Piotr Kłapyta

STRUCTURAL CONTROL ON MORPHOLOGY

OF SOUTH-WESTERN SLOPE OF CHORNOHORA MOUNTAINS

BETWEEN MT. HOVERLA AND MT. POP IVAN

(EASTERN CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS, UKRAINE)

Jagiel lo nian Uni ver sity, In sti tute of Ge og ra phy and Spa tial Man age ment, Gro nosta jowa 7, 30- 387 Kraków, Po land; e- mail: woy tas try@gmail.com

K³apyta, P., 2008. Struc tural con trol on mor phol ogy of south- western slope of Chor no hora Moun tains be tween Mt. Hoverla and Mt. Pop Ivan (East ern Car pa thian Moun tains, Ukraine). An nales So cie ta tis Ge olo go rum Po lo niae, 78: 37–49.

Ab stract: The land forms of the Chor no hora Moun tains and re lated geo mor pho logi cal pro cesses are strongly

con trolled by geo logi cal struc ture. De tailed geo mor pho logi cal map ping of the Chor no hora Range yielded evi -dence of deep- seated gravi ta tional slope fail ures on the south- western slopes. These slope de for ma tions were struc tur ally pre dis posed and linked to the dip of bed rock strata and their re sis tance to ero sion, as well as to cracks and faults within the flysch for ma tions. This pa per pres ents struc tural fac tors con trol ling the mor phol ogy of rela tively poorly rec og nized, dip- adjusted south- western slopes of the Chor no hora Mts. be tween Mt. Hoverla (2,061 m a.s.l.) and Mt. Pop Ivan (2,022 m a.s.l.).

Key words: flysch, deep seated gravi ta tional slope fail ures, slope asym me try, Chor no hora Mts., East ern Car pa

-thi ans, Ukraine.

Manu script re ceived 15 May 2008, ac cepted 23 June 2008

IN TRO DUC TION

The East ern Car pa thian Moun tains pro vided the back -ground for pio neer ing works that looked at the re la tion ship be tween land forms and ge ol ogy and the role of tec ton ics and li thol ogy in the de vel op ment of re lief (Reh man, 1895; Ro mer, 1909; Teis seyre, 1928; Œwid er ski, 1934, 1952; Œwidzi ñski, 1953). The role of ge ol ogy in the evo lu tion and fi nal shap ing of the flysch Car pa thian Moun tains as a whole was re ported in nu mer ous pa pers (Reh man, 1895; Kli -maszewski, 1946; Starkel, 1965, 1969, 2005).

With its well developed gla cial and peri gla cial land -forms, the Chor no hora Range played a cru cial role in the geo mor pho logi cal study of the East ern Car pa thian Moun -tains. Most of this work was car ried out on the north- eastern slopes of the range (then in the prov ince of Gal izien), hence there is a much bet ter un der stand ing of the lo cal land forms and their geo logi cal con trol on this area when com pared to the south- western slopes, known as Tran scar pa thi ans (K³a-pyta, 2006).

The ear li est gen eral com ments on the mor phol ogy of the Chor no hora Mts. date back to vis its by Pol (1851, 1876), Paul and Ti etze (1876), Sieg meth (1882), and Zapa³owicz (1889), whereas Paw³owski (1915) wrote the first geo mor

-pho logi cal syn the sis of the gla cia tion of the Chor no hora Range. Gla cial re lief has been the main topic of geo mor pho logi cal re search right from the be gin ning. The geo mor pho -logi cal in ves ti ga tion of the Chor no hora Mts. was crowned by pub li ca tions by Œwid er ski (1932, 1933, 1937), in clud ing his ma jor com pre hen sive study and a 1:25,000 geo mor pho -logi cal map of the north- eastern por tion of the range. This study was the first re con struc tion of the Chor no hora gla cia tion by com bin ing geo mor pho logi cal map ping and pa laeo bo tani cal data of Kozij (1932), and was the first to dif fer en -ti ate be tween land forms and de pos its of the Würm and Riss gla cial stages, and of an older com plex of de pos its rep re -sent ing the Min del stage. This pub li ca tion was a pio neer geo mor pho logi cal work of the genetic- chronological type, later to be ap plied by Kli maszewski (1988) in his study of the land forms of the Ta tra Mts.

Af ter the WW2, re search ers looked at the stra tigra phy and chro nol ogy of the last ice age us ing geo mor pho logi cal cri te ria, such as the ele va tions of flu vio gla cial ter races and ter mi nal mo raines (Cys’, 1955) and the radiocarbon- dating of de pos its found be tween sta dial mo raines (Miller, 1961, 1963; Trie tiak & Ku le shko, 1982). At tempts were also

made to link block tec ton ics with the de vel op ment of gla cial cir ques, which were viewed as tectonically- predisposed cavi ties sub se quently trans formed by gla cial and peri gla cial pro cesses (Bash en ina et al., 1969).

