Sport and Entertainment Facilities in the Land of Israel and in the Graeco-Roman World

A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S

FO LIA ARCHAEOLOG1CA 26, 2009

Ar t h u r Se g a l

University of Haifa

SPORT AND ENTERTAINMENT FACILITIES

IN THE LAND OF ISRAEL

AND IN THE GRAECO-ROMAN WORLD

Introduction

T o d a y , as in th e p a st, th e d istin ctio n betw een sp o rt an d e n te rta -in m en t is n o t alw ays a clear o r u n am b ig u o u s one. T h e a tric a l events, for exam ple, are classed as entertain m en t since this im plies an audience th a t is seated w ithin an area suited for this p u rpose, and th a t views acto rs presenting the play before it.1 S p o rt activities on the o th er hand, are related above all to the com petitors them selves. S portsm en can carry o u t th e ir activities w ith o u t an audience, b u t the G reek s, w ho were the first to in stitutionalize b o th the various kinds o f theatrical events and sp o rt events, p rovided them from th e very o u tse t w ith a well- organized and com petitive fram ew ork. T h e m ain sp o rt events in which the G reeks engaged were no t num erous: running, throw ing the discus and javelin, long ju m p s, professional w restling and boxing, and finally ch a rio t races.2

S port events, like theatrical events, were conducted w ithin a m unicipal fram ew ork, financed by the polis for the benefit o f its citizcns. A n additional fram ew ork in which plays were perform ed or sp o rt events were held were the pan-H ellenic (all-G reek) festivals which usually to o k place every four

1 On the ancient theatre, see: Bieber 1961; H artm oll 1972; Leacroft 1984.

2 On sport in the G raeco-R om an world, see: H arris 1972; Sansone 1988; Miller 1991; Olivová 1984; Miller 2004; Auguet 1994.

years in sanctuaries in O lym pia, D elphi, N em ca, and Isthm ia. In archaic and classical periods it was only in these fo u r sanctuaries w here, within the fram ew ork o f the various religious-cultic events, sp o rt co m petitions were also held. D u rin g the H ellenistic and R om an periods, in ad d itio n to these fo u r festivals th ere were num erous o th er festivals th a t were celebrated th ro u g h o u t the G ra eco -R o m a n w orld.3

B oth theatrical and sp o rt events were conducted before an audience, and it did n o t m a tte r w hether the events w ere held in the fram ew ork o f festivals in pan-H ellcnic sanctuaries such as the ones in O lym pia o r D elphi o r w ithin an urb an fram ew ork. T his m eans th a t in the G reek w orld since earliest times even sport events were considered as a peform ance and co m petition w atched by th o u san d s o f spectators. F u rth e r-m ore, like the th eatre, sp o rt was associated fror-m the very sta rt with cultic rites. T he th eatre was know n for its links w ith the cult o f D ionysus, while sp o rt co m petitions such as those th a t to o k place in O lym pia were an inseparable p a rt o f the Zeus cult.4 W ith the passage o f tim e, especially du rin g the H ellenistic and R om an periods, the link between theatrical events and the D ionysian cult gradually w eakened.5 T his applied to sport events as well, for which the link between them and the cult o f the gods grew w eaker, although it should be said th a t even d u rin g Hellenistic and R o m an tim es this link did no t entirely disappear.

We have pointed ou t how difficult it is to m ak e a distinction between sp o rt and entertain m en t. T his difficulty is m ainly w ith regard to the type o f events th a t were held n o t in theaters or stadium s but in am phitheaters and circuses, an d this will be dealt with later. In this study we wish to discuss the sp o rt and en tertain m en t facilities in the L and o f Israel in ancient tim es, i.e. in the theatres, am phitheatres, circuses and stadium s th a t have been excavated in this country. But before do in g so, we m ust define their essential n atu re and cultural significance, and the way they fu n ctio n ed in th e G ra e c o -R o m a n w orld in w hich they em erged, to o k shape and were defined both from a fo rm al-ideational stan d p o in t and from an arch itectu ra l one.

3 On the Olympic games, see: Finley, Pleket 1976; Schobel 1966; Yalouris 1979a; Rasche 1988; Sinn 2000.

4 On the interrelations between cult and sport in the G raeco-R om an world, see: A ndronicos 1979, p. 66-73; Y alouris 1979b, p. 88-103; Mallwitz 1972; Y alavanis 2004.

5 On the interrelations between the theatre and the cult of Dionysus, see: Pickard-Cambridge 1968; H anson 1959.

I. Sport and Entertainment Facilities in the Graeco-Roman World

a. Theatre

T h e earliest en tertain m e n t facility in the ancient w orld th a t was given an arch itectu ral definition is the th eatre (in G reek: 0éa.xpov). Even if it is difficult to reconstruct the earliest stages in the process o f its architectural form , it is well know n th a t, already a t the end o f the archaic period, plays were perform ed in the orchestra, the circular leveled area a t the centre o f the A th en ian agora. A t first the spectators did n o t have fixed seating area, bu t later, p ro b a b ly in the first h alf o f the fifth century BCE, theatrical events were transferred from the agora to the fo o t o f the sou th eastern slope o f the A cropolis, n ear the san ctuary o f D ionysus.6 H ere began the proccss o f the arch itectu ral fo rm atio n o f the earliest o f all th eatres in the ancient w orld. Initially, it w as the orchestra th a t was devised, and later stepped tiers o f w ooden benches were set up on the n a tu ra l slope to seat the spectators. T hese were la te r replaced by p erm anent stepped tiers o f seats m ad e o f stone. D u rin g the fifth century BCE it was the practice to set u p a tem -p o ra ry stru ctu re (skene), initially a shed, in which the ac to rs could rest and changc their clothes, and which was placed beyond the circular orchestra, facing the centre o f the seating area (koilon). T his tem p o ra ry construction would later on, d u rin g the course o f the H ellenistic period (3rd and 2nd century BCE), tu rn into a perm an en t stru ctu re, a stage building (skene) built o f stone and rising to height o f two floors. T h e stage (proskenion or

logeion) ap p ears only during the H ellenistic period (late 4th, early 3rd century

BCE). It looked like long and n arro w p latfo rm , extending along the front o f the stage building (skene) and facing the orchestra. But even a t the end o f this long and com plex process described here very briefly, the three com p o n en ts o f the theatre: the seating area (koilon), the orch estra and the stage building (skene), did no t have a unified fo rm .7

T h e R om an s continued the developm ent o f the H ellenistic theatre. T he earliest o f the R o m an theatres is th a t o f P om peii.8 R om ans were the first to com bine the seating area (cavea o r auditorium) w ith the stage building

(scaena) and by do in g so, com pleted the process th a t was begun d u rin g the

6 ° n the theatre o f D ionysus in Athens, see: Bieber 1961, p. 55-68, figs. 223-224, 226-229, 237, 254-261; Travlos 1971, p. 537-552, figs. 676-690; Pickard-Cam bridge 1946.

7 The theatre in Priene in Asia M inor is the best example o f a Hellenistic theatre. See: Bieber 1961, p. 108-111, figs. 416-425; Schede 1964, p. 70-79, figs. 84-92.

