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Non-Formal Science Education
Supports Schools in Poland
Urszula Poziomek, Elżbieta Barbara OstrowskaSummary:
Non-formal education centres in Poland have significant potential and offer a variety of extra activities for groups of pupils supervised by a teacher. The centres’ educational activities are not subject to the regulations of the official education system as are schools. The Science Section of the Educational Research Institute (IBE) conducted a study entitled “Best practices in non-formal science education. A survey of the offer of science activities”. The main objec-tive of the study was to determine how the science activi-ties offered by centres of non-formal education to groups of pupils supervised by teachers can contribute to promot-ing and developpromot-ing scientific reasonpromot-ing, a skill included in the science core curriculum. The first stage of the study was conducted in 348 centres, while 50 centres participated in the second stage, a more in-depth study. A result of the study was the development of a national database of non-formal education centres. They offer support to teachers in implementing the requirements of the science core cur-riculum in their teaching and promote examples of good practices in this area. The majority of centres that took part in the research study applied methods of scientific reasoning in groups and stimulated pupils to be active and motivated The classes develop pupils’ research skills as well as their social skills, including communication and presentation techniques. In this way, the activities support the implementation of core curriculum requirements.
Key words: non-formal science education, scientific method,
educational reform, science core curriculum
received: 25.06.2015; accepted: 27.07.2015; published: 29.09.2015
Introduction
The results of international studies (PISA and TIMSS), as well as Polish research, indicate that pupils from Polish schools are better able to apply scientific reasoning than they were before 2009 [1]. In the PISA study, scientific reasoning is understood as:
• Identifying scientific issues
• Explaining phenomena scientifically
• Using scientific evidence [2].
The significant improvement in the average results of Polish lower secondary school (ISCED 2) pupils in international surveys is considered a success for Polish education. In an important international Pearson
rank-ing, Poland improved its position from 16th in 2012 to
10th in 2014 [3]. This success may be the effect of core
curriculum reform, which took place in Poland in 2009. The reform focuses on the application of the scientific method during science classes. Through the objectives (learning outcomes), teaching content and recommen-dations included in the new science curriculum (NSC), the requirement to carry out experiments, observations and measurements during science classes was intro-duced.
The scientific method
in the Polish core curriculum
The skills defined in the curricular learning out-comes, usually very complex, are essential in science ed-ucation and the implementation of research. These skills determine the critical and creative approach to science education, needed at every stage of learning, as well as in the life of a mature and responsible citizen. While ana-lysing the learning outcomes, it should be noted that they are expanded and taken to a higher level of complexity in the next stage of learning, and they refer in particular to several basic skills of scientific education, such as: the use of different sources of information, planning and carry-ing out experiments and observations, collectcarry-ing the re-sults and analysing, which includes finding correlations and determining cause-and-effect relations. These aims are shared in all four science subjects, although they are formulated differently in the curriculum of each one (bi-ology, chemistry, physics, and geography).
Direct recommendations for having pupils observe, measure and experiment have been included in teach-ing guidelines. Examples are listed in Table 2.
Such a detailed set of research activities was not previously included in the former core curriculum or in the examination standards, which had only general guidelines for carrying out experiments, observations, and measurements.
Non-Formal Science Education in Poland
In Poland, there is a different definition of non-formal science education compared to other countries. For example, in the United Kingdom and United States, non-formal science education is learning science out-side of a formal classroom setting – so it could still be taking place ‘in school’.
mgr Urszula Poziomek: researcher in the Science
Section of the Educational Research Institute (Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych), biology teacher in LXXV Secondary School (Jan III Sobieski) in Warsaw
dr Elżbieta Barbara Ostrowska: leader of the Science
Section of the Educational Research Institute (Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych). Since 2000 secretary of PISA research programme. At present she is director of the polish edition of PISA 2015. She is occupied with the problems concerning measuring of scientific and humanistic thinking skills of students.
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In general, non-formal science education can be de-fined as education/training/learning in the field of sci-ence, which does not lead directly to a qualification and which is implemented in the programs of different enti-ties (e.g., employers, non-governmental organisations, as well as universities, schools, and individuals).