The ear li est frag men tary re ports on gla cial land forms and land slides on the south western slopes are found in pub -li ca tions by Czir busz (1900), Paw³owski (1915), and Vitásek (1923). Af ter the WWII, re search ers be gan no tic ing the con sid er able im pact that the un der ly ing struc ture had on the mor pho logi cal dif fer ence be tween the south- western and north eastern slopes. They con cluded that the mor phol ogy of the south western slope is typi fied by its lesser de -gree of gla cier de vel op ment and smaller number of gla cial cir ques. The asym met ri cal cross- profiles of gla cial cir ques were at trib uted to their for ma tion on slopes cut ting through rela tively less re sis tant rock lay ers and gen er ally fol low ing the dip of strata (Miller, 1961, 1963, 1964). The geo mor -pho logi cal map of the Chor no hora Mts. (Œwid er ski, 1937) does not in clude the south- western slopes which re mained poorly stud ied, ex cept for a small number of notes in the post war lit era ture. In deed, there is no com pre hen sive geo -mor pho logi cal study of the en tire area that would take into ac count the asym me try be tween the north- eastern and south- western slopes, which is a char ac ter is tic fea ture of the Chor no hora Range, fur ther high lighted by the dif fer ences in the Pleis to cene gla cia tions (Paw³owski, 1936; Evans, 1977).

Thus, the aim of this study was to rec og nize the struc -tural fac tors con trol ling the mor phol ogy of dip- adjusted south- western slopes of the Chor no hora Mts. be tween Mt. Hoverla (2,061 m a.s.l.) and Mt. Pop Ivan (2,022 m a.s.l.) in com pari son to the mor phol ogy of north- eastern, anti- dip slopes. To achieve this task, a geo mor pho logi cal map ping was car ried out at the scales of 1: 25,000 and 1:10,000 be ing com ple mented by an analy sis of Land sat (30×30 m pixel size) and As ter (15 m pixel size) sat el lite im ages. Im ages from the As ter sat el lite proved par ticu larly use ful for the analy sis of large- scale land forms, such as large land slides, which could not be mapped through field work alone. Win -ter sea son im ages, with their strong shad ows, graphi cally showed land slides, larger crev ices, fis sures and gla cial cir -ques.

Geo mor pho logi cal map al lowed for the iden ti fi ca tion of gla cial cir ques and large struc tur ally con trolled land -slides. Gla cial cir ques were de fined as rela tively de pressed, ar cu ate in plane ar eas, lo cated im me di ately be low the crest, sur rounded by very steep slopes, and more gen tly slop ing floor with the pres ence of mo rainic de pos its. Spe cial at ten -tion was paid to the struc ture of land slides and their re la -tion to the un der ly ing ge ol ogy. Strike and dip of bed rock strata were meas ured with the help of geo logi cal com pass. GPS meas ure ments were recorded in or der to mark the land slide niches and fis sure bounda ries. Land slide mor phol ogy was iden ti fied as the com plex of mass move ment land forms with the area of con cave niche and zone of mass ac cu mu la tion be neath. In the Chor no hora range, the mass ac cu mu la tion zone con sists mainly of rigid rock pack ets and sand stone de bris col lu vium.

This study has im pli ca tions for land scape evo lu tion in high moun tain ranges, where the rock controlled asym me

try of gla cia tion oc curs, like for in stance the Bre con Bea -cons range in Wales (Shakesby & Mat thews, 1996; Jans son & Glas ser, 2007), and where the struc ture of flysch strata con trols the land form de vel op ment above the tim ber line (e.g., Babia Góra Mts., Po land; £ajc zak, 1995; Œwid ow iec Mts., Ukraine; Ro mer, 1906).

GEO LOG I CAL STRUC TURE

The Chor no hora Mts., as part of the Outer East ern Car pa thi ans, is built up of Cre ta ceous–Palaeo gene flysch for ma tions (Fig. 1). The Ukrain ian seg ment of the East ern Car pa thi ans is com posed of sev eral over thrust nap pes with sec on dary thrusts, folds, slices, and trans ver sal tec tonic ele va -tion and de pres sion zones (Teis seyre, 1928; Œwid er ski, 1952; To³wi ñski, 1956; Mi hailescu, 1963; Starkel, 1965, 1969). These tec tonic struc tures emerged as the Moldavide ac cre tion ary wedge in the early and mid dle Mio cene (Mi -hailescu, 1963; ¯ytko, 1999) fol low ing a col li sion be tween the rigid East Euro pean Plat form and the Tisza and Da cia ter ranes (¯ytko, 1999; Ne cea et al., 2005). The East ern Car -pa thian fold ing (20–9 Ma BP) was ac com -pa nied by lat eral mi gra tion of a litho spheric block from the East ern Alps to wards the NE and SW (Decker & Per es son, 1996). As a re -sult of dif fer ent kine mat ics of the fold ing, there are clear dif fer ences in the age and evo lu tion of tec tonic struc tures com pared to those of the West ern Car pa thi ans (Starkel, 1969, 2005; Decker & Per es son, 1996).

The com pact and broad ranges of the Chor no hora Mts. are built by a se ries of re sis tant sand stones sepa rated by nar -row zones com posed of schists (Fig. 1). The Chor no hora Mts. is a tec tonic block sur rounded by large faults (Jahn, 1992). Bash en ina et al. (1969) di vided the East ern Car pa thian Moun tains into nu mer ous horsts, flex ures and gra bens, and iden ti fied the Chor no hora Mts. as the high est up lifted iso met ric block bound by deep lon gi tu di nal and trans -verse fault zones.