H ellenistic period. T h e unification o f these tw o com p o n en ts was achieved by m eans o f stru ctu res erected on both sides o f the stage building which arc called the stage wings o r versurae in Latin. T hese tw o wings connccted the

cavea w ith the scaena and in this way a continuous and unified architectural

spacc was form ed. T his process led to changes in the shape o f the orchestra, which was circu lar in the G reek theatre, while in the R o m an th eatre it was sem i-circular in shape. T h e sam e applied to the seating area itself: in the R om an th eatre it was sem i-circular, while in the G reek th eatre the seating area extended beyond the halfw ay line o f the orchestra

T h e o bvious difference between the G reek and R o m an th eatres is in the relationship betw een the seating area and the stage building. In the R om an th eatre, since the stage building was connected to the seating area and form ed one unity, both the stage building (scaena) and the seating area

(cavea) were o f th e sam e height. T h e fro n t wall o f the stage building (scaenae fro n s) facing the orchestra and the audicnce was designed as

a p erm an en t d eco ratio n . By m eans o f a vertical su p p o rters (colum ns, pillars and pilasters) and horizontal beam s (en tab latu re) placed above each other, w ith niches co n tain in g statues, the scaenae fro n s was given an exceptionally rich an d spectacular ap p e a ra n c e .10 A n o th er essential difference between the G reek an d the R o m an theatres is in their location. T h e G reek theatres were always built on a n a tu ra l slope in order to place the seating area on it, and were therefore to tally d ependent on to p o g ra p h y .11 T h e R om ans, on the o th e r h an d , because o f their engineering ability to create artificial slopes by m eans o f a system o f slanting barrel vaults intersecting w ith large semi-circular vaults (ambulacra), were no t dependent on to p o g rap h y a t all, and could erect theatres wherever they wanted. T hus, m ost o f the R o m an theatres w ere spatially integrated w ithin the road netw ork in various cities.12

This brief survey is only m eant to indicate the m ain points in the history o f the architectural developm ent o f theatre structures in the G raeco-R om an world. It is unnecessary to note th a t this developm ent is the result o f far-reaching changes th a t occurred in the theatrical arts themselves. T h e essential changes in the design o f the stage in the G reek th eatre and subsequently in the R om an theatre are all spatial-architectural expressions for the ascending im portance o f the ac to r and the decline o f the choir (in G reek: chorus). A t the sam e tim e, a fu rth e r essential change occurred in the taste an d dem ands o f the audience.

9 On the design o f the R om an theatre, see: Izenour 1977; Small 1983, p. 55-68.

10 The m ost perfect example of a design for a stage faęade (scaenae frons) can be found in the theatre in S abratha in Libya, N orth Africa. See: C aputo 1959.

11 See, for example, the theatre in the sanctuary of Epidauros in the Peloponnesos: Bieber 1961, p. 71-73, figs. 271-275; G erkan 1961.

Events such as the Persian wars, the em ergence o f A th en ian dem ocracy, the decline o f the polis, an d the ascendancy o f th e H ellenistic kingdom s, all these m u st have had their im press upon the theatrical arts. T h e decline o f tragedy and the rise o f the new com edy, the even greater p o p u larity o f the m im e an d p an to m im e all these necessitated changes and a d a p ta tio n s in the stru ctu re o f the th e a tre .13

b. Amphitheatre

In spite o f its G reek nam e, the am p h ith eatre was, b o th in its function as the placc fo r the events th a t are held there, and in its design and co n stru c-tion m eth o d s, a clearly R om an stru c tu re .14 T he am p h ith eatre (in Latin:

am phitheatrum ) was an oval stru ctu re in the centre o f which there was

a flat surfacc o f pressed ea rth (arena) surro u n d ed by a high protective wall. All aro u n d the arena there were tiers o f stepped seats (cavea or auditorium). It was this shape th a t was responsible for the nam e given to it by the R o m an s - the am phitheatrum , which m eans literally a double theatre.

There were tw o kinds o f events held in the am ph ith eatre:

1. M unera (sing, munus) which are com bats between professional gla-d ia to rs w ho were specially train egla-d fo r this. T h ey stagegla-d battles in which they appeared in pairs or groups, each arm ed with a dif-ferent kind o f w eapon.

2. Venationes (sing, venatio), which are staged h u n tin g scenes in which various wild beasts appeared fighting against each o th er o r were h u n te d .15

T h e a m p h ith e a tre entertainm ents were widely enjoyed in Italy and in the regions conquered by the R om an s th a t had u ndergone an intensive process ° f R o m an izatio n . This explains why we find scores o f am p h ith eatres scat-tered th ro u g h o u t Italy , F rance, Spain and N o rth A frica, an d only a few isolated ones in the eastern provinces o f the R o m an Em pire. T h e am p h it-heatre in P om peii is considered as one o f the very earliest ones. It is dated to the first q u a rte r o f the first century B C E .16 C o m p ared w ith the structure

“ K itto 1970; Ferguson 1972; Taplin 1978; C om ford 1970; Sandback 1977.

J On the leisure and entertainm ent culture in Rome, see: Balsdon 1968; Friedlander 1968. On the type o f events th a t were held in the am phitheatres, sec: Huizinga 1970; Jennison 1937; Toynbee 1973; Honle, Henze 1981; G rant 1967; Plass 1995; Golvin, Landes 1990; Auguet 1994.

On the am phitheatre in Pompeii and other am phitheatres throughout the Rom an Empire, see the detailed and comprehensive study by Golvin 1988.

o f the th eate r, which had undergone a proccss o f h u n d red s o f years in its fo rm a tio n and arch itectu ral design, the am p h ith eatre was designed from the very sta rt as an elliptical stru ctu re with an arena and the stepped tiers o f scats enclosing the arena on all sides. T he changes in its plan and structure are reflected in the m ethod o f co nstruction, th a t is to say the way in which the artificial slope th a t carried the tiers o f stepped scats were created.

T h e largest am p h ith eatre in the R om an w orld is the C olosseum in R om e (its correct nam e: Am phitheatrum Flavium ).11 Its co n stru ctio n was begun in 70 C E and it was inaugurated in 80 C E d u rin g the reign o f Titus. A m p h ith eatres differ from each o th er in their size an d degree o f sophis-ticatio n in their u n d erground installations beneath the arena where the anim als were held before being bro u g h t up in cages and sent directly into th a t arena. T hese sophisticated installations were found only in the larger am phitheatres. In a num ber o f them there was also the possibility o f flooding the arena with w ater to tu rn it into an artificial lake in which staged sea b attles (naum achia in G reek) could be w aged.18

c. Ilippodromc/Circus

H o rse-d raw n ch a rio t races have had a long trad itio n in the G reek w orld, an d its ro o ts are em bedded in the H om eric period. W hen the O lym pic gam es were first held (776 BCE), ch a rio t races were included as one o f the com petitive events.19 T hese races w ere held in the h ippodrom e (in G reek: Umtoópofioę), which is a bro ad expanse o f pressed earth. T he hip p o d ro m e in O lym pia and in sim ilar facilities th ro u g h o u t the G reek w orld was n o t actually defined architecturally. W h at this m eans is th at there were no existing rules th a t precisely limited the m easurem ents o f a h ip p o d ro m e and there was no division betw een the track, which the G reeks called drom os and the seating area. A t the sam e tim e, the G reeks installed a device to provide a uniform startin g gates fo r the chariots so as to ensure fair com petition. We know th a t an installation o f this kind already existed in O lym pia in the fifth century B CE (P ausanias,

Description o f Greece, VI, 20, 14).

