODWHGWRDWHPSRUDU\FRQGLWLRQ RIDQ[LHW\ZKLOHWUDLWDQ[LHW\UHIHUVWRWKHJHQHUDODQGORQJVWDQGLQJTXDOLW\RI DQ[LHW\6SLHOEHUJHUHWDO)RULQVWDQFHLQWKHVWXG\E\*DZĊGDDQG.R NRV]ND VWDWH DQ[LHW\ ZDV QRW UHODWHG WR0&4 DQG 0&4 ZKLOH RXU UHVXOWV VKRZ WKDW WKHVH PHWDFRJQLWLYH IDFWRUV PD\ LQFUHDVH WUDLW DQ[LHW\ 7KLV
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
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
2XU UHVXOWV DOVR LQGLFDWH WKDW DQ[LHW\ LV DQ LPSRUWDQW PHGLDWRU EHWZHHQ DOO PHWDFRJQLWLYHIDFWRUV0&40&40&40&4DQG0&4DQGWKHLQ WHQVLILFDWLRQRIGHSUHVVLRQ,QWKHSURSRVHGPHGLDWLRQPRGHOZHDOVRWHVWHGWKH GLUHFWHIIHFWRIPHWDFRJQLWLYHIDXOW\EHOLHIVRQGHSUHVVLRQ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ZHRE VHUYHG WKDW RQO\ 0&4 KDG D GLUHFW HIIHFW RQ GHSUHVVLRQ ZLWKRXW D PHGLDWLQJ HIIHFWRIDQ[LHW\7KHREYLRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIVXFKILQGLQJVLVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOV ZKRKROGIDXOW\PHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVWHQGWRH[SHULHQFHPRUHVHYHUHSURORQJHG DQ[LHW\UHVXOWLQJLQH[DFHUEDWHGGHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPV,WVKRXOGEHSRLQWHGRXW WKDW0&4ZKLFKUHIHUVWRUHGXFHGFDSDFLW\IRUFRJQLWLYHDSSUDLVDORIWKHSUHV HQFHRUDEVHQFHRIREMHFWLYHGHILFLWV3DSDJHRUJLRX :HOOVPD\KDYH DXQLTXHLPSDFWRQWKHVHYHULW\RIGHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPVUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHOHYHO RIDQ[LHW\([SHULHQFLQJORZHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIPHPRU\DQGWKLQNLQJSURFHVVHVLV OLNHO\WRKDYHDGLUHFWLQIOXHQFHRQQHJDWLYHHPRWLRQVDQGGLIILFXOWLHVLQIOH[LEOH SUREOHP VROYLQJ ZKLFK PD\ EH FUXFLDO IRU HIIHFWLYH FRSLQJ :HOOV 0RUHRYHU ORZ FRQILGHQFH LQ FRJQLWLYH DELOLWLHV PD\ OHDG WR ORZ JOREDO VHOI HVWHHP LQ GHSUHVVLYH LQGLYLGXDOV DQG UHFXUUHQW KLJKO\ VHOIFULWLFDO VHOI MXGJPHQWVVXFKDV³,DPXVHOHVV´ZKLFKLQFUHDVHDQGPDLQWDLQWKHVHYHULW\RI GHSUHVVLYHV\PSWRPV
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6., ,WLVZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJWKDWWDNHQWRJHWKHUWKHSUHYLRXV0&4RXWFRPHVDQG RXUUHVXOWVVXJJHVWWKDWPHWDFRJQLWLRQHVSHFLDOO\QHJDWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWXQFRQ WUROODELOLW\RIWKRXJKWVDQGGDQJHUFRQVWLWXWHDPRUHJHQHUDOFDXVHRISV\FKRORJ LFDOVXIIHULQJQRWOLPLWHGWRGHSUHVVLRQRUDQ[LHW\)RUH[DPSOH0&4WXUQHG RXW WR EH WKH PDLQ SUHGLFWRU RI SV\FKRVLV HJ *DZĊGD &LFKRĔ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±PHGLDWRUYDULDEOHGLVWLQFWLRQLQVRFLDOSV\ FKRORJLFDOUHVHDUFK&RQFHSWXDOVWUDWHJLFDQG VWDWLVWLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQV Journal of
Person-ality and Social Psychology, 51