The Chor no hora Ran ge’s struc ture con sists of three nappe units: Chor no hora, Dukla and Porku lets (Nowak, 1927; Guzik, 1957; Za hul ska, 2003; Œl¹czka et al., 2005) (Fig. 1). The Chor no hora unit con sists in turn of two tec -tonic and fa cies sub- units: the outer Sku powa sub- unit and the in ner Chor no hora proper sub- unit (Guzik, 1957). There are three rock com plexes within the Chor no hora unit of dif -fer ent age and re sis tance: the old est, Lower Cre ta ceous thin-bed ded for ma tions of black flysch be long ing to the Shi pot beds (Bar re mian–Al bian), the younger, spot ted schists and marls of the Porku lets beds (Ce no ma nian–Tu ro -nian), and the Up per Cre ta ceous, thick- and thin- bedded Chor no hora sand stone and con glom er ate (Œwid er ski, 1937; Guzik, 1957; Za hul ska, 2003; Ro gozi ñski & Kro bicki, 2006) (Fig. 1). Within the Chor no hora Mts., the Porku lets nappe (also known as the Burkut nappe) mainly con sists of thick bedded sand stone and con glom er ate of the Chor no -holova beds (Cam panian–Eo cene), and of the grey and spot ted schists of the Porku lets for ma tion (Nowak, 1927; Ro gozi ñski & Kro bicki, 2006). In the Chor no hora Mts., the Porku lets unit reaches far ther in the fore land than in the neigh bour ing re gions and forms a unique Petros tec tonic

pen in sula (Fig. 1). An ol is tostrome zone iden ti fied in front of this unit, con sists of vol canic rock ol is to lith (ba salt and me laphyre lava) and organic- detritic lime stones that are clearly marked in the re lief in the form of klippes (Gold-schlag, 1914; Ro gozi ñski & Kro bicki, 2006).

The Chor no hora Range is lo cated in one of the three re -gional zones of tec tonic ele va tions, iden ti fied in this part of the Car pa thian Moun tains (To³wi ñski, 1950; Jahn, 1992). The ele va tion of the Pokutt’a Car pa thian ranges (also known as Po dil’a Car pa thi ans) cuts across all other geo logi -Fig. 2. Map of the Chornohora land forms be tween Mt. Hoverla and Mt. Pop Ivan (ac cord ing to Œwiderski, 1937 and the au thor)

cal struc tures of the East ern Car pa thi ans at a right an gle, from the Pokutt’a Be skidy Mts. range in the NE, through the Chor no hora Mts., to the Mar ma rosh Mas sif in the SW (To³wi ñski, 1950). The ele va tion was first iden ti fied by Teis seyre (1928), who ana lysed the sum mit sur face of the Car pa thi ans and iden ti fied zones of trans ver sal tec tonic ele -va tions and de pres sions, which he re garded as dis lo ca tions of the pied mont that con tin ued un der the Car pa thian Moun -tains and in flu enced their tec tonic struc tures. The Shopurka fault, a deep re gional tec tonic fault zone sepa rat ing the Tisza and Da cia ter ranes, played an im por tant role in the de -vel op ment of the Chor no ho ra’s tec tonic struc tures. It is a north- eastern con tinua tion of an im por tant fault in this part of the Car pa thi ans (¯ytko, 1999). The fault zone con sti tutes the west ern bound ary of the Chor no hora unit and an im por tant re gional tec tonic bound ary that sepa rates the Chor no -hora Range from the Œwid ow iec moun tain group. The fault zone trends NE–SW at the west ern foot of Mt. Petros and Mt. Sheshul and down the Tisza val ley, where it con trols the course of the gap reach of that river (Fig. 1).

GEN ERAL CHAR AC TER IS TICS

OF THE CHORNOHORA LAND FORMS

The Chornohora Mts. are one of the main ranges of the East ern Carpathians (Fig. 2). Cul mi nat ing at more than 2,000 m a.s.l., it is the high est Carpathian range built of flysch for ma tions. In terms of physico-geo graph ical re -gions, it is part of the Polonyny Beskidy Mts. (Kondracki, 1978), and in geomorphological terms it forms part of the Poloniny-Chornohora Carpathian Moun tains (Rud’ko & Kravchuk, 2002). The main ridge run ning be tween Mt. Hoverla (2,061 m) and Mt. Pop Ivan (2,022 m) is a sec tion of the main Carpathian wa ter shed that sep a rates the bas ins of the rivers Prut and Cheremosh from that of the Tisza River. The Chornohora Mts. form a high-moun tain ter rain, when as sessed on the ba sis of geoecological cri te ria (Troll, 1973). The morphogenetic cryo-nival zone is lo cated above the cli ma tic tim ber line, which is sit u ated at 1,600 m a.s.l. (Œrodoñ, 1946). The high est parts ris ing above 1,850 m a.s.l. be long to the Al pine zone, char ac ter ized by the great -est in ten si ties of ae olian de fla tion, gelifluction and nivation pro cesses (Hradeckú et al., 2001).

