A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S
F O L IA C A U C A S I C A 2, 1987
C ze sio w a K u lesza
DAILY LIFE O F THE C A U C A S IA N M O U N TAIN EER S IN THE MIDDLE O F 19TH CENTURY
T h e P olish so c ie ty k n ew little fo r a lon g tim e a b o u t th e C au ca su s an d life of p e o p le s living th ere . T r a d e c o n d u cte d w ith th is reg io n of th e w o rld sin ce th e M id d le A g es did n o t p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e life of th e C a u c a s ia n m o u n tain e er s. T h e situ a tio n w a s ra d ic a lly ch an g e d in th e first h alf of 19th c e n tu r y . M a n y P o les, a s a r u le from th e P olish te r rito r ie s a n n e x e d b y R ussia, m ad e th e ir w a y to th e C a u ca su s. T h e se w e r e r e c ru its s e n t to th e C a u c a s ia n C o rp s, p r o f essio n a l m ilitar y m en do ing th eir a r m y se r v ic e in th e C a u casu s, p e o p le co n v icte d for p o litic a l offences, p riso n e r s of w ar, tra v e lle r s, c le r k s in th e R u ssian s e r -v i c e 1. It is n o t a n e a s y task to d e te rm in e th e n u m b er of P oles, w h o co u ld b e fo un d in th e C au ca su s in th e firs t h a lf of 19th cenfcury. O n th e b asis of e stim a te s m ad e b y th e P olish d ia rists th e ir n u m b er could b e fixed a t ab o u t 20 to 50 th o u sa n d , w h ic h a c co u n te d for ca. 20— 30 % of th e C a u c a sia n g a rr is o n s2.
T h e fir st h alf of 19th c e n tu r y w as a p er io d of fig hts a g a in st th e ts a r 's R u ssia, w h ich w as c o n g u e rin g th e s e la nd s. T h e w a r lik e m o u n -ta in trib e s of C zeczens, from th e U p p e r D a g e s-ta n an d th e so uth -w
e-1 B. B a r a n o w s k i , Z n a j o m o ś ć W s c h o d u w d a w n e j P o l s c e d o X V I I I w [ K n o w l e d g e o f th e E ast in o ld P o la n d till 18th c e n t u r y ] , Ł ód ź 1950; i d e m , P o l s k i e z a i n t e r e s o w a n i a г X V I I I i X I X w i e k u k u l t u r ą G r u z j i [P o lis h in t e r e s t s from 18th an d 19th c e n tu r i e s in G e o r g ia 's c u lt u r e ], W r o c l a w 1982; L. W i d e r s z a l , S p r a w у k a u k a s k i e w p o l i t y c e e u r o p e / s k i e j w l a t a c h 1831— 1864 [ C a u c a si a n a ffair s in t h e E u ro p e an p o l i c y in th e y e a r s 1831— 1 86 4 ], W a r s z a w a 1934; J. R e y c h m a n , P o -d r ó ż n ic y p o l s c y n a B lis k im W s c h o -d z i e w X I X w . [P o l is h tr a v e l le r s in th e M i d d l e E as t in 19th c e n t u r y ], W a r s z a w a 1972. ! B . B a r a n o w s k i , Z d z i e j ó w p o l s k o - g r u z i ń s k i c h s t o s u n k ó w k u l t u r a l n y c h z p o ł o w y X I X w i e k u ( o p i s y G r u z j i M a t e u s z a G r a l e w s k i e g o ) [O n t h e h i s to r y o f t h e P o li s h - G e o r g i a n c u ltu r a l r e la t io n s from t h e m id - 19th c e n tu r y (M a te u s z G r a le w s k i’s d e s c r ip ti o n s of G e o r g ia ) ], „ A n n a le s U n iv e r s i ta ti s M a r ia e C u r ie -S k ło d o w s k a " 1976, s e c . F, v o l. 29, p. 176.