Similarly, definitions of non-formal education/ learning may be found in different publications, for ex-ample:
Non-formal learning occurs in a planned but highly adaptable manner in institutions, organisations, and situations beyond the spheres of formal or informal education. It shares the cha-racteristic of being mediated with formal education, but the motivation for learning may be wholly intrinsic to the learner [4].
Non-formal learning consists of learning embedded in plan-ned activities that are not explicitly designated as learning, but which contain an important learning element. Non-formal le-arning is intentional from the learner’s point of view [5].
The success of Polish 15-year-olds is a source of joy, yet the Educational Research Institute (IBE) also moni-tors the educational processes in lower and upper sec-ondary schools, including through a long-term study entitled Laboratory of Thinking [6], and also analyses teaching methods and the impact of classes on pupils’ competences. The results of such studies show that dur-ing classes, pupils are insufficiently involved in carrydur-ing out experiments, making observations and measure-ments, and they rarely participate in outdoor classes. Teachers list such factors as: overcrowded classes, too few didactic lessons and insufficiently equipped labs as the main reasons for this state of affairs. What is more, teachers themselves have problems in applying the sci-entific method or promoting team work among pupils in practice [7]. One of the important ways of support-ing teachers in solvsupport-ing such problems is – apart from
Third educational stage (ISCED 2) Fourth educational stage, basic (ISCED 3) Fourth educational stage, extended (ISCED 3)
1 Knowledge of biological diversity and basic processes. [I]
Knowledge of the world of organisms at the different organisational levels of living things. [I]
2 Knowledge of human health determi-nants. [V]
Greater depth of information on the con-struction and functioning of the human body. [II]
3 Knowledge of biological research metho-dology. [II]
Deeper knowledge of biological research methodology. [III]
4 Exploration, use, and creation of informa-tion. [III]
Exploration, use, and creation of informa-tion. [I]
Exploration, use, and creation of informa-tion. [IV]
5 Reasoning and argumentation. [IV] Reasoning and argumentation. [II] Reasoning and argumentation.[V]
6 Attitudes towards nature and the natural environment. [III]
Attitudes towards nature and the natural environment.[VI]
Table 1. List of educational aims in the subject of biology, ISCED 2 and ISCED 3 (basic and extended level)
Subject Examples of the required experiments, observations and measurements
Nature (ISCED 1) A pupil observes all stages of plant development and documents the observations.
Biology A pupil carries out observations: the phenomena of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis (e.g., in cells of the epidermis in an onion storage leaf)..
Chemistry The pupil designs and carries out an experiment to compare the chemical activity of metals, e.g., copper and zinc.
Physics The pupil determines the weight of an object using a bilateral lever, another body of known weight and a ruler.
Table 2. Examples of the required experiments, observations, measurements, and tests included in the core curriculum of science at ISCED 1 (nature), ISCED 2 (Physics) and ISCED 3 for the extended level (Biology, Chemistry)
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relevant forms of professional development – broadly opening schools to non-formal science education.
Best practices in non-formal science education
– the research question and definition of best
practices
The Educational Research Institute prepared a study entitled Best Practices in Non-Formal Science Education.
Survey of the Offer of Science Activities on the operation
of non-formal education centres conducting science ac-tivities for groups of pupils supervised by teachers.
The research study defined non-formal education centres as non-governmental organisations, univer-sities, research centres of the Polish Academy of Sci-ences (PAN), science centres, industrial centres in-cluding research centres and educational institutions, as well as centres operated by individuals (e.g., private museums).
The purpose of the study was to obtain information about the manner in which science activities offered by non-formal education centres to groups of pupils su-pervised by teachers can contribute to promoting and developing scientific reasoning. As a consequence of obtaining such information, examples of good prac-tices in this area were selected. The results of the study will be used to promote methodological, programmatic and organisational solutions conducive to developing the skills of scientific reasoning, and therefore consis-tent with the premises of the new science curriculum in Poland. In this study, best practices are understood as activities and their determinants (institutional, organ-isational, and financial), which:
• allow for the formulation of research procedures
and their testing within the scope described in the learning outcomes, recommended experiments and observations of the new science curriculum;
• refer to skills important in science education – related
to scientific reasoning, such as planning and con-ducting experiments and observations, formulating conclusions, determining cause-and-effect relations, distinguishing opinions from facts, or supporting one’s own position with substantive arguments. This way of organising and conducting classes en-sures that pupils actively acquire the knowledge and skills needed to make rational decisions in private and social life. The skills developed by working with the re-search method are universal and useful in many other fields of science and life.