T h e R o m an s, like the G reeks, were very enthusiastic ab o u t horse-draw n ch a rio t races, b u t in their typical m an n er they gave the h ip p o d ro m e (circus

11 On the Colosseum, see: Travlos 1968, p. 17-25, figs. 5-14; Pearson 1973; Gabucci 2001. 18 On the naumachia, see: Golvin, Redde 1990, p. 165-177. In general, on water entertainm ents

in theatres and am phitheatres, see: Traversari 1960; G ilula 1994, p. 41-50 [Hebrew]. 19 On chariot races in the G reek world, see: Palaeologos 1976. On chariot races in the Rom an

in L atin) a precise architectural definition. A typical circus was a large-sized rectan g u lar stru ctu re with an average length o f ab o u t 450 m. and ab o u t 70 m. in w idth. It m ainly consisted o f a track o f pressed ea rth bounded by a high protective wall. T his track, which was also called an arena, had a curvcd end, while at the o th er end there were 10 o r 12 startin g gates th at were called carceres. A low wall, called the spina, ran dow n the center o f the arena, dividing it into two so as to ensure th a t the ch a rio ts did not clash frontally w ith cach other. R anged aro u n d the protective wall, th a t is to say, along the entire length o f the wall and a t the curved end o f the circus were tiers o f stepped seats (cavea or auditorium ).20

T h e largest and m ost fam ous o f all R om an circuses was the Circus

M axim us, which is located in the heart o f R om e, a t the fo o t o f the Palatine

Hill (P alatinus M ons) on which the palaces o f the E m p ero rs stood. T he origins o f this circus, which m easures 650 m . in length, are to be found in the E tru scan period, and it was built o f stone as a p erm a n en t facility at the end o f the fo u rth century BCE. D u rin g the im perial period it was restored and renovated several times. Its m agnificent architectural d ecorations and the g ra n d e u r o f the events th at were held there were legendary.21 T he circus was highly p o p u la r in the R o m an w orld, and beginning w ith the 2nd ccntury C E, the ch ario t raccs becam e the m ost w idespread o f m ass entertainm ents.

I he w ell-know n slogan “ bread an d circuses” {panem et circenses) (Juvenalis,

Satires, 10, 81) is a faithful expression o f the popularity o f this entertainm ent

facility. A n o th e r expression o f this are the “ fa ctio n s” (factiones in Latin), th at is to say, the fan g roups o r supporters, w ho were callcd according to their colours - the “ greens” , the “ blues” , the “ re d s” and the “ w hites” . In the ch a rio t com petitions, extrem e and violent expression was given to the rivalries and social pressures th a t characterized R o m an society on all levels.22

d. Stadium

T h e stadium (in G reek: o riS io v, in Latin: stadium ) is a m easure o f length fo r 200 m . T h is was the nam e given by th e G reeks for the facility >n w hich they conducted athletic com petitions th a t were included in the O lym pic G am es.

T h e earliest stadium in the G reek w orld is th a t o f O lym pia. In its Present form , as we know it today, it d ates from the H ellenistic period, yet

0 On the different kinds o f circuses scattered throughout the R om an world, see Humphrey’s detailed and comprehensive book: Humphrey 1986, p. 1-16.

On the Circus M axim us, see: Nash 1968, p. 236-240, figs. 271-279.

On the unique aspect o f the circus as the main entertainm ent for the masses in Rom an Italy and in Byzantium, and on the “factions” , see: Cameron 1976.

it m ust have u n d o u b ted ly originated in the archaic period. In c o n tra st to the facilities th a t w ere described above, the stadium is n o t an entertain m en t facility b u t clearly one o f sport. T h e stadium has a rectan g u lar shape, with a length o f a b o u t 200 m . and a w idth betw een 30 to 40 m. D u rin g the archaic and classical periods the stadium did n o t actually have any architec-tu ra l d efinition, and it was only in the H ellenistic period th a t seating arran g em en ts were m ade for spectators, first o f w ood and later o f stone. Stepped tiers o f sto n e seats like those found in the stadium s (stadia) at D elphi o r E p id au ro s, for exam ple, extended parallel to the tw o longer sides o f the stadium . H ow ever, in O lym pia itself, no seats were ever installed and the sp ectators stood o r sat on the sloping b an k s th a t enclosed the stadium .23 In the G reek w orld, the stadium s were associated w ith sanctuaries in which sp o rt events were held sim ilar to those in O lym pia, D elphi or E pidauros. A n o th e r place where stadium s were set up was the gym nasium (in G reek: yvn via io v) th a t could be found in every G reek city to serve as schools for the younger citizens o f the polis. T h e m ost attra ctiv e and perfect exam ple o f a m unicipal stadium o f this kind was set up n ear the gym nasium in P riene in A sia M in o r.24 H ere the gym nasium is built as a stru ctu re with a ccntral enclosed co u rty ard surrounded by colum ns (palaistra) th a t served for various physical exercises. All aro u n d the co u rty a rd were room s and halls, including the ephebeion, the central instruction hall. E xtending along-side the gym nasium was the stadium in w hich athletic co m petitions were held, m ainly in running, and in discus and javelin throw ing.

F ro m w hat was said above, it appears th a t in the G reek w orld, the stadium was linked b o th to the athletic and com petitive activities o f the O lym pic gam es, as well as to the gym nasium , w hich was the educational institution th a t symbolized above all else the spirit o f the polis. W hen the polis declined d u rin g the H ellenistic period, and m o re especially d u rin g the R om an period when the G reek w orld was entirely in co rp o rated w ithin the R om an Em pire, the statu s and im portance o f the gym nasium was reduced, and the various sp o rt events also dim inished in value in com p ariso n w ith the classical and H ellenistic periods. D u rin g the R om an period, th e m ass entertain m en t th a t was provided in the am phitheatres an d circuses ap p ears o f far greater interest and p o p u larity th a n the events held in stadium s. It should probably be m entioned a t this p o in t th a t in all o f R om e only one stadium was built, the Stadium Domitiani, which was erected at the end o f the first century C E .25 T his fact is eno u g h to indicate th a t, for the R om ans, athletics was never w arm ly sponsored either as a sport-com petitive activity o r as entertainm ent.

23 On the sladia in the main sanctuaries, see: Mussche 1963, p. 28-29, figs. 92-94. 24 On the gymnasium and stadium in Priene, see: Schede 1964, p. 80-89, figs. 93-102. 25 On the Stadium Domitiani in Rome, see: N ash 1968, p. 387-390, figs. 1174-1179.

II. Sport and Entertainment Facilities in the Land of Israel

In the follow ing discussion o f the sp o rt and en tertain m e n t facilities in the Land o f Israel d u rin g ancient tim es, we shall retain the sam e subject divisions used fo r the G ra eco -R o m a n world. T his m eans th a t we shall first discuss the th eatres, and then the am phith eatres, circuses, and finally the stadium s.

a. T heatres

In spite o f the fact th a t the Land o f Israel was, from the 6th ccntury BCE, exposed to classical culture, and th a t from the 4th century it was ruled directly by the H ellenistic kingdom s, the first th e a tre erected there was by H erod the G re at, K ing o f Iudaea, a t the end o f the first century BCE. A t this period the Jew s constituted the m ajority o f the p o p u latio n in the coun try , b u t it also contained N a b ataean s as well as a Hellenizcd Syrio- P hoenician p o p u latio n th a t lived for the m ost p a rt in co astal cities and in the Decapolis. It should be m entioned th a t the degree o f exposure o f these three p o p u latio n s to classical culture was n o t uniform . T h e coastal cities were the first to be exposed to it, while the Jew ish p o p u latio n , especially those living in the in terio r regions o f the coun try , was fa r less exposed to it.

T h e th eatres were apparen tly erected in Iu d a ea, N a b a ta e a , as well as in the H ellenizcd citics o f the Decapolis.26 Before going on to discuss the 30 theatres so fa r excavated on both sides o f the Jo rd a n , it should be noted th at in ad d itio n to the geographical aspect, i.e. the location o f the theatres in the different p o p u latio n areas, the chronological aspect is also o f great im portance.