%HFN$ 7 $OIRUG %$ Depression: Causes and treatment QG HG 3KLODGHOSKLD 8QLYHUVLW\RI3HQQV\OYDQLD3UHVV
%HFN$7:DUG&+0HQGHOVRQ00RFN- (UEDXJK-$QLQYHQWRU\IRUPHD VXULQJGHSUHVVLRQArchives of General Psychiatry, 562
%HHNPDQ$7GH%HXUV(YDQ%DONRP$-'HHJ'-YDQ'\FN5 YDQ7LOEXUJ: $Q[LHW\DQGGHSUHVVLRQLQODWHUOLIH&RRFFXUUHQFHDQGFRPPXQDOLW\RIULVNIDFWRUV
American Journal of Psychiatry, 157
&DUVRQ5&%XWFKHU-1 0LQHND6Abnormal psychology and modern lifeWK HG1HZ<RUN/RQJPDQ
&DUWZULJKW+DWWRQ 6 :HOOV $ %HOLHIV DERXW ZRUU\ DQG LQWUXVLRQV 7KH 0HWD &RJQLWLRQV4XHVWLRQQDLUHDQGLWVFRUUHODWHVJournal of Anxiety Disorders, 11
0(7$&2*1,7,21,1&5($6(67+528*+75$,7$1;,(7<2)'(35(66,21
&R[%-(QQV0: /DUVHQ'.7KHFRQWLQXLW\RIGHSUHVVLRQV\PSWRPV8VHRI FOXVWHUDQDO\VLVIRUSURILOHLGHQWLILFDWLRQLQSDWLHQWDQGVWXGHQWVDPSOHVJournal of Affective
Disorders, 65
*DZĊGDà&LFKRĔ( 6]F]HSDQRZVNL5 '\VIXQFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIV PH GLDWH WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ WHPSHUDPHQW WUDLWV DQG KDOOXFLQDWLRQSURQHQHVV LQ QRQFOLQLFDO SRSXODWLRQPsychiatry Research, 229
*DZĊGD à .RNRV]ND $ 0HWDFRJQLWLYH EHOLHIV DV D PHGLDWRU IRU WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ &ORQLQJHU¶V WHPSHUDPHQW DQG FKDUDFWHU GLPHQVLRQV DQG GHSUHVVLYH DQG DQ[LHW\ V\PSWRPVDPRQJKHDOWK\VXEMHFWVComprehensive Psychiatry, 55
+D\HV$)352&(66$YHUVDWLOHFRPSXWDWLRQDOWRROIRUREVHUYHGYDULDEOHPHGLDWLRQ PRGHUDWLRQ DQG FRQGLWLRQDO SURFHVV PRGHOLQJ >:KLWH SDSHU@ 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWSZZZ DIKD\HVFRPSXEOLFSURFHVVSGI
+D\HV$ ) 3UHDFKHU . - 0\HUV 7$ 0HGLDWLRQ DQG WKH HVWLPDWLRQ RI LQGLUHFW HIIHFWVLQSROLWLFDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQUHVHDUFK,Q(3%XF\ +5/DQFH(GVSourcebook
for political communication research: Methods, measures, and analytical techniquesSS
1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
.HVVOHU 5 & 0F*RQDJOH .$ =KDR 6 1HOVRQ & % +XJKHV 0 .HQGOHU . 6 /LIHWLPHDQGPRQWKSUHYDOHQFHRI'60,,,5SV\FKLDWULFGLVRUGHUVLQWKH8QLWHG 6WDWHV5HVXOWVIURPWKH1DWLRQDO&RPRUELGLW\6XUYH\ Archives of General Psychiatry, 51
3DSDJHRUJLRX & L :HOOV $ 3URFHVV DQG PHWDƮFRJQLWLYH GLPHQVLRQV RI GHSUHVVLYH DQG DQ[LRXV WKRXJKWV DQG UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK HPRWLRQDO LQWHQVLW\ Clinical Psychology &
Psychotherapy, 6
3DSDJHRUJLRX& :HOOV$0HWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVDERXWUXPLQDWLRQLQUHFXUUHQWPDMRU GHSUHVVLRQCognitive and Behavioral Practice, 8
3DSDJHRUJLRX& :HOOV$$QHPSLULFDOWHVWRIDFOLQLFDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHPRGHORIUXPL QDWLRQDQGGHSUHVVLRQCognitive Therapy and Research, 27