ste r n C a u ca su s la u n c h e d th e ir stru g g le fo r in d ep e n d e n ce . A p a rt from th e ir d e s ire to p re s e r v e so v e re ig n ty a n d a b o lish o pp re ssio n , th e C a u -ca sia n m o u n ta in e er s w e re e n c o u r a g e d to th e ir str u g g le a g a in st R ussia b y th e religion . S tartin g from th e b e g in n in g of 19th c e n tu ry , t h e re h ad b ee n sp re ad in g in th e C au c as u s a fa n a tic a l M u slim relig io u s tren d k n o w n as M iurid ism . Its id eo lo g ists w e re c allin g th e m o u n ta in e e rs to u n d e r ta k e th e ,,holy w a r" w ith in fidels m a in ta in in g th a t a M o slem co uld n o t be a su b jec t of b e lie v e r s in o th e r relig io n s, w h ile his first d u ty w as th e „h o ly w a r " for fre ed o m 3. C o n se q u e n tly , b lo o d y fig h ts w e r e fo u g h t in D a g esta n a n d in th e N o rt h e r n C a u casu s. T h e m o u n -ta in e e r s w e re led by o n e of th e m o st o u ts -ta n d in g M iu rid s K azi-M ulla. A fte r h is d e ath , sta r tin g fro m 1832 th e fig h tin g w ith R u ssia w as d i-r e c te d b y G a m z at Bek. I n h is sti-r u g g le fo i-r a b so lu te su b o i-rd in atio n of th e D ag e stan i lieg e lo rd s h e co m m itted a crim e on th e fam ily of A v a- r ia n k h a n s. T h is w as r e v e n g e d a n d G a m za t Bek w a s tr e a c h e r o u sly m u rd e re d in 1834.
It w a s th e n th a t a D e g e sta n ia n b y th e n am e of S h am il b eg a n to co m m and th e fig h tin g m o u n tain ee rs . S h am il w a s th e m ost fam o u s and in d isp u ta b ly th e m o st o u tsta n d in g fro m am o ng th em . H e w a s p ro c la i-m ed a n ii-m ai-m sii-m ila r ly to K azi-M ulla a n d G a i-m z at B ek e a rlie r on. U ti-lizin g h is c o n sid e ra b le m ilita r y a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a l skills an d ab ilitie s, h e e x p a n d e d s u b sta n tia lly th e w a r a c tiv itie s, u n ite d th e m o u n tain ee rs, s u b o rd in a te d to h im self th e lo cal lie g e lo rd s, an d c r e a te d a m ilitary - -re lig io u s s ta te — a n im am a te — in w h ic h h e w a s w ield in g la y and re lig io u s p o w er. H e ru le d p r a c tic a lly o v e r th e e n ti r e te r r it o r y of Cze- cz an ia a n d th e U p p e r D a g e stan . In 1948, th e ru le of th e im am w as p ro cla im e d to b e h e r e d it a r y 4. S ham il o rg an iz e d a p e r m a n e n t ad m in i-stra tio n , ju d ic a tu re , fix ed a n d lev ied ta x es, m a in ta in ed ar m e d fo rces, s tr o v e to e lim in a te b lo o d y v e n d e tt a s a n d d e m a n d e d str ic t o b ser v a n ce of th e K o r a n prin cip les* . H is sta te su r v iv e d d e sp ite ar m ed o p p o sitio n of R u ssia till 1859, w h e n S h am il w a s fo rc ed to s u r re n d e r and D ag esta n fo u n d itself u n d er th e ts a r 's rule®. T h e fall of S ham il did n o t p u t an e n d to fig h ts in th e C a u c asu s. T ill 1864, th e fig h t a g a in st R u ssia w a s c o n d u cte d in its N o r th - W e s te r n p a r t b y th e C irc a ssian s7.