H crodian T heatres

D u rin g the reign o f H erod the G re at (37-4 B CE), three theatres were built in Iudaea: in Jerusalem , in Jericho and in C aesarea. T h e one in Jerusalem has n o t yet been locatcd. It m ay have been erected as a tem porary stru ctu re and th en dism antled, because it w ould be difficult to suppose th a t

26 On the theatres in Hellenistic and Rom an Palestine, see: Frezouls 1952, p. 46-100; Frezouls 1959, p. 202-227; Segal 1989, p. 145-165; Segal 1995.

in Jerusalem at the end o f the first century BCE there w ould have been an audiencc th a t m ight enjoy theatrical events.27 T h e th eatre in Jcricho was built as p a rt o f an o u tstan d in g and original com plex th a t included, in ad d itio n to the th eatre, a h ippodrom e and perhaps also a gym nasium .28 I his com plcx should be seen as p a rt o f the palace com p o u n d th a t the H asm o n can s co n stru cted and which was expanded by H e ro d . T h e building o f a th eatre in C aesarea can be explained by the political and cultural in tentions o f H erod w ho w anted to tu rn the kingdom o f Iud aca into a H ellenistic kingdom in the fram ew ork o f the “ new o rd e r” th a t was being im posed in the M ed iterran ean Basin d u rin g the A u g u stan p erio d .29 It seems th a t the son o f H erod, A ntipas, built an ad d itio n al th eatre in S cpphoris.30 P erhaps A n tip as constructed this th eatre for the sam e reasons th a t led his fath er to c o n stru c t theatres in C aesarea, Jericho and Jerusalem . W hat is com m on am ong the theatres th a t were built by H erod and his son is th a t the initiative cam e from the rulers and therefore one c a n n o t suppose th a t they reflected the real cultural needs o f m ost o f the Jew ish and non-Jew ish p o p u latio n in the area ruled by H erod the G re a t and A ntipas.

T heatres in the N abatacan Kingdom

D u rin g the period from the end o f the first century BCE to the end o f the first century C E , five theatres were built in the N a b a ta c a n kingdom .31 T h e m o st n o rth erly one o f them is found in S ahr in the T rachonitis (S outhern Syria today), while south ern m o st one is in W adi S ab ra so u th o f P etra. T h e very presence o f theatres in N a b a ta c a n kingdom is perhaps even m ore surprising th a n their existence in the area o f the Ilc ro d ia n kingdom , because it is difficult to assum e th a t the N a b a ta c a n p o p u latio n o f this period could be considered as having a classical culture. T his suggests th at the th eatres o f the N a b ataea n s were n o t used for purely theatrical events but for o th er purposes such as cultic cerem onies for the dead. Indeed, m ost o f the N a b a ta c a n theatres were constructed in connection with sanctuaries

27 On the erection o f a theatre in Jerusalem, see: A J 15: 268; in Jericho: A J 17: 161; in Caesarea: BJ, I: 415.

28 Netzer 1980, p. 104-107 [Hebrew],

19 Segal 1992, p. 145-156 [Hebrew]; Segal 1995, p. 4-5; Frova 1966, p. 57-192; Levine 1975 p. 23-26.

Segal 1995, p. 41-43, figs. 10-14; W aterman 1937, p. 6-12, figs. 3-5; Meyers, Netzer, Meyers 1992, p. 30-33.

31 On N abataean theatres, see: Segal 1989, p. 150-151, notes 14-20. O n the large theatre in Petra, see: H am m ond 1965. On the theatre in Wadi Sabra, see: Linder 1982, p. 231-242; Negev 1981, p. 122-128 [Hebrew], On the theatre in Sahr in the Trachonitis, see: Segal 1995, p. 38-39, fig. 2; Butler 1919, p. 441-446.

o r ccm eterics. H ow ever, one should not reject the possibility th a t even the N a b a ta e a n kings, like H erod the G re at and his sons, w anted to d em o n strate their enthusiasm lo r classical culture, and th a t their aim was sim ilar to th at o f H e ro d , to bccom c integrated with general H ellenistic culture under the leadership o f R om e.

T heatres in Hellenizcd Cities

T h e earliest am o n g the theatres in the Hellenizcd cities was the southern th eatre in G e rasa (today: Jerash in Jo rd a n ) th a t was built in 92 C E .32 T he very co n stru c tio n o f this th eatre is o f great im po rtan ce to o u r discussion in view o f the fact th a t, unlike the o th er theatres th a t were built by H erod the G re at or by the N a b a ta e a n kings, the th eatre in G e rasa was built by m unicipal initiative, th a t is to say, b o th the funding and the audience cam e from the city itself. It is safe to assum e, therefore, th a t the facility crectcd by m unicipal initiative for the sake o f the citizens, faithfully reflects the true needs o f the p o p u latio n o f the area in which it was built.

T h e th eatres in the Hellenizcd cities were built over a long period o f tim e, from the end o f the first century to the end o f the 3rd century CE. T he greater m ajo rity o f the 30 theatres th a t have so fa r been excavated in the region under discussion were built in the H cllcnized cities d u rin g this period. It is w o rth considering the location o f these theatres. Some o f them , such as the theatres in H am m at-G ad er, Shuni or in B irketein, n o rth o f G erasa, can be defined as cultic theatres because they were n o t built within the cities bu t in sanctuaries in the vicinity o f the cities, while the other theatres were built w ithin the cities them selves.33

All the th eatres in the L and o f Israel are R o m an th eatres in respect of plan, design an d architecture, and do no t differ essentially from the theatres th a t were built in the first centuries o f the C hristian era in o th e r provinces o f the R o m an E m p ire.34 In the theatres th a t were built in the L and o f Israel, there is evidence o f co nstruction m eth o d s and arch itectu ral solutions th a t indicate a high level o f engineering and arch itectu ral skills. T h e various

2 On the southern theatre in G erasa, see: Segal 1995; p. 75-77, figs. 94-103; K raeling 1938, м P. 19-20; Browning 1982, p. 125-131, figs. 62-66; Segal 1988, p. 23, figs. 49-51, notes 26, 27.

On the theatre in H am m at-G ader, see: Segal 1995, p. 45-46, figs. 20-22; Sukenik 1935, P. 27-30, fig. 7. On the theatre in Shuni/Shumi, see: Shenhav 1990, p. 58-62 [Hebrew]; Segal

1995, p. 69-70, figs. 72-78. On the theatre in Birketein, see: Segal 1995, p. 71, figs. 79-83; ^ Kraeling 1938, p. 159-167, fig. 2; p. 161, pis. XXXI1I-XXXV.

On the differences between the Greek and R om an theatres regarding plans, m ethods o f construction and decoration, see: Bieber 1961, p. 187-189; Robertson 1974, p. 271-283; Boethius, W ard-Perkins 1970, p. 373-378, fig. 145.

types o f building m ethods are m ainly reflected in the co nstruction o f artificial slopes on w hich the cavea was placed. As for arch itectu ral d eco ratio n , the th eatres in th e L and o f Israel are no t essentially different from those in o th e r regions o f the R om an w orld. M o st o f the d ec o ratio n efforts were focuscd o n the faęade o f the stage stru ctu re (scaenae fro n s), which faces the stage and the audience, and is decorated with tw o o r th ree stories o f m arble and granite colum ns, pillar and pilasters in a variety o f colo u rs th a t su p p o rt horizontal beam s (e n tab latu re) and statues placcd w ithin the niches. T he largest th eatre in o u r region is the one in P hiladelphia (to d ay A m m an, capital o f the kingdom o f Jo rd a n ) in which there were 8000 seats, while the sm allest one is in S ahr in trachonitis (today in so u th ern Syria) where only 400 spectato rs can be seated, bu t on average the th eatres in o u r region co n tain 5000 seats.