Methodology
The study consisted of two stages. In the first stage (provision of data about 348 science education centres), two objectives were met:
• a picture was obtained of non-formal science
edu-cation in Poland with special attention given to the consistency of activities undertaken by non-formal education centres with the teaching objectives of the new science curriculum;
• a set of criteria were developed to select those
cen-tres, which could potentially contribute to shaping and developing the skills of scientific reasoning, for the second stage of the study.
The second stage consisted of an in-depth analysis of best practices in the area of science education, with special attention given to activities supporting the im-plementation of the educational objectives of the new science curriculum and addressed to groups of pupils supervised by teachers.
The second stage included 50 science centres (Fig-ure 1), which were chosen on the basis of several criteria, for example the preferred methods of work with pupils and relating their work to the new curriculum.
In each centre, the following activities were con-ducted for the study:
• observation of two science activities using activity
observation instructions by a trained observer – a teacher familiar with the NSC – observation of non-engaged pupils;
• conducting in-depth interviews with persons
re-sponsible for the professional and administrative operations of a centre, according to an interview scenario by an experienced moderator – individual in-depth interview – IDI;
• evaluation of classes with respect to their utility in
the teaching of science and development of pupils’ interests in the subject – questionnaire study of the teacher/group supervisor and pupil/class partici-pants;
Figure 1. Location of 50 centres where qualitative studies were conducted.
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• analysis of the didactic materials used by the centre
during the observed activities with respect to their relation to the teaching objectives described in the NSC, performed according to a form analysing the didactic materials completed by a trained observer – a teacher familiar with the science curriculum;
• analysis of the centres’ documents constituting
the basis for the conducted activities (programme documents) with respect to their relation to the teaching objectives, described in the science cur-riculum, performed according to a form analysing programme documents completed by a trained observer – a teacher familiar with the science cur-riculum.
Table 3 presents the research tools and examples of data collected during the study.
Results
The picture of non-formal science education that emerges from the qualitative research can be sum-marised in three words: passion, holism, practice.
• The passion and commitment of employees of the
non-formal education centres are their most im-portant assets and largely determine the success of the actions taken, including educational ac-tivities focused on pupils under the supervision of a teacher.
• The holistic view of science and teaching pupils
“in the context” by showing cause-and-effect rela-tions are key elements of teaching in the non-for-mal education centres. This aspect distinguishes them from traditional school teaching.
• Aiming to test theoretical knowledge and use
ac-quired skills in practice allows pupils to perceive the elements of science in everyday life. This is one of the most important objectives of the centres
Research method Research tool Examples of data collected
observation of two science activities
Lesson observation sheet
The level of teachers’ and pupils’ activity; whether the educator formulated goals, carried out observations, experiments, allowed questions to be asked, formulated an opening question. individual in-depth
interview
Interview question-naire
Thematic scope and forms of classes; target groups, recipients of classes; the learning objec-tives of classes; developing and promoting the offer of classes; forms of evaluation.
evaluation of classes
Teacher survey*
Which subject/subjects was/were supported by the classes; which skills can the pupils im-prove during the classes; do classes accomplish the goals written in the science core curricu-lum?
Survey for primary school pupils
During the classes, did the pupils feel as if they were a scientist/researcher, did they under-stands everything that was said during the classes?
Survey for lower and upper secon-dary school pupils
Were the exercises performed during the classes boring or interesting for the pupils; which skills can the pupils improve during these classes?
analysis of the didactic materials and programme documents
Analysis form for didactic materials
Does the material contain: the general and specific goals of classes conducted with the use of the didactic material; description of expected results of classes – especially pupils’ skills associated with scientific reasoning; how clear and understandable are the instructions for pupils?