T h r o u g h o u t a ll th e y e a r s of fig h tin g th e r e w e r e m an y P o les in the C a u casu s. S om e o f them ' le ft th e ir im p ressio n s from th e C a u c a su s in
» W i d e r s z a l , o p . c it., p. 25; L. B a z y l o w , D z i e j e R o s j i J 8 0 I— I9 J7 [H i-s to r y of R u s s ia 1801— 1917], W a r s z a w a 1977, p. 162— 163. 4 B o l s a j a S o v i e t s k a j a E n c y k l o p e d i j a [fu rth er: B SE ], v o l . 29, M o s c o v 1972, p. 278. s W i d e r s z a l , o p . c i t . , p . 27. 6 BSE, v o l. 29, p. 278. 7 В a z у 1 o w , o p. c i t . , p. 164. >
w ritin g . T h e se w e re d iaries, li te r a r y w o rk s, le tte rs, a r tic le s to m a g a -zines, c o n trib u tio n s of scien tific c h a r ac te r , e t c .8 S ince e d u c a te d p e o p le (teach ers, stu d e n ts, etc.) p re d o m in a ted am o n g th e e x ile s m any of them too k to w ritin g . A c o n sid e ra b le p a r t of th eir o u tp u t h a s su r v iv e d till to d ay . S om e of th eir w r itin g s w e r e p u b lish ed , o th e rs re m ain e d in th eir m an u scr ip t form . T h eir v a lu e is q u ite d iffe r en tia ted — som e a r e ra th e r m edio cre, o th e rs c o n ta in a ric h k n o w le dg e , e sp e c ia lly of th e e t h n o -g ra p h ic n atu re . O f su ch a n a tu r e is th e w o rk of F lo ria n Z ieliński, w h ich h as n e v e r b ee n p u b lish e d and c o n tin u e s to be in a m a n u sc rip t form, an d w h ich h as n o t b ee n u tiliz e d a t a ll9.
V ery little in f orm atio n is a v a ila b le ab o u t Z ieliń sk i. W h a te v e r is k n o w n ab o u t him c a n b e fo un d in h is p r e se r v e d p e rso n al d o cu m en ts c o n c e rn in g his ar m y serv ice , s ta te of h e a lth a cc o rd in g to m ed ica l c e r tific ates an d his attem p ts to se c u r e a d isa b ility p e n sio n a fte r h is n u -m e ro u s c o n tu sio n s suffered in b a ttle s fo u g h t in th e C au casu s. It c an be le a r n e d from th e se m a te r ia ls th a t A n to n i F lo ria n Z ieliń sk i w as b o rn in 1806 in th e fam ily of a V o ly n ia n n o b le m an — Kasiper Z ieliński. T h e d o cu m en ts do n o t sa y m u ch a b o u t h is e d u c a tio n a l b ac k g r o u n d or ab o u t his life till th e m o m en t h e w a s a r r e s te d for p a r tic ip a tio n in th e c o n -sp ira c y of S zy m o n K o n arski. T h e p e n a lty fo r th is co n -sp ira c y w as e x ile in th e C a u c a su s a n d his e n listin g to th e T ifilis R egim en t in th e ra n k of a p r iv a t e still in 183810. Z ieliń sk i tre a te d his ar m y se rv ic e v e r y se r io u sly an d h e w a s soo n p ro m o ted to th e ra n k of a n o n co m m issio ned officer fo r h is m erits in th e fig h t a g a in st en e m y , an d tr a n s -fe r re d to th e S ta v r o p o lsk i B attalio n. In 1846, h e g o t a p ro m o tio n to the rank, of an e n sig n , a n d n e x t — S eco nd L ieu te n a n t. H e se r v e d an d fo u g h t in th e S m all an d Big C zeczenia. H is m ilita r y r e c o r d s sa y th a t h e to o k p a r t in n u m e ro u s b a ttle s, in d is p e rsio n of h e r d s of w a r lik e m o u n tain e ers, d es tru c tio n of th e ir v illa g e s an d crop s, re s e ttle m e n t of fam ilies of m o u n tain e er s, etc.