The C ultural Aspect

Very little is know n to us on w hat to o k placc at the scorcs o f theatres in the L and o f Israel. F ro m the small am o u n t o f in fo rm atio n gleaned from Josephus, T alm udic literatu re and church sources we learn th a t m im e and p an to m im e perform ances were the m ore co m m o n form s o f en tertain m e n t in the th eatres o f this region.35 Even events o f a n o th e r type, such as acrobatic p erform ances and boxing m atches were presented a t the theatres, and in som e th eatres such as the one in C aesarea, it was possible to flood the o rchestra w ith w ater and to present “ w ater-theatre” , a type o f entertrainm ent th a t was highly d u b io u s.36 All this shows th a t it is difficult to assum e th at classical d ra m a was presented in the theatres o f the L and o f Israel. T he substance and im p o rt o f the w orks o f A eschylos, S ophocles, E uripides or A ristophanes th a t were m eant for the A thenian audience were no t apparently tran sm itte d w ithin the com pass o f the th eatre in o u r region. T h e contcnt, ideas and language o f the classical G reek plays in all th eir various form s were alien to the local audience which was ap p a ren tly satisfied with light and sim ple en tertain m e n t generously provided by m im e, pantom im e and “ w a te r-th e a tre ” .

35 On leisure culture in the Land of Israel in ancient times, see: Weiss 1995, p. 2-19 [Hebrew]. On mime and pantom im e in the ancient theatre, see: Segal 1989, p. 145-165. O n the position o f the C hurch regarding various theatrical events, see: A shkenazi 1994, p. 95-102 [Hebrew]. On Talm udic sources regarding various theatrical events, see: D vorjetski 1994, p. 51-68 [Hebrew].

3e On water theatre in the Land of Israel and the classical world, see: G ilula 1994, p. 41-50 [Hebrew].

b. Am phitheatres

W e have already noted the essential difference in the ch a rac te r o f events held in theatres as com pared with those held in am p h ith eatre s.37 G ladiatorial com bats and h u n tin g scenes did no t appeal to Sem itic audiences in the R om an E ast, and am p h ith eatres arc rarely found even in A sia M in o r and in G reece.38 In the L and o f Israel, four am p h ith eatres have so far been found, all o f them w est o f Jo rd a n : Beth-Shean (Scythopolis), B eth-G uvrin (E leutheropolis), Shcchem (N capolis) and C aesarea. T h e last o f these has not yet been investigated bu t the o th er three am p h ith eatre s have been excavated to som e degree over the last tw o d ecades.39

It seems likely th a t the very existence o f am p h ith eatres in this region o f the R o m an w orld m ust be seen in connection with the presence o f the legionnaires w ho, to g eth er with their families, constitu ted the m ain clients ol am p h ith eatre en tertain m e n ts.40 Indeed, if we consider the d istrib u tio n of am p h ith eatres in the R om an w orld, we see th a t com p ared w ith m ore than a hundred am p h ith eatre s know n to us in Italy and in the w estern provinces, and m o re th a n 40 am p h ith eatres in N o rth A frica, they are extrem ely rare in G reece, A sia M in o r and in the R om an E ast. T h e existence o f fo u r am p h it-heatres in the L and o f Israel, w ithin a relatively sm all area west o f the Jo rd a n R iver, indicates a considerable co n cen tratio n o f people by whom this type o f am usem ent was favored. As we have said, it is quite probable th at it was m ainly the soldiers o f the R om an legions w ho were com prised the m ain audience for this kind o f entertainm ent.

We should, how ever, tak e into account o th er factors th a t m ight have led the cities to the decision to build am phitheatres in their areas. T h e con st-ruction o f the am p h ith eatre in C aesarea by H erod the G re a t was an integral P art o f a w hole com plex o f buildings, including e n tertain m e n t facilities th a t the king h ad erected in his kingdom and outside it.41 O n the o th er hand,

in ^ am P h ^h eatre entertainm ents, see above, notes 15-18.

On the location and status o f the am phitheatre in the H ellenistic-Rom an East in general 3e and am ong the Jewish population in particular, see: R obert 1940.

It is possible th a t the structure located nearby, to the west of the circus in Bosra (the capital o f Provincia Arabia, today Southern Syria), is actually an am phitheatre. Its location m the capita] o f the province which was also the perm anent base o f the Legio Tertia Cyrenaica, indicates th at, like the am phitheatre in B eth-G uvrin, it was prim arily used for w the legionnaires. See: M ougdad, Blanc, D entzer 1990, p. 201-204.

See, lor example, the am phitheatre in D ura-E uropos on the Euphrates (today in Syria), which in the third century CE was an im portant military base o f the Rom ans. This small am phitheatre was built by the soldiers th at were stationed there within a bathhouse that ^ was no longer in use. See: Rostovtzeff et al. 1936.

On the am phitheatre in Caesarea, see: Levine 1975, p. 27-29; Reifenberg 1951, p. 20-32, fig. 1. The am phitheatre in Caesarea, located in the north p a rt o f the city, has not yet been researched, and it should be mentioned that a t this stage there is no evidence for the date o f its construction.

the co n stru c tio n o f am p h ith eatres in cities such as B cth-S hean, B eth-G uvrin and Shcchcm , seem to imply th a t these cities, w hich nourish ed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries C E , wished to d em o n strate their w ealth an d loyalty to R o m an provincial au th o rities by erecting facilities th a t best expressed the c u ltu ra l trad itio n s o f R om e.

T h e am p h ith eatre s o f Shcchcm and B cthShean are w o rth special a tte n -tion because they were actually constructed w ithin circuses when these were n o longer in use.42

W e arc faced w ith a phenom enon which is n o t unique to the Land of Israel bu t which is well know n to us in the R o m an E m pire as a whole. In fact, in the 3rd and 4th ccnturies C E , theatres and stadium s, and even a few circuses, had their original function altered and were adap ted for the purpose o f co n d u ctin g am p h ith eatre events. T his process to o k placc in m o st o f the theatres, in which the stage and lower level tiers o f seats were elim inated, and a protective wall was crcctcd aro u n d the orchestra, tu rn in g it in to an arena. In this way the conditions for holding gladiatorial co m b ats o r staged hunting gam es were c reated .43 In o rd e r to ad a p t the stadium s an d circuscs for a m p h ith e a tre events, a m uch larger investm ent o f effo rt was necessary. T he circu lar area oppo site the startin g gates in the circus, o r the startin g line

(m eta) in the stadium were utilized fo r creating the arena. In this area,

a sem i-circular wall was built facing the curved end which disconnected th a t area from the rest o f the stadium or circus.** Every visitor to the am phitheat-res o f Shcchcm o r B cth-Shean will easily notice th o se add ed constructions. I he am p h ith eatre o f C aesarea has no t yet been excavatcd, alth o u g h its existence is know n to researchers by the analysis o f aerial p h o to g ra p h s.45 B ut there is no d o u b t th a t we have here an a m p h ith e a tre th a t was erected from the very sta rt as an am phitheatre. T h e a m p h ith e a tre in B eth-G uvrin, the excavation an d the partial reconstruction o f which has recently been com pleted, was also originally built as such.46

It is quite prob ab le th a t the structure th a t was located by G . Schum acher in Legio, a cam p city th a t was set u p for the soldiers o f the Sixth Legion in the first q u a rte r o f the 2nd century C E , served as an am p h ith e a tre .47

42 On the am phitheatre o f Beth-Shean (Scythopolis), see: Tsafrir, Foerster 1990, p. 7-45; Tsafrir, Foerster 1993, p. 3-32; Tsafrir, Foerster 1997, p. 85-146. O n the am phitheatre in Shechem, see: M agen 1994, p. 1357-1358.