The over all re lief of the Chornohora Mts. fea tures a struc tural asym me try be tween its north-east ern and south-west ern slopes (Fig. 2), a prod uct of a lower ero sion base on the south-east ern side and of the monoclinal dip of strata (K³apyta, 2006). The asym me try of gra di ent on op -pos ing ero sion slopes in the Carpathians is gen er ally well known (Jahn, 1992). The south ern slopes drop 100 metres lower (to 200 m a.s.l.) than their north ern coun ter parts, have greater denivelation and in gen eral higher-en ergy re lief (To³wiñski, 1956; Jahn, 1992). The val ley net work on the south ern side of the Carpathian Moun tains con sists of young, deeply in cised V-shaped val leys of the Up per Tisza River sys tem which evolved its con tem po rary form ear lier than on the north ern side (Slyvka, 2001). The asym me try is man i fested in dif fer ences be tween the main land forms, their po ten tial en ergy, and pre dis po si tion on the two sides of the

moun tain chain. The south-west ern dip-slopes sit u ated above the tim ber line are smoother and less dis sected than the north-east ern slopes. The lat ter were formed by cut ting across more re sis tant strata and tend to be steep and rag ged around gla cial cirques. This main struc tural asym me try be -came ad di tion ally high lighted by the asymmetry of the Pleistocene glaciation (Paw³owski, 1936; Evans, 1977).

The great el e va tion of the Chornohora Mts. and their large northeast ern slope frag men ta tion (Romer, 1909) fa cil i tated the de vel op ment of large and rel a tively long moun tain gla ciers dur ing the Pleis to cene. The sub se quent for ma -tion of gla cial and periglacial re lief fol lowed the ex ist ing tec tonic and lithological dif fer en ti a tions and a net work of ero sional dis sec tions. On the north-east ern slopes, gla ciers were up to 4–6.5 km long (Œwiderski, 1937). The Chorno-hora’s gla cial re lief, with its well de vel oped val ley head cirques, rocky steps and mo raines, pro vides a model ex am -ple of gla cial ero sion and ac cu mu la tion land forms in a flysch area. The cirques de vel oped as a re sult of gla cial ero sion of flu vial val leys; they are filled with de bris flow de -pos its and ta lus cones. Mo raines in the cirque bot toms mark stages in the re treat of gla ciers, while large peat bogs evolved in con cave ter rain forms (Korshikov & Pirko, 2001) pro vid ing an im por tant source of information on the local palaeoenvironment (Kozij, 1932; Hnatiuk, 1988).

Due to rel a tively low re sis tance of flysch for ma tions com pared to crys tal line rocks and the in tense post-gla cial ero sion, the gla cial re lief of the Chornohora Mts. is de void of gla cial ero sion fea tures, such as gla cial pol ish, striations and roches moutonnées or typ i cal gla cial troughs. Bound -aries of the cirques are clearly aligned with rock-re sis tance zones. Re sis tant zones un cov ered within the cirques man i -fest them selves in the form of struc tural thresholds and rocky steps.

The role of gla cial trans for ma tion of the south-west ern slopes of the Chornohora Range be tween Mt. Hoverla and Turkul was the sub ject of de bate over a long pe riod of time (Zapa³owicz, 1889; Siegmeth, 1882; Czirbusz, 1900; Paw³owski, 1915; K³apyta, 2006). There is a strong mor pho -log i cal con trast be tween the well-formed mo raines and steep rock or rock waste man tled slopes of the gla cial cirques on the north ern and northeast ern side, and the rel a -tively shal low gla cial cirques and land slide niches on the south-west ern slopes (Fig. 2).

The asym me try of the Chornohora’s gla cial cirques (Fig. 2) is rooted in struc tural in flu ences on the main fea tures of preglacial mor phol ogy that were sub se quently en hanced by cli matedriven pro cesses. The monoclinal at ti -tude of beds pro moted greater frag men ta tion of slopes in the head wa ters of the Prut and Cheremosh rivers, and was con -du cive to the for ma tion of nu mer ous con cave land forms in the up per parts of the val leys. The shaded head wa ters pro -vided op por tu nity for ac cu mu la tion of snow blown from the south or southwest, or sup plied by av a lanches from col -laps ing cor nices (Œwiderski, 1937; Ev ans, 1977). Palaeocli ma to log i cal re search shows that the pre vail ing at mo -spheric cir cu la tion in Cen tral Eu rope dur ing the last gla cial max i mum (LGM) was from the south and south-west (Florineth & Schlüchter, 1998). Grad u ally slop ing sec tions of the southwest ern side of the Chornohora Range pro

-vided a lo ca tion for the ac cu mu la tion of snow, which was then wind-blown across the ridge. In deed, the con sid er able length of the gla ciers (4–6.5 km) on the north-east ern side of the rel a tively low Chornohora range would sug gest a high snow ac cu mu la tion fac tor, and an area of supply larger than just the topographical limits of the cirques.

The lithological com plexes of the Chornohora Mts. vary in their de gree of re sis tance, thus in flu enc ing the shapes of the main land forms, es pe cially in the zones of overthrust of main tec tonic units. An ex am ple is pro vided by high denudational steps (400–500 m high) sup ported by very re sis tant lithological links to the face of the Porkulets and Chornohora unit overthrust, and the zone of Chorno-hora sand stones and con glom er ates (Figs 1, 2, 3). The ridges are com posed of strongly re sis tant com plexes of the Chornohora beds of sand stone and con glom er ate and the thick-bed ded com plex of Chornoholova sandstones.