D uring th e figh ts, h e w a s w o u n d e d se v e ra l tim es. O n 2n d J u n e 1845, a fu sillad e b ro k e o u t d u rin g th e cr o ssin g of th e K a ra K o jsu
Ri-8 M . I n g 1 o t, P o l a c y p i s z ą c y na K a u k a z i e w p i e r w s z e j p o ł o w i e X I X w . [P o le s w r it in g in th e C a u c a s u s in t h e firs t h a lf of 19th c e n t u r y ], „ P a m ię tn ik L ite r ac k i" 1957, N o . 1— 2, p. 538— 551; W . K u b a c k i , M a l w y n a K a u k a z i e [M a l lo w s in th e C a u c a s u s ], W a r s z a w a 1969, p. 36 an d t h e f o ll o w in g ; R e y с h m a n, o p . c i t. , p. 181—- — 244. 9 F. Z i e l i ń s k i , O p s a n i e o p l e m i o n a c h k a u k a s k i c h g ó r a l i , г i c h o b r z ę d a m i , o b y c z a j a m i w c y w i l n y m , w o j e n n y m i d o m o w y m b y c i e [D e s c r ip t io n o f t h e C a u c a s ia n m o u n t a in e e r s ' tr ib e s w ith th e i r r i te s , c u s to m s in c i v il , w a r an d h o m e l i f e ] , m a n u s c r ip t in B ib lio te k a Z a k ład u N a r o d o w e g o im . O s s o li ń s k i c h in W r o c la w , N o . 4967/III.
10 F. Z i e l i ń s k i , P a p i e r y o s o b i s t e [P e r s o n a l p a p e r s ] , m a n u s c r ip t in B i b lio te k a Z ak ła d u N a r o d o w e g o im . O s s o l iń s k i c h in W r o c ł a w , N o . 4967/111, p. 127.
v er . Z ieliń sk i w as w o u n d e d in his h ead , his jaw , e y e a n d e a r w e re d am ag ed . O n 1st J u ly 1845 h e g o t a rifle-sh o t w o u n d in h is le g 11. Som e tim e la te r n e a r G ro zn y f o rtr e s s h e w as w o u n d e d in h is le ft side. T h ese w o u n d s lef t n u m er o u s in d isp o sitio n s a n d p ain s. A ll th is w a s con firm ed in a c e rtific a te of th e r e g im e n ta l p h y sic ia n 12. B eca u se of th ese c o n tu -sio ns, Z ieliń sk i w a s g r a n te d a p en -sio n fro m a sp ec ial fu nd. In ten sify in g su fferin g s m ad e him d e c id e to a b a n d o n th e a rm y serv ice . In 1857, h e r e q u e s te d h is d isch ar g e. T h e m ilita ry a u th o r itie s g a v e a p p r o v a l an d in J u ly 1857 Z ieliń sk i w a s d ism isse d fro m th e se rv ic e „w ith a d u e ra n k , u n ifo rm a n d a fu ll p e n s io n " 13. T h e p en sio n p ro v e d to b e in su fficie n t a n d in M ar ch 1859 h e r e q u e s te d ra isin g of h is b e n e f its b e c au se in v a -lid ism d id n o t allo w him to u n d e r ta k e a n y ser v ice , w h ile th e p en sio n did n o t sa tisfy h is b asic n ee d s. H av in g b e e n d isch a rg ed fro m th e ar m y ser v ice , h e left th e C a u c as u s a n d se ttle d d o w n in th e v illa g e of Mi- c h a jlo w k a (in U sh y ck i D istric t, P o d o lsk a G uberm iya). H e g o t m a rrie d a n d p ro b a b ly tilled th e so il. F lo r ia n Z ieliń sk i d ie d o n 7th A p ril 1891.