43 See, for example, the theatre in A phrodisias in C aria, W estern Turkey today: Smith, Erim 1991, p. 31-39, fig. 1, p. 30.

44 See, for example, the stadium in Aphrodisias: Erim 1992, p. 27-29, figs. 31-32. 45 See above, note 41.

46 On the am phitheatre o f Beth-Guvrin, see: KJoner 1988, p. 15-24; K loner, H übsch 1996, p. 85-106.

47 O n the theatre/am phitheatre in Legio (today, in the area o f K ibbutz M egiddo), see: Segal 1995, p. 52-53, figs. 35-37; Schumacher 1908, p. 173-177, plate 1.

S chum achcr defines it as a th eatre, bu t because o f the unusual shape o f the stru ctu re (n o t yet excavated), it would n o t be w rong to assum e th a t it m ay have also served as an am phitheatre. A m algam ated stru ctu re s such as these, in w hich th e a tre and am p h ith eatre arc com bined, are well know n to us th ro u g h o u t the R o m an E m pire.4“

c. Circuses

T h e horse-d raw n c h a rio t races have a long trad itio n in G reek culture. 1 hey were a p a rt o f the O lym pic G am es and were frequently m entioned in the H o m eric epics.49

H ow ever, the G reeks never form ulated an arch itectu ral definition for w hat they used to call a h ip p o d ro m e (in G reek: 1т ло0роцод), although ch a rio t races com petitions in the G reek w orld d u rin g the archaic and classical periods, an d even in the H ellenistic one, were held in wide expanses °f pressed earth . 1 he R om ans called the h ip p o d ro m e a circus, and by the 4"' cen tu ry B CE, h ad already given it a precise arch itectu ral d efin itio n .50 1 he circus (the heir o f the G reek hipp o d ro m e) was a large and impressive facility th a t was usually set up outside the city area. So far, seven circuses have been located in the cities o f S outhern Syria an d the Land o f Israel: B osra, G a d a ra , B cth-S hean, C aesarea (tw o), and Shechem . O th er circuses have been found in T yre, B eirut (today in L eb an o n ) and L a ta k ia (to d ay in S yria).51 A facility o f a unique kind was excavated in H e ro d ia n Jericho, and it m ay be the only one o f those we m entioned earlier th a t could be called

4" See, for example, the theatre/am phitheatre in Verulamium (today, St. A lbans) in England: K enyon 1935, p. 213-261.

” See above, notes 2-3, 19-20.

On the hippodrom e and on the history o f the architectural form ation o f the circus, see: H um phrey 1986, p. 1-24.

On circuses in the eastern provinces o f the R om an Empire, see the book by H umphrey 1986, p. 438-539. On the circus in Bosra (Southern Syria), see: Butler 1914, p. 275-276. {Our knowledge o f the circus in Bosra is based on a survey only. T he facility has not yet been excavated].

On the circus in G adara, see: W agner-Lux et al. 1978, p. 135-144, pis. 11-17; Wagner-Lux, Vriezen 1980, p. 157-161; W eber 1989, p. 597-611.

On the circus in G erasa, see: K raeling 1938, p. 85-100; O strasz 1989, p. 329-336, fig. 4. On the ctt-cur/amphitheatre in Bcth-Shean, see above, note 42.

On the circus in Shechem, see above, note 42.

On the circus in Tyre, see: B outros 1981, p. 103-115, figs. 219-235. On the circus in Beirut, see: H um phrey 1986, p. 491-492, notes 69-72.

On the circus in L atakia (which is Hellenistic and R om an Laodicca) in N orthern Syria, see: H um phrey 1986, p. 492, notes 73-74. I heard from D r. M . H artal th at the rem ains of a large circus have recently been located in Tiberias.

a h ip p o d ro m e and n o t a circus.52 T h e earliest circus th a t was built in Iu d a ca is the one th a t was recently excavated in C a e sa re a .53 In his desc-rip tio n o f the fo unding o f C aesarea by H erod the G re a t, Jo sep h u s m en-tions the am p h ith eatre th a t was built “ so u th o f the p o rt” {A J 17: 341,

BJ, I, 21: 8). It appears th a t Josephus confused the circus with the am- phitheatrum (and he was no t the only histo rian o f th a t period w ho con-

fuscd the various en tertain m e n t facilities), because w h at was found near the shores o f C aesarea, south o f the p o rt and n o rth o f the th eatre, was n o t an am ph ith eatre bu t a circus, an unm istakable R o m an facility intended for h o rse-draw n ch a rio t races.54 T he circus o f H erod the G re a t has the typical U shape, w ith long walls parallel to the line o f the shore, and w ith its curvcd end to w ard s the south. T he m easurem ents o f the arena were: 300 x 50 m.

AU the o th er circuses th a t were built in the cities o f S o u thern Syria and the L and o f Israel were constructed in the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies C E , d u rin g the reign o f the A ntoninę and Severan em perors. T w o of them : the ones in G crasa and G a d ara, are th e sm allest o f all th a t were ever built. T h e ir length was less th an 250 m. while the circuses o f B osra, C aesarea (the eastern circus), like those o f T yre, B eirut and L atakia, had an average length o f m ore th an 400 m. T h e latter belong to a group o f large circuses th a t, in their design and p ro p o rtio n s, resem ble those in Italy and N o rth Africa.

In co n tra st with the show s o f the am p h ith eatre , the c h a rio t raccs won great p o p u larity in the R o m an East. A t the end o f the R o m a n period and d u rin g the B yzantine era, when the popu larity o f a m p h ith e a tre show s was in declinc, the ch a rio t races bccam e the m o st favored form o f m ass en ter-tainm ent. J u st as in R om e and C o n stan tin o p le, we find th a t even in the L and o f Israel there were fights, occasionally violent ones, betw een rival circus factions (factiones), m ainly between the “ blues” and the “ greens” , w hich testifies to the great popu larity o f ch a rio t races in o u r re g io n .55

52 On the hippodrom e in Jericho, see: Netzer 1980, p. 104-107 [Hebrew], The structure that was excavated by Prof. E. Netzer in Jericho lacks a seating system and also has no starting gates (carceres) or a central dividing wall (spina), and therefore, unlike the other facilities th at have so far been excavated in the Land o f Israel, it can be defined as a hippodrom e and not a circus.

53 The circus o f H erod was excavated by a team o f the Antiquities A uthority headed by D r. J. P orath (with the exception o f the northern end, the area o f the carceres, which was excavated by team headed by Prof. J. Patrich), between the years 1992-2002 See- Porath 2003, p. 451-455.

d. Stadiums

As already m entioned above, the stadium (pi. stadia) is an o u tstan d in g sp o rt facility th a t is found in sanctuaries such as O lym pia, D elphi or H pidauros, bu t they are also to be found in gym nasium s.56 C om petitive activities are held in stadium s in the fram ew ork o f the O lym pic G am es as well as train in g in various athletic professions. T he stadium is a G reek facility and is rarely found in the R o m an w orld, since as we have already em phasized, athletic com petitions were n o t favored by the R o m an s, who preferred w atching entertain in g spectacles displayed in am p h ith eaters and circuses.57 T h e stadium s found in gym nasium s were an integral p a rt o f those ed u c atio n al institutions th a t characterized above all the spirit o f the polis. All citizens were required to send th eir children to the gym nasium in which theoretical studies were com bined w ith a variety o f bodily activities.