The rock com plexes in the Chornohora Mts. build a homocline, dip ping at steep an gles of 40–45° to wards the SW. The main Chornohora ridge de vel oped on the SW limb of a syncline built up of the Chornohora sand stone and con -glom er ate. The steep dips of the lithological com plexes within folds are man i fested in the to pog ra phy in the form of Fig. 3. NE slopes of Chornohora Moun tains. A dis tinct denudational step (400 m high) links the heads of the highly re sis tant Chornohora sand stones and con glom er ates, un der lain by the low-re sis tant var ie gated shales of Yalovichora se ries. Note well de vel oped set of val ley heads of gla cial cirques of the for mer Prut gla cier sys tem

Fig. 4. Gadzhyna cirque. Rocky nee dles and spines near Shpytsi are as so ci ated with ver ti cally dip ping strata of the Chornohora sand stones

monoclinal ridges, which ei ther take the form of cuestas (Turkul, Dzembronia) or nar row hogback-type ridges (Mt. Hoverla, a ridge near Niesamowite Lake). Dou ble ridges evolved where two lithologically re sis tant zones run par al lel

to each other (Brebenieskul, Munchel). Ver ti cal strata are found in the cen tral Chornohora Mts. be tween the area around the Niesamowite Lake and the Gadzhyna cirque. Se -lec tive ero sion and de nu da tion un cov ered re sis tant strata, Fig. 5. Map of struc tural im pacts on the Chornohora land forms be tween Mt. Hoverla and Mt. Turkul (ac cord ing to the au thor). The land scape of the NE face is dom i nated by gla cial fea tures. Well de vel oped gla cial cirques are found in five head wa ter val leys of the Prut River. The land forms of the SW face are char ac ter ized by dom i nance of land slide forms, which de vel oped through deepseated grav i ta -tional dis place ments of rock blocks

pro duc ing spec tac u lar rocky nee dles and spines near Shpytsi (Fig. 4), and nar row rocky ridges of the Velike and Male Kozly. The di ver sity of lo cal land forms is linked with the al ter nat ing hard and soft com plexes, which are formed in subpar al lel zones com pat i ble with the pat terns of tec -tonic struc tures. The ver ti cal up lift of the Chornohora Mts. among other East Carpathian ranges was de ter mined by its tec ton ics and li thol ogy. Œwiderski (1933) links the high el e -va tion of this range to an orig i nally higher po si tion of the Chornohora unit, com pared to the lower-ly ing folded overthrusts and imbricated folds (“skibas”) of the Eastern Carpathians.

MOR PHOL OGY OF THE

SOUTH-WEST ERN SLOPE BE TWEEN MT.

HOVERLA AND MT. POP IVAN

The main geomorphic com po nents of the south-west ern slope re sult from monoclinal at ti tude of beds. Dom i nant land forms in clude smooth slopes cov ered by a thick

peri-gla cial waste man tle, con form ing to the dip of strata. Screes de vel oped as a re sult of in tense weath er ing and dis in te gra -tion of hard sand stones and con glom er ates. On more gently in clined slopes and ridges they form large screes, while on steeper slopes they form block streams. Due to dif fer ences in flysch li thol ogy and tec ton ics, the screes of the Chornohora Range are smaller in size than those in the neigh bour ing Gorgany Range and are con cen trated near rocky out -crops (Walczak, 1946; Bajtsar & Tretiak, 1998).

In the head wa ters, the re lief was trans formed by land -slides and in the cen tral area be tween Turkul and Munchel, also by gla cial and nival pro cesses (Fig. 2). A lon gi tu di nal transect across the south-west ern slopes of the moun tains re veals two sec tions with dif fer ent gra di ents and land forms. The top sec tion, ris ing above the tim ber line, is dom i nated by rel a tively grad ual slopes linked with the dip of un der ly -ing beds, with large head wa ters of poly gen etic mor phol ogy. Be low a break of slope di vid ing the two sec tions, steep slopes are carved by young and deep, V-shaped val leys that evolved when the land scape was rejuvenated during the Quaternary period.

LANDSLIDING ON THE SW SLOPES

BE TWEEN HOVERLA AND TURKUL

MOUN TAINS

Mt. Hoverla is the high est peak of the Chornohora Mts. and the high est flysch peak of the en tire Carpathian belt. This hogback-type peak is built up of steeply dip ping Chor-nohora sand stones and con glom er ates (Figs 1, 6). Mt. Hoverla rises 250–300 m, like a monadnock pyr a mid, above the Poloniny planation level found on Mt. Mala Hoverla (1,764 m) and on Mt. Plecy Hoverli (1,750 m) (Fig. 3). The N and NE slopes of Mt. Hoverla were re-shaped by gla cial ero sion: three cirques (Zaroœlacki, KoŸmieski and KoŸmie-szczyka) were carved within the head wa ters, with steep rock and rock and waste man tle slopes and flat bot toms (Fig. 5). Thick periglacial screes de vel oped on the slopes above the up per limit of the cirques.