D u rin g h is 19 y e a r s in th e C au ca su s, Z ieliń sk i m a d e m an y in te r e stin g o b se rv atio n s, w h ic h h e p r e s e n te d in h is b o o k la te r on. It c o n -tain s a n in tr o d u c tio n a n d s e v e ra l sm all c h a p te rs, in w h ic h th e au th o r d es c rib e s d a ily life, h o u se h o ld eq u ip m en t, h o m e life a n d custom s, w e d -d in g a n -d fu n e r al rite s , m e n 's c o n v iv al g a th e r in g s, r e lig io u s ce re m on ies, u p b rin g in g a n d e d u c a tio n of ch ild re n , g irls, su p er stitio n s, a d m in is tr a tio n, so m e lawis, ta le s. A ll th e in h a b ita n ts of D a g e stan a n d th e N o r -th e r n C a u c a su s a r e c a lle d ,.C a u ca sia n m o u n ta in e e r s " b y him . V e ry co m p lex e th n ic p ro b le m s p ro v e d to b e to o d ifficu lt for Z ie liń sk i14. H o -w e v e r, th e in f o rm a tio n p r o v id e d b y h im is e x tr e m e ly in te re stin g , an d th e fa c t th a t it w a s a r e s u lt of s e r v e r a l y e a r s ' o b s e rv a tio n s e n h a n c e s c o n sid e ra b ly its v alu e . A lth o u g h w e a r e n o t a lw a y s s u r e a b o u t w h ich C a u c a sia n tr ib e h e is w ritin g a t a g iv e n m om ent, it is w o rth g e ttin g a c q u a in te d w ith his w o rk .
T h e in tro d u c tio n to th e m a n u s c rip t c o n ta in s so m e e x p la n a tio n s con ce rn in g s e ttle m e n t of th e C a u casu s. D ifferen ces b e tw e e n trib e s a re d ue, acc o rd in g to th e a u th o r , to th e fa c t th a t th e y ca m e from d ifferen t n a tio n s, w h ich m a d e th e ir w a y to th e C a u c a su s a t so m e tim e in th e p a s t 15. F o r th is r e a so n , it is d ifficult to e x p la in th e o rig in s a n d h isto ry
11 I b i d e m , p. 67. 14 I b i d e m , p . 69. >■ I b i d e m , p . 121. 14 B. B a r a n o w s k i , P o l s k o - a z e r b e j d ż a ń s k i e s t o s u n k i k u l t u r a l n e w p i e r w s z e j p o ł o w i e X I X w i e k u [ P o li s h - A z e r b a i ja n i c u ltu r a l r e la ti o n s in t h e firs t h a lf o f 19th c e n t u r y ], Ł gd ź 1979, p . 36. 15 Z i e l i ń s k i , O p i s a n i e o p l e m i o n a c h • P*
of e v e r y n a tio n in th e C au ca su s, an d e v e r y th i n g w e k n ow a b o u t them is n o t su re . Z ieliń sk i sa y s th a t th e r e w e r e 9 n a tio n al s e ttle m en t w av es to th e C au c a su s from th e E ast an d th re e from th e S outh. T his p ro c ess is p r e s e n te d in a fu r th e r p a r t of his an aly sis. In th is co n n ectio n , he also d iscu sses th e sp re ad in g of Islam a n d o b stin a te attem p ts m ade b y A ra b M o slem to su b o r d in a te th e C au ca su s a n d its in h a b ita n ts to the ca lip h in D am ascu s. T h is w as d o n e u sin g ar m s a n d c u n n in g d ev ices. T h e C au ca su s w a s also se ttled b y th e n e x t tr ib e s sen d by th e ca lip h u n d er tro o p s p r o te ctio n . W h e n th e p o w e r of th e c a lip h a te w as sh a k en , th e C a u c a s ia n p rin c e s s e v e re d th e ir s u b o rd i n a tio n ties. T h e r e w ere c r e a te d s e p a r a te a n d so v er e ig n d u ch ies of K azik u m yk , K ara k aid a h , an d T a b a sa ra n . T h e in v a sio n of T a ta rs led b y G en g h is K han little c h a n g ed in th e C au casus. A p a r t of th e M o n g o lian trib es se ttled do w n in th e C au ca su s, w h ile a p a r t of th em w e n t f u r th e r w est. T h e w ay of liv in g an d ce rem o n ies of all in h a b ita n ts of th e m o u n tain s, w ith the e x c e p tio n of K u beczi trib es, w e r e c o n sid ere d to be v e r y sim ilar b y Z ieliń sk i a n d th a t m ay be th e re a so n w hy he did n o t tr y in his d e sc rip tion to m ak e a n y d if fe re n tia tio n or a t ta c h n am es to th e n atio n s o b se r -v ed b y h im 16.