Analysis form for programme docu-ments
The relationship between the analysed document and the goals defined in the science core curriculum; the program assumptions of the centre and ensuring conditions for learning important skills in science education – for example, the use of natural conditions for scienti-fic observation.
Table 3. The approach and focus of the approach, with examples of the types of data collected (e.g., what did the observer focus on during the observations of the lesson?)
* All of the surveys asked mostly closed-ended, multiple choice questions.
(which is also compatible with the guidelines of the new Polish science curriculum).
This study provides the basis for formulating a hy-pothesis that the sector of non-formal education centres in Poland has significant potential and could be an en-riching supplement to the formal education sector [8].
The potential power of the non-formal education sector is related to slightly different features than those characterising the operation of schools. Non-formal education centres rely on the potential of other insti-tutions – including universities and academic centres, State Forest and National Park units, or non-govern-mental organisations. In this way, they acquire access to resources and potential not often encountered in schools. Among the most important are:
• scientific and didactic personnel: employees
in-volved in research activities with up-to-date knowledge in the sciences, as well as access to new publications and scientific discoveries;
• infrastructure and equipment: access to modern
equipment and infrastructure (e.g., laboratories) and the potential (and justification) to invest in such resources;
• scientific aids, museum exhibits;
• natural resources: access to parks, nature reserves,
reservoirs, bird habitats, etc.;
• the possibility of conducting business activities
and investing in the development of their units;
• the possibility of applying methods and activities
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of the sciences, using their own ideas or models from the different sources [8].
The non-formal education centres have various as-pirations; however, they have a common purpose of operation: they aim to popularise the sciences or a se-lected area of science. Among their remaining aspira-tions, they have specific objectives often related to the characteristics of the centre or the ideas of its founders and employees:
• to awaken pupils’ interest in science, showing
sci-ence as useful in every-day life;
• to expand and systematise the knowledge of
pu-pils, breaking down erroneous beliefs and miscon-ceptions about the natural world;
• to show the natural world as a complex whole,
which may be viewed from various perspectives;
• to enable pupils to independently study and
expe-rience the natural environment;
• to bring local natural resources, culture and
so-ciety closer together within the context of science education [8].
It is worth noting that such aspirations are (partial-ly) consistent with the learning outcomes defined in the new Polish curriculum – this is a signal that the non-formal education sector and schools may have common objectives.
In relation to the educational system, the centres usually adopt one of two strategies:
• cooperation and support of schools;
• separateness based on the principle of contrast
with the school.
These two different strategies simultaneously differentiate the approach to the new science cur-riculum. For the first group, the NSC is an important point of reference to which the centres adapt their of-fer. For the second group, the NSC is only a source of information about the level of knowledge that they
can expect from pupils at a given educational stage and the extent to which their offer exceeds the school programme [8].
One of purposes of the study was to identify exam-ples of best practices of science activities implemented by non-formal education centres.
Best practices were found in four areas: 1. administration and financing, 2. organisation of the centre’s activities, 3. performance of activities,
4. didactic and programme materials.
It should be emphasised, however, that the adopted categorisation is arbitrary – in reality, these areas are inter-connected and pervade each other.
A detailed description of the study and best practic-es can be found in the report of the study [8]. Examplpractic-es of good practices are presented in Table 3.
General conclusions and recommendations
According to the qualitative study, non-formal sci-ence education may be described in three words: pas-sion, holism and practice. In order to improve the effec-tiveness of the cooperation between non-formal science education centres with the formal education system, it may be useful to consider the following activities: Table 3. Examples of good practices
Area in which the centre provides
an example of good practice Justification
1. Administration and financing 2. Organisation
3. Performance of activities 4. Didactic and programme
ma-terials
1) maintaining statistics of groups visiting the centre;
2) securing feedback from group supervisors after each activity; the activities rely on the provisions of the NSC and supplement the school programme;
3) selection of persons conducting the activities solely among experts and science enthusiasts; com-pliance of observed activities with the NSC teaching objectives and the potential of teaching skills related to scientific reasoning;
4) compliance of didactic materials with the general requirements of the NSC.