Fig. 6. Mt. Hoverla. Hogback-type peak; note large land slide niches on the south-west ern slopes

Fig. 7. A group of land forms re sult ing from landsliding on the SW slopes of Mt. Howerla (ac cord ing to the au thor). A youn ger gen er a tion of slid ing forms: 1 – niche with rocky slopes which are still af fected by nivation pro cesses, 2 – piledup col lu vial bulge. An older gen -er a tion of slid ing forms: 3 – land slide bulge, 4 – large rocky land slide niche within the head wa t-ers of the Hov-erla Stream

On the south-west ern side of the range, the slopes were re-shaped by large-scale mass move ments (Figs 5, 7). The land slides of Mt. Hoverla are as so ci ated with the mono-clinal pat tern of bed rock strata and pro duced two dis tinct land forms of dif fer ent age: the older and larger land slide within the head wa ters of the Mt. Hoverla stream, and a youn ger gen er a tion of land slides on the moun tain’s south-west ern slopes.

The youn ger gen er a tion of land slide niches (Figs 5, 8) stand out clearly from the dom i nat ing land scape and con -trast with the sur round ing smooth and un dis torted slopes. They rep re sent clas sic translational land slides of block-glide type, where the slope blocks were de tached along a bed ding plane and were slid ing down the slope, form ing a jum bled pile of rock at the toe of the slide.

The three land slide niches have rocky walls and are re -cently sub ject to nivation pro cesses, which are at tested to by small nivation ram parts formed at the head of per ma nent snow patches. Slip sur faces ap pear within the land slide hol lows in the form of solid sand stone beds, dip ping steeply to -wards the SSW and SW at an an gle of 30–40° (Fig. 8). The sand stone beds form char ac ter is tic rocky walls, 150–300 m long and 20–30 m high (Fig. 6, 8). Col lu vial ma te rial con -sists mainly of sand stone boul ders and solid rock pack ets, which are ac cu mu lated be low the land slide hol lows in the form of a 30–50-m-high wall (Fig. 9).

Land forms be long ing to deep-seated grav i ta tional slope de for ma tions were iden ti fied on the slopes of Mt. Pozhy-zhevska, Mt. Dancerz and Mt. Turkul (K³apyta, 2006; Figs 5, 10). It is an area of com plex mor phol ogy with dense net -work of crev ices, land slide niches, and a sys tem of fis sures. Mass move ment pro cesses caused the for ma tion of frac ture sys tems, slumped bod ies, and sev eral gen er a tions of deep-seated slope de for ma tions, ac com pa nied by shallow land-slides

The de for ma tion on the slopes of Mt. Pozhyzhevska de -vel oped as a re sult of the dis place ment of rigid blocks along par al lel slip sur faces (Fig. 10) that cre ated a reg u lar step-like sys tem of fis sures and rock masses form ing rows of rock shelves (Fig. 11). These shelves are out crops of thick, sin gle or mul ti ple beds in ter ca lated by less re sis tant shales or marls. The dom i nant fea tures in the up per most sec tion of the group of land forms orig i nated due to rock slid ing in -clude cracks, crev ices, land slide scars, and shal low fis sures that frame the top side of the land slide hol low (Fig. 10). The dis placed rock masses dis play breaks in bed con ti nu ity as a re sult of small-scale translational faults. Transversal cracks within the slid ing rock masses orig i nated due to vary ing rates and di rec tions of move ment be tween rigid blocks (Fig. 10). It is prob a ble that cracks and faults within flysch for -ma tions played a -ma jor role in the de vel op ment of land slide forms; these dis con ti nu ities com pose a lin ea ment per pen -dic u lar to the strike of beds and crossing the main ridge of the Chornohora Mts.

DIS CUS SION

De tailed anal y sis of top o graphic and geomorphological maps and sat el lite im ages of the Chornohora Range yielded Fig. 8. SW slopes of Mt. Hoverla. Dis tinct land slide slip sur

-face, as so ci ated with steeply dip ping sand stone beds of the Chor-nohora se ries

Fig. 9. SW slopes of Mt. Hoverla. Piled-up col lu vial ma te rial ac cu mu lated be low the land slide hol lows in the form of a 30–50-m-high bulge

Fig. 10. A model of slid ing forms on the SW slopes of Mt. Pozhyzhevska. The slope de for ma tions de vel oped as a re sult of dis place ment of rigid blocks along par al lel slip sur faces. This pro -cess pro duced a ‘step-like sys tem’ of fis sures and rock masses. Trans verse frac tures are a re sult of vari able move ment rates be -tween the rigid blocks

ev i dence of deep-seated grav i ta tional slope de for ma tion (DGSD) on the south ern slopes of Mt. Pozhyzhevska, Mt. Dancerz and Mt. Turkul (Fig. 11). Deep-seated grav i ta tional slope fail ures re sult from highen ergy pro cesses com monly oc cur ring in al pine moun tains and re ported in the lit -er a ture (Nemèok, 1982, 2007; Soldati et al., 2004; Hra-decký & Pánek, 2008). DGSD orig i nated along a gla cially over-steep ened slopes (Madritsch & Millen, 2007), and in front of flysch nappes formed by rigid sand stones un der lain by more plas tic beds (Hradecký et al., 2006). Flysch com -plexes are com posed of al ter nat ing strata of con trast ing strength. In the ar eas built of flysch, the ge om e try of deep slope de for ma tion de pends strongly of the in ter nal bed rock struc ture and oc cur rence of cross-faults (Nemèok, 1982).