A ll th e C a u c a sia n n atio n s ca lle d th eir se a ts ,,au ls''. W . Ju rk o w s k i w r o te in his le tte r to P e la g ia P o d h o rsk a th a t an au l w as ,,a big p iece of land, u su a lly on th e m o u n tain slope, in o p en p laces, su rr o u n d e d b y a low fence, an d co m p o sed of m an y h o m e ste a d s s c a tte r e d a r o u n d w it-h o u t a n y o rd e r or sy m m e try ” 17. H o u ses o r sa k la s w e r e u su a lly b u ilt of tim b er or d ry tw igs an d co v er ed w ith clay. T he m o u n tain trib es w e re b u ild in g h o u ses of ston e. S ize of a h o u se d e p en d ed o n th e n u m b e r of fam ily m em bers. C a ttle w as p lac e d in th e sam e bu ildin g . I n te -rio r of su ch h o u se s w as str a w n w ith p laite d reed s, co lu rfu l felts, an d e v e n c a rp ets. In th e m id dle of a ro om o r b y th e w all th e re w a s a c h im n ey. Long, n a r r o w p illo w s w e r e lying alo n g w alls. A t n ig h t th e y s e r v ed for a b e d d in g an d d u rin g d a y th e y w e r e a p la ce for sittin g . W o -m en a n d c h ild re n o cc up ie d o n e p a r t of th e h o use, -m en — th e o th er. In th e m en 's p a r t of th e h o u se g u e sts w e re re c eiv e d . Z ieliń sk i s tr e sse s th a t th e m o u n tain e er s w elc o m ed th e ir g u e sts w ith g re a t jo y, e n t e r -tain e d th em g lad ly , an d h e ld re sp o n sib ility fo r g u es ts' liv es a n d s ec u rity w ith th eir o w n liv es a n d p r o p e r ty 18.
16 I b i d e m , p. 1— 8. 17 W. J u r k o w s k i , L i s t y W . J u r k o w s k i e g o z e s ł a n e g o w r o k u 1838 n a K a u k a z , o p i s u j ą c e e k s p e d y c j e p r z e z n i e g o o d b y t e w l a l a c h 1839— 1842 [L etter s of W . Ju r-k o w s r-k i d e p o r te d to t h e C a u c a s u s in 1838, d e s c r ib in g e x p e d it io n s m a d e b y h im in th e y e a r s 1839— 1 8 4 2], m a n u s c r i p t in B i b lio te k a Z ak ła d u N a r o d o w e g o im . O s s o li ń -s k ic h in W r o c la w , N o . 1163, p. 20. 18 Z i e l i ń s k i , O p i s a n i e o p l e m i o n a c h . . . , p. 9.
H o u seh o ld v e sse ls in c lu d ed co p p er an d b ro n z e p o ts of d ifferen t sizes, co p p er an d w o o d e n c o n ta in e rs, an d e a r th e n w a r e ju g s for w ater. Л11 th e se v e ss e ls w e re m ad e b y th e m o u n tain eers. M eals w e re p r e -p a re d from m ille t an d m aize flour, m ilk, b u tte r or m u ttion suet, w ith a k in d of b ro th b e in g co o k ed from th ese in g red ie n ts. T h is m o d est m eal w as su ip p le rren ted b y sh e e p c h e e se — fre sh o r m o lten . In r ic h e r h o -m es, th e re w e r e e a te n co o k ed or fried -m u tto n (shash lik ), an d h o ney - -pies o n b u tte r . A b a sic d rin k w a s so ur m ilk d ilu te d w ith w ate r, an d a d rin k p r e p a re d from m ille t flo u r — b uza, w h ich a fte r a d d itio n of m ead m ade a stro n g an d ta s ty d rink . W o o d en , slig h tly d e n te d spo on s w e r e u se d for e a tin g m eals. W h e n a m eal w a s to b eg in, o ld er m en w e r e th e first to ta k e s e a ts b y th e tab le follo w ed b y y o u n g m en. T h e sam e o rd e r w a s o b ser v ed in th e fe m in in e p a r t of th e ho u se. A c co rd in g to Zieliń sk i, re s p e c t for o ld e r p eo p le w as u n p a r a lle lle d an d g r e a te r th an in a n y o th e r n atio n . N o y o u n g m an w o u ld d a r e ta k e a sea t b e -fo re o ld er m en a n d y o u n g m en w e r e a lw a y s sta n d in g u p w h en w e l-co m ing th e ir eld er s to sh o w re s p e c t in th is w a y 19.