So fa r only one stadium has been excavated in the L and o f Israel, the stadium in S am aria (S ebaste).58 T his stadium was erected in the northeast area o f the city, n ear the wall, utilizing the convenient valley th a t runs to the n o rth o f the forum . T h e stadium , which m easures 230 x 60 m ., is rectangular in shape an d is su rro u n d ed by walls on all fo u r sides. P arallel to these walls there arc porticos th a t ap p aren tly bore single-sloped roofs to provide shade all along the walls. It is safe to assum e th a t the stadium o f S am aria served the local gym nasium , which has n o t yet been discovered. T h e very existence o f a stadium in a city such as S am aria (Sebaste) sheds light on the cultural ch a racter o f the city and on the com position o f its p o p u latio n .

c. Conclusions

1 he L and o f Israel with its different areas and variety o f p o p u latio n was already been exposed to classical culture in the 6lh century BCE. Beginning with the 4th century it cam e under the direct rule o f the H ellenistic kingdom s, first by the Ptolem ies and then by the Seleucids. T h e degree o f exposure for the in h a b ita n ts o f the coastal cities was certainly m uch greater th an those living in the ru ral hinterland. In addition, the d e p th to which classical culture had p enetrated was dependent to some extent on the readiness o f the various p o p u latio n s to accept it. F o r the S yrio-P hoenician in h ab itan ts

56 See above, notes 2-3, 23-25. 1 See above, note 2.

On the stadium in Sam aria (Sebaste), see: Crow foot, K enyon, Sukenik 1942, p. 41-50. I was told by word o f m outh by the excavation team at Beth-Shean, th at a G reek inscription was recently found on site in which the municipal gymnasium is mentioned, but the building itself has n o t yet been located. This inscription has not yet been published.

w ho then com prised the m ajority o f the p o p u latio n living in the coastal cities, the en c o u n te r with the G reek language, religion and literature was m ore n atu ra l and easy th an fo r the Jews o r the N ab ataea n s. T h e proccss o f H ellcnization was com plex and n o t a uniform one for the different kinds of p o p u latio n living in the L and o f Israel.

In the history o f the coun try , there were periods in which the ruling authorities encouraged and prom oted those stra ta o f society th a t were intere-sted in a d o p tin g the m unicipal style o f life as conductcd in a G reek polis. Sclcucid rule o r the overt policy o f K ing H erod the G re a t show how com plex and com plicated these processes actually were. R o m an provincial rule cncouragcd the process o f urb an izatio n and th u s exposed ever larger num bers o f inhabitants, both Jews and non-Jew s, to the fram ew ork characte-ristic o f a G reek polis, and for m any o f them d u rin g the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies CE, this becam c th eir preferred style o f life. In these cities, with their institutions and facilities, the p attern o f life th a t gradually to o k shape hardly differed from th a t o f the inhabitants in o th er provincial cities th ro u g h o u t the R o m an Em pire.

H ere it should be m entioned th a t w hat was m ost typical o f the R om an E m pire a t the height o f its pow ers in the 2nd an d 3rd century C E was its cu ltu ral uniform ity. T h e long period o f pcacc and stability b ro u g h t ab o u t unprecedented econom ic prosperity as well as tra d e and cu ltu ral ties, open borders and the to ta l freedom o f m ovem ent. T h e E m pire was ruled a t th at time by wise and efficient im perial and provincial adm in istratio n . T his period o f prosp erity crcated a cultural uniform ity b o th the L atin west and the G reek east, w here the citizens o f the cities enjoyed a fram ew ork o f life th at seemed n atu ra l to any civilized person w herever he m ight be.

T he various entertainm ent facilities were an inseparable p a rt o f the various public institu tio n s, an d there was hardly a city in the L and o f Israel in th at period which did no t have at least one such facility. In m any cities, besides the th eatre as the m o st co m m on o f such en tertain m en t facilities, there were also am phitheatres a n d /o r circuses. T he proliferation o f such facilities at the end o f the Second T em ple period, and m ainly d u rin g the M ishnaic and T alm udic periods (З ^ -б 111 с. C E ), ensured th a t theatrical events o f all kinds, as well as chariot races, though to a lesser extent munera and venationes, were acccptable form s o f en tertain m e n t th a t were favored by the u rb a n p o p u latio n in the Land o f Israel. T h e censures against these am usem ents, b o th in T alm udic literature and in the writings o f the C hurch F ath ers, are evidence o f how deep an influence they h ad o n the u rb a n pop u latio n . M im e, pan to m im e and w ater-theatre, as well as o f chariot races, were highly p o p u lar am ong Jews and non-Jew s alike. These form s o f simple, sp o n tan eo u s folk entertain m en t faithfully reflected the real cultural needs o f m o st o f the u rb a n p o p u latio n in the b o th the w estern and eastern provinces o f the R o m an Em pire.

Bibliography

Andronicos 1979 - M . Andronicos, “ Panhellenic G ajncs” , [in:] N. Y alouris (ed.), The Eternal Olympics, New York.

Ashkenazi 1994 = Y. Ashkenazi, “The Palestine Church and Leisure Culture in Late Antiqui-ty” . [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa. Auguet 1994 — R. Auguet, Cruelty and Civilization: Roman Games, London.

Baldson 1968 = J. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome, New York. Biebcr 1961 = M. Bieber, The History o f Greek and Roman Theater, Princeton.

Boethius W ard-I'erkins 1970 - A. Boethius and J. W ard-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture, H arm ondsw orth.

Boutros 1981 = L. Boutros, Phoenician Sport, A m sterdam .

Browning 1982 = I. Browning, Jerash and the Decapolis, London.

Butler 1914 = H. C. Butler, P.U .A.E.S., Div. II, Ancient Architecture in Syria, Sec. A.,

Southern Syria, Part 4, Bosra, Leyden.

Butler 1919 = H. C. Butler, P.U .A.E.S., Div. II, Ancient Architecture in Syria, Sec. A.,

Southern Syria, Part 7, The Ledja (Sahr).

Cameron 1976 = A. Cam eron, Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium,

Oxford.

f aputo 1959 = G . C aputo, II Teatro di Sahratha, Rome.

Caputo 1987 = G. C aputo, II teatro augusteo di L ept is M agna (scavo e restauro 1937-1951), Rome.

Comford 1970 = F. C om ford, The Origin o f A ttic Comedy, M anchester.

Crowfoot, Kenyon, Sukcnik 1942 = J. Crowfoot, K. Kenyon, E. Sukenik, The Buildings at Samaria, London.

Ovorjetski 1994 = E. D vorjetski, “The Theatre in R abbinic L iterature” , [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, H aifa.

Lrim 1992 = K. Erim, Aphrodisias, Istanbul.

I'crguson 1972 = J. Ferguson, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, A ustin.

Finley, I*lekct 1976 = M. Finley, H. Pleket, The Olympic Games: The First Thousand Years, London.

Frezouls 1952 = E. Frezouls, “ Les Theatres de Syrie” , Les Anna/es Archeologiques de

Syrie, II.

Frezouls 1959 = E. Frezouls, “ Recherches sur les Theatres de l’O rient Syrin” , Syria, 36. l'ricdlander 1968 = R. Friedlander, Roman Life and M anners under the Early Empire,

New York.