DGSD dif fer from land slides in hav ing more than one slip sur face and dif fer ent me chan ics of move ment, with de -for ma tions oc cur ring on mul ti ple shear ing sur faces (Tibaldi

et al., 2004). The re sult ing set of land forms can be di vided

into two sub sets: split-ridges, land slide hol lows, ten sion crev ices and fis sures in the up per slope sec tion are known from the Al pine en vi ron ment un der a joint name of “Bergzerreissung Phenomene”; while in the lower sec tions of the slopes, large-scale bulg ing un du la tions are re ferred to as “Talzuschub” (Lotter et al., 2001; Brückl & Mertl, 2006). Moun tain ar eas built of al ter nat ing se quences of meta mor -phic schists, phyllites, and flysch tend to be par tic u larly prone to this type of mass move ment (Nemèok, 1982; Baron

et al., 2005). Faults and fis sures found in flysch for ma tions,

as well as the pat terns of rock strata have a strong bear ing on landsliding. In flysch ar eas, these in flu ences are cru cial to the fi nal shape of land forms orig i nat ing from rock slid -ing, cov er ing large ar eas up to sev eral square kilo metres and rock and wasteman tle for ma tions up to 100 m deep. In cli -na tions of slope deformations in the West Carpathians are between 18° and 50° (Mahr, 2007).

The scale and com plex ity of these struc tures pose a con sid er able chal lenge to their cor rect iden ti fi ca tion and anal y sis. Such grav i ta tional dis place ments al ter the cross and lon gi tu di nal pro files of the slopes, as well as the course of the pro cesses oc cur ring along the en tire slope pro file. Re -search in the West ern Alps dem on strated that large-scale de for ma tions are found on slopes with rel a tive drops be -tween 500 and 1000 m (Tibaldi et al., 2004). These deep-seated grav i ta tional de for ma tions were ini ti ated on the convex slopes of young valleys.

A very com pli cated set of slid ing forms was iden ti fied on the west ern and south-west ern slopes of Mt. Dancerz and Mt. Turkul (Figs 5). Be low the shal low land slide hol lows, there is a de pressed area with a com plex slid ing mor phol ogy and a con sid er able de gree of shat ter ing and in cor po rat ing a sys tem of reg u lar fis sures, landsliding crev ices up to 4 m deep, and largescale un du la tions. The shat tered zone strad dles the lo cal wa ter shed ridges with the fis sures and crev ices cut ting across them (Fig 11). The dis cussed zone is lim -ited to the south by a gla cial cirque be low Mt. Turkul, and to the north by the main ridge of the Chornohora Range, on the other side of which a large gla cial cirque of Mt. Arendarz oc curs. Dur ing the ice age and in postglacial time, the Chornohora cirques dis charged large quantities of eroded rock masses.

Deep and largescale landsliding stripped the up per sec -tions of the south-west ern slopes of the Chornohora Range from large quan ti ties of mass, and ini ti ated rock and de bris move ment by sec ond ary dis place ment. To day, the stron gest morphogenetic ef fects of such move ments are ob served in sec ond ary land slide hol lows near the Chornohora ridges. The slopes also fea ture crev ices and fis sures known from the lit er a ture as the ev i dence of land forms de vel oped due to brit tle de for ma tion of rock masses (Margielewski, 2001, 2004; Nemèok, 2007). Land forms linked to top pling and de for ma tions in the ex ist ing rock masses sug gest a con tin -ued grav i ta tional in sta bil ity of the slopes and that they are still ad just ing to a new equi lib rium pro file (Hradecký & Pánek, 2008). Ziêtara (1962, 1989) dem on strated in his stud ies of Mt. Babia Góra that grav i ta tional de for ma tions of hard sand stone com plexes will con tinue as the most impor-tant process causing the retreat of mountain ridges.

The landsliding pro cesses ob served in the Chornohora Range are in duced by bed rock struc ture, high po ten tial energy of the re lief, and heavy pre cip i ta tion. The size and structure of the de scribed land forms sug gest multi-phase de vel op ment of head wa ters of the Hoverla River and Ozir-nyj Stream. Deep-seated slope fail ures rep re sent a very complicated sys tem, and un der stand ing their evo lu tion and trig ger ing mech a nisms still re main un clear. Dat ing of large-scale grav i ta tional de for ma tions in the Carpathian Moun tains linked these land forms with wet pe ri ods dur ing the late Pleis to cene and Ho lo cene (Alexandrowicz & Alexandrowicz, 1999; Margielewski, 2002, 2004). It is sug -gested, how ever, that some large land forms in the Pol ish West ern Carpathians could have de vel oped ear lier, even in the Plio cene (£ajczak, 2004). Cli mates re garded as con du -cive to the trig ger ing of deep slid ing in Eu ro pean moun tains pre vailed dur ing the Late Gla cial ice de cay (12,500–11,500 cal BP), be tween the At lan tic and Subboreal pe ri ods (6,200–4,900 cal yrs BP) and dur ing the cli ma tic os cil la tions of the Lit tle Ice Age (Soldati et al., 2004). The ac cel er -ated fre quency of mass move ments in Eu ro pean moun tains dur ing the postglacial time is linked to a shal lower ground wa ter ta ble, wa ter sat u ra tion of the bed rock caused by Fig. 11. Mt. Pozhyzhevska and Mt. Dancerz SW slopes. Note deep-seated grav i ta tional slope fail ures (Bergzerreissung Pheno-mene) with reg u lar ten sion crev ices and fis sures in the up per slope section

greater pre cip i ta tion, the melt ing of per ma frost (Soldati et

al., 2004; Baron et al., 2005), and neotectonics (Zuchiewicz et al., 2002).