• to take the centres into account in the new Polish
science curriculum requirements;
• to create a database – a portal presenting basic
information about non-formal education centres with the ability to browse it according to selected
criteria1;
• to promote, among teachers, the possibility of
supplementing the school education programme with the offer of the centres (for example, within the scope of conducting experiments as required in the NSC).
The combination of formal and non-formal edu-cational activities for young people at the school level may offer a chance for developing integrated regional science education, which is both attractive and effec-tive for learners. The integration of two tracks of science education – at school and in non-formal science educa-tional centres – seems to be particularly valuable in the
1 The Map is available on the Internet, where the locations of over 340 centres are indicated, with addresses and websites providing broad information about the offer of science classes. The map features three types of centres – those participating in the first stage of the study, those in the second stage of the study, and the ones that submitted their data after the study and were added to the map. The map constitutes an open tool; the centres that con-duct science classes for groups of pupils under the supervision of teachers may provide information via e-mail (opep@ibe.edu.pl) along with basic information [11].
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context of introducing a modern national qualifications system in Poland, based on learning outcomes and its tool, the Polish Qualifications Framework [9].
The impact of conducted research
The popularisation of study results, conclusions and recommendations resulted in cooperation of the Sci-ence Section of IBE with:
• The Ministry of the Environment, within the scope
of developing the evaluation criteria for competi-tion applicacompeti-tions submitted to the Nacompeti-tional Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Manage-ment by centres of non-formal science education. In the proposal of changes to the evaluation cri-teria, the importance of the scientific method in submitted projects was emphasised;
• The Association Partnership for the Barycz
Val-ley, where a cooperation project between schools and non-formal education centres has been imple-mented, which complies with the recommenda-tions formulated on the basis of study results. The materials collected in the study were used to prepare a guidebook for teachers entitled
Science subjects outside school, or how to use, con-sciously and reasonably, the offer of non-formal science education available in an electronic version on the
web-site of the Educational Research Institute. This publica-tion offers teachers much informapublica-tion, for example, on how to assess the classes of non-formal centres, espe-cially their usefulness in implementing the science cur-riculum.
Recommendations for centres of non-formal science education have been prepared in a publication entitled
The subject of science outside of school. Recommenda-tions for non-formal science education centres, available
in an electronic version, like the guidebook for teachers.
The Science Section is open to cooperate with and support non-formal science education centres in Po-land, as well as in other countries, in helping to prepare their offers, both for schools and adult recipients – par-ticipants of the process of lifelong learning.
References
1. PISA 2012 Results In Focus, What 15-year-olds know and what
they can do with what they know, OECD, 2012.
2. Assessing Scientific, Reading and Mathematical Literacy,
A Frame-work for PISA 2006, OECD, 2006.
3. The Learning Curve, Education and Skills for Life, Report 2014, Pe-arson, 2014.
4. http://thelearningcurve.pearson.com/index/index-ranking 5. Eshach H (2007). Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning:
Formal, Non-Formal, and In-Formal Education. Journal of
Scien-ce Education and Technology, 16(2).
6. Colardyn D, Bjornavold J (2004). Validation of Formal, Non--formal and Informal Learning: Policy, Practices in EU Members States. European Journal of Education, 39(1).
7. Laboratory of Thinking – Diagnosis of Science Education in
Po-land,
http://eduentuzjasci.pl/en/en-badania-naukowe/120-en- glish-categories/research/512-laboratory-of-thinking-diagnosis--of-science-education-in-poland.html
8. Liczą się nauczyciele. Raport o stanie edukacji 2013. Educational Research Institute, Warsaw, 2014 (only Polish version).
9. Best Practices in Non-Formal Education, Educational
Re-search Institute. Warsaw, 2013, http://eduentuzjasci.pl/en/
publications/1061-best-practices-in-non-formal-science-educa-tion.html
10. Polish Qualifications Framework, http://www.kwalifikacje.edu. pl.en/polish-framework
11. Map of Non-formal Science Educational Centres in Poland, https:// pep.ibe.edu.pl/mapa/
12. Brochure: Non-formal Science Education Supports Polish Schools, http://eduentuzjasci.pl/en/publications/1113-non-formal-scien-ce-education-supports-polish-schools.html