Frova 1966 = A. Frova, Scavi di Caesarea Maritima, Rome.

Gabucci 2001 = A. G abucci (ed.), The Colosseum, Los Angeles.

Gcrkan 1961 = A. von G erkan, Das Theater von Epidauros, Stuttgart.

Gilula 1994 = D . Gilula, “A ncient A quatic T heatre” , [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre

and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.

Golvin 1988 = J.-C. Golvin, L'amphithéätre romain: Essai sur la theorization de sa form e et de ses functions, Paris.

Golvin, Landes 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and Ch. Landes, Amphitheatres et gladiateurs, Paris. Colvin, Redde 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and M . Redde, “ N aum achies jeux nautiques et am

phit-heaters”, [in:] C. D om ergue (ed.), Spectacula I: Gladiateurs et amphitheaters, Lattes. Grant 1967 = M. G ran t, Gladiators, London.

Hammond 1965 = Ph. H am m ond, The Excavations o f the Main Theater at Petra 1961-1962, Final Report, L ondon.

w ho then com prised the m ajority o f the p o p u latio n living in the coastal cities, the e n c o u n te r with the G reek language, religion and literature was m ore n atu ra l and easy th an for the Jews o r the N a b ataea n s. T h e proccss o f H ellcnization was com plex and no t a uniform one for the different kinds of p o p u latio n living in the Land o f Israel.

In the history o f the coun try , there were periods in which the ruling authorities encouraged and prom oted those strata o f society th a t were intere-sted in a d o p tin g the m unicipal style o f life as con d u cted in a G reek polis. Selcucid rule or the overt policy o f K ing Ilc ro d the G re a t show how com plex and com plicated these processes actually were. R o m an provincial rule encouragcd the process o f urb an izatio n and th u s exposed ever larger num bers o f inh ab itan ts, both Jews and non-Jew s, to the fram ew ork characte-ristic o f a G reek polis, and for m any o f them during the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies C E , this bccam e their preferred style o f life. In these cities, with their institutions and facilities, the p a tte rn o f life th a t gradually to o k shape hardly differed from th a t o f the inhabitants in o th er provincial cities th ro u g h o u t the

R o m an Em pire.

H ere it should be m entioned th a t w hat was m ost typical o f the R om an E m pire a t the height o f its powers in the 2nd an d 3"1 century C E was its cultural uniform ity. T h e long period o f peace an d stability b ro u g h t ab o u t unprecedented econom ic p rosperity as well as tra d e and cu ltu ral ties, open borders and the to tal freedom o f m ovem ent. T he E m pire was ruled a t th a t time by wise and efficient im perial and provincial adm inistration. T his period o f prosp erity created a cultural uniform ity b o th the L atin west and the G reek east, w here the citizens o f the cities enjoyed a fram ew ork o f life th at seemed n a tu ra l to any civilized person w herever he m ight be.

T he various entertainm ent facilities were an inseparable p a rt o f the various public in stitu tio n s, an d there was hardly a city in the L and o f Israel in th a t period which did n o t have at least one such facility. In m any cities, besides the th eatre as the m o st co m m o n o f such en tertain m e n t facilities, th ere were also am phitheatres a n d /o r circuses. T h e proliferation o f such facilities a t the end of the Second T em ple period, and m ainly d u rin g th e M ishnaic and T alm udic periods (3Ы- 5 1Ь с. C E ), ensured th a t theatrical events o f all kinds, as well as chariot races, though to a lesser extent munera and venationes, were acceptable form s o f e n tertain m e n t th a t were favored by the u rb a n p o p u la tio n in the L and o f Israel. T h e censures against these am usem ents, b o th in T alm udic literature and in the writings o f the C hurch F athers, are evidence o f how deep an influence they h ad on the u rb a n p o p u latio n . M im e, pan to m im e and w ater-theatre, as well as o f chariot races, were highly p o p u la r am ong Jews and non-Jew s alike. T hese form s o f simple, sp o n tan eo u s folk entertain m en t faithfully reflected the real cultural needs o f m o st o f the u rb a n p o p u latio n in the b o th the w estern and eastern provinces o f the R o m an Em pire.

Bibliography

Andronicos 1979 - M . Andronicos, “ Panhellenic G am es” , [in:] N. Y alouris (ed.), The Eternal Olympics, New York.

Ashkenazi 1994 = Y. Ashkenazi, “The Palestine Church and Leisure Culture in Late Antiqui-ty” . [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.

Auguct 1994 = R. A uguet, Cruelty and Civilization: Roman Games, London.

Italdson 1968 = J. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome, New York. Bicber 1961 = M . Bieber, The History o f Greek and Roman Theater, Princeton.

Boethius, W ard-Pcrklns 1970 = A. Boethius and J. W ard-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture, H arm ondsw orth.

Boutros 1981 = L. Boutros, Phoenician Sport, A m sterdam . Browning 1982 = I. Browning, Jerash and the Decapolis, London.

Butler 1914 = H. C. Butler, P.U .A.E.S., Div. II, Ancient Architecture in Syria, Sec. A., Southern Syria, P art 4, Bosra, Leyden.

Butler 1919 = H. C. Butler, P.U .A.E.S., Div. II, Ancient Architecture in Syria, Sec. A., Southern Syria, Part 7, The Ledja (Sahr).

Cameron 1976 = A. Cam eron, Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium,

O xford.

Caputo 1959 = G. C aputo, II Teatro di Sahratha, Rome.

Caputo 1987 = G . C aputo, II teatro augusteo di L ept is M agna (scavo e restauro

1937-1951), Rome.

Comford 1970 = F. C ornford, The Origin o f A ttic Comedy, M anchester.

Crowfoot, Kenyon, Sukcnik 1942 = J. Crowfoot, K. K enyon, E. Sukenik, The Buildings at Samaria, L ondon.

Ovorjctski 1994 = E. D vorjetski, “The Theatre in R abbinic L iterature", [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.

Erim 1992 = K . Erim, Aphrodisias, Istanbul.

I'crguson 1972 = J. Ferguson, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Austin.

Finley, Picket 1976 = M. Finley, H. Pleket, The Olympic Games: The First Thousand

Years, London.

Irc/.ouls 1952 = E. Frezouls, “ Les Theatres de Syrie” , Les Annates Archeologiques de Syrie, II.

brczouLs 1959 = E. Frezouls, “ Recherches sur les Theatres de ľO rient Syrin” , Syria, 36.

l'ricdlandcr 1968 = R. Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire,

New York.

Frova 1966 = A. Frova, Scavi di Caesarea Maritima, Rome.

Gabucci 2001 = A. G abucci (ed.), The Colosseum, Los Angeles.

Ccrkan 1961 = A. von G erkan, Das Theater von Epidauros, Stuttgart.

Cilula 1994 = D. G ilula, “ Ancient A quatic T heatre” , [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre

and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.

Colvin 1988 = J.-С. Golvin, L ‘amphitheatre romain: Essai sur la théorization de sa form e et

de ses functions, Paris.

Colvin, Landes 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and Ch. Landes, Amphitheatres et gladiateurs, Paris. Colvin, Redde 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and M . Redde, “ Naum achies jeux nautiques et am

phit-heaters” , [in:] C. D om ergue (ed.), Spectacula I: Gladiateurs et amphitheaters, Lattes. C rant 1967 = M . G ran t, Gladiators, London.

Hammond 1965 = Ph. H am m ond, The Excavations o f the M ain Theater at Petra 1961-1962,