The mor phol ogy of the south-west ern slopes of the Chornohora Range is dom i nated by large struc tur ally con -trolled land slides, both of rock and rock-and-waste man tle type, which can ac count for up to 70% of the slope area above the tim ber line (Fig. 5). The larg est land slide fea tures of the Chornohora Range were found on the south-west ern slopes of Mt. Hoverla, on the east ern slopes of Mt. Petrosul, on the west ern slopes be tween Mt. Breskul and Mt. Turkul, and on the west ern slopes of Mt. Pop Ivan (Hradecký et al., 2001; K³apyta, 2006) (Fig. 2). As an ex am ple, Œwiderski (1932) de scribed the larg est translational land slide of the Pol ish Beskidy Moun tains that came down the south ern slopes of Mt. Shuryn (Mt. Gropa) and blocked the Pohorylets River val ley cre at ing a tem po rary res er voir. Slip sur faces of these land slides are placed ei ther on bed ding sur -faces (e.g. the con se quent-struc tural land slide on the south-west ern slopes of Mt. Hoverla), or are re lated to crev ices or cracks in hard lithological com plexes (e.g. con se quent land -slides on Mt. Pop Ivan). The land slide hol lows were re-shaped by periglacial pro cesses caus ing some re search ers to mis take them for gla cial cirques (Zapa³owicz, 1889; Pose-witz, 1893). In con trast, gla cial cirques are deeper in cised and their bot toms are filled with moraines and debris forms (protalus ramparts).

The re lief of the Chornohora’s dipad justed slope dif -fers sig nif i cantly from the mor phol ogy of the south ern slope of the Babia Góra Mt. (1725 m a.s.l.) in the West Beskidy Mts., Po land. The Babia Góra Mt. is the high est el e vated range of the Outer West Carpathians, and it is un der lain by an asym met ric syncline, built mainly of thick-bed ded Ma-gura sand stones (£ajczak, 2004). Landform de vel op ment of the Babia Góra Mt. is also strongly con trolled by struc tural asym me try, but dipad justed slopes of this mas sif are dom i nated by rel a tively shal low, broad land slide niches and rub -ble col lu vium of the Magura sand stones (£ajczak, 2004; Ha³at, 2006). These dis tinct dif fer ences are prob a bly con -nected with the lower slope frag men ta tion and lower en ergy of relief within the southern Babia Góra slopes.

CON CLU SIONS

The main fea tures of land forms of the Chornohora Range are as so ci ated with tec tonic up lift of this sec tion of the Carpathians, its tec tonic style, and the oc cur rence of re sis tant com plexes of the Chornohora sand stone and con -glom er ate. The char ac ter is tic asym met ri cal mor phol ogy is of struc tural or i gin, as the lithological com plexes built a homocline and the ero sional base on the south-west ern side is lower than that on the north-east ern side. These struc tural fac tors were fur ther re in forced by the Pleis to cene gla ci -ation. The dif fer ent ero sional re gimes op er at ing on ei ther side of the main crests cre ated strongly asym met ric ridges.

The slopes on the south-west ern face are char ac ter ized by a lesser de gree of gla cier de vel op ment; they were re-shaped by large-scale mass move ments. The de for ma tions were struc tur ally pre dis posed, i.e. linked to the dip of strata

and their re sis tance, as well as to cracks and faults within the flysch for ma tions. The largescale grav i ta tional de for ma tions were caused by mass move ments com pris ing mo -tions of rigid blocs along par al lel slip sur faces. For ma tion of large-scale mass move ments on the south-east ern slope of the Chornohora Mts. could be linked with the de vel op ment of the Up per Tisza River head wa ters and higher-en ergy back ward ero sion. The deep-seated large-scale slid ing caused great changes to the re lief, loss of large sec tions of the up per slope, and ini ti ated secondary displacement of rock and waste mantle.

In con trast, the north-east ern, anti-dip slopes were strongly gla ci ated. The ma jor ity of val ley head cirques are char ac ter ized by steep back walls and the bot toms filled with mo raines, peat bogs, melt wa ter chan nels, land slide de -pos its and scree slopes.

The land re lief of the Chornohora Mts. and its geo log i cal con straints are still lit tle known and re quire more de -tailed stud ies, de spite the long his tory of re search. The Chornohora Range pro vides an op por tu nity for fur ther re search of cli mategeo log i cal struc ture re la tion ships in shap ing a high moun tain flysch mas sif, as well as for com par i -sons be tween the rates of gla cial and nonglacial erosion on opposite slopes.

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