3DUQRZVNL7 -HUQDMF]\N:,QZHQWDU]'HSUHVML%HFNDZRFHQLHQDVWURMXRVyE]GUR Z\FKLFKRU\FKQDFKRURE\DIHNW\ZQH>%HFN¶V'HSUHVVLRQ,QYHQWRU\LQWKHUDWLQJRIPRRGLQ QRUPDOVXEMHFWVDQGLQSDWLHQWVZLWKDIIHFWLYHGLVWXUEDQFHV@Psychiatria Polska, 11 3UHDFKHU.- +D\HV$)6366DQG6$6SURFHGXUHVIRUHVWLPDWLQJLQGLUHFWHIIHFWVLQ
VLPSOH PHGLDWLRQ PRGHOVBehavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36
6RVQRZVNL 7 :U]HĞQLHZVNL . -DZRURVND$ )HUHQF ' STAI – Inwentarz Stanu
i Cechy LĊku [STAI – State–Trait Anxiety Inventory]:DUVDZ3/3ROLVK3V\FKRORJLFDO$VVR
FLDWLRQ
6SDGD000RKL\HGGLQL& :HOOV$D0HDVXULQJPHWDFRJQLWLRQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK HPRWLRQDO GLVWUHVV )DFWRU VWUXFWXUH DQG SUHGLFWLYH YDOLGLW\ RI WKH 0HWDFRJQLWLRQV 4XHVWLRQ QDLUHPersonality and Individual Differences, 45
6SDGD 0 0 1LNþHYLü$ 9 0RQHWD * % :HOOV$ E 0HWDFRJQLWLRQ SHUFHLYHG VWUHVVDQGQHJDWLYHHPRWLRQPersonality and Individual Differences, 44 6SLHOEHUJHU&'*RUVVXFK5//XVKHQH359DJJ35 -DFREV*$Manual
for the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory0HQOR3DUN&$&RQVXOWLQJ3V\FKRORJLVWV3UHVV
9DUHVH) %HQWDOO537KHPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVDFFRXQWRIKDOOXFLQDWRU\H[SHULHQFHV $OLWHUDWXUHUHYLHZDQGPHWDDQDO\VLVClinical Psychology Review, 31
(&,&+2ē5.5<&,ē6.,0)/25.2:6.,56=&=(3$12:6.,
:HOOV$ Emotional disorders and metacognition: Innovative cognitive therapy &KLFK HVWHU8QLWHG.LQJGRP:LOH\
:HOOV$Metacognitive therapy for anxiety and depression1HZ<RUN*XLOIRUG3UHVV :HOOV $ &DUWZULJKW+DWWRQ 6 $ VKRUW IRUP RI WKH 0HWDFRJQLWLRQV 4XHVWLRQQDLUH
3URSHUWLHVRIWKH0&4Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42
:HOOV$ )LVKHU 3 0\HUV 6 :KHDWOH\ - 3DWHO 7 %UHZLQ & 5 0HWDFRJQLWLYH WKHUDS\ LQ UHFXUUHQW DQG SHUVLVWHQW GHSUHVVLRQ $ PXOWLSOHEDVHOLQH VWXG\ RI D QHZ WUHDW PHQWCognitive Therapy and Research, 33
:HOOV$ 0DWWKHZV*0RGHOOLQJFRJQLWLRQLQHPRWLRQDOGLVRUGHU7KH65()PRG HOBehaviour Research and Therapy, 34
:LWWFKHQ + 8 &ULWLFDO LVVXHV LQ WKH HYDOXDWLRQ RI FRPRUELGLW\ RI SV\FKLDWULF GLVRUG HUVThe British Journal of Psychiatry, 168
:LWWFKHQ+8.HVVOHU5&3ILVWHU++|IOHU0 /LHE5:K\GRSHRSOHZLWK DQ[LHW\GLVRUGHUVEHFRPHGHSUHVVHG"$SURVSHFWLYHǦORQJLWXGLQDOFRPPXQLW\VWXG\Acta
Psy-chiatrica Scandinavica, 102
=LJPRQG$6 6QDLWK537KHKRVSLWDODQ[LHW\DQGGHSUHVVLRQVFDOHActa
Psychiatri-ca SPsychiatri-candinaviPsychiatri-ca, 67
7KH SUHSDUDWLRQ RI WKH (QJOLVK YHUVLRQ RI Roczniki Psychologiczne Annals
of PsychologyDQGLWVSXEOLFDWLRQLQHOHFWURQLFGDWDEDVHVZDVILQDQFHGXQGHU
FRQWUDFWQR3±'81IURPWKHUHVRXUFHVRIWKH0LQLVWHURI6FLHQFH DQG+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQIRUWKHSRSXODUL]DWLRQRIVFLHQFH