D iv isio n of th e h o u se in to its m a scu lin e a n d fe m in in e p a r ts w as so str ictly o b se r v ed th a t o n e co u ld n o t e n te r th e o th e r p a r t b elo n g in g to th e o p p o site sex. A d u lt p eo p le w e r e co m m u n icatin g w ith o ne a n o -th e r -th ro u g h ch ild re n u n d e r 7 y e a r s of ag e or w h e n m eetin g in -th e co u rty a r d . M en d e a lt o nly w ith w o rk in field s a n d tak in g c a r e of cattle. A ll h o u se w o rk in clu d in g g a th e rin g of fo od su p p lies and sew in g of c lo -th in g for -th e w h o le fam ily w a s -th e d u ty of w om en. A m on g o -th er job s p e rfo r m e d b y m en w illin g ly w e r e clea n in g of w e a p o n s an d g ro o m in g of h o rse s. A m an co u ld also le a v e for a few d ay s w ith o u t n otice. A fa -v o u r i te o cc u p atio n of m en w e r e h u n tin g , -v isitin g fr ie n d s an d re la ti-v e s, tak in g c a r e of c a ttle , an d e v e n ro b b e ry . A n e x c e p tio n w e re m en in v o l-v ed in h an d ic r a fts e.g. b lack sm ith s. Y oung m a rrie d w o m en h a d to c o v e r th e ir faces. O n th e o th e r h an d, u n m a rr ie d w o m en w e r e a llo w ed to a p p e a r o u tsid e th e ir h o m es w ith o u t c o v e r in g th e ir faces, th e y e v e n b en e fitte d from r e la tiv e freed o m , co u ld ta lk to m en, ta k e p a r t in m erry - -m aking , d a n c e an d sing. H o w e v er, if th e y ab u se d th es e rig h ts th ey co u ld n o t h o p e fo r a n y fo r g iv e n ess. Tw o h o lid ay s w e r e o b se rv ed d u -rin g th e y e a r : R am az an — 7 d ay s an d K u rb an -B a jram — 4 day s. It w a s a tim e of m erry -m a k in g w ith p ar tic ip a tio n of g irls and u n m a rr ie d m en, p e o p le d anc ed , p lay ed d iffe ren t in stru m e n ts a n d sang. T h o se d an cin g w e r e n o t allo w ed to to u ch ea c h o th er. T h e m o st fa v o u r ite d a n ce w as „lez g in k a" . Z ieliń ski d e sc rib e d w ith a d m ira tio n th e w a y in w h ich d a n -ce r s b e h a v e d say in g th a t it w a s a g r e a t p le a su r e to lo o k a t th em 20.
18 I b i d e m , p. 10. *° I b i d e m , p. 1
-A y o u n g m an, w h o c o m p le te d h is 20 y e a r s of age, co u ld b eg in th in k in g a b o u t g e ttin g m arr ie d . H a v in g ch o se n h is girl, w e w o uld in fo rm h is p a r e n ts a b o u t it. A fte r a cou ncil, h is p a r e n ts w o u ld m ake a p r o p o s al to th e p a r e n ts of th e g irl of h is cho ice. If a g re e m e n t w a s r e a -ched , th e d a te of w ed d ing an d p ay m e n t for a w ife — k aly m w e re fixed. F rom this m o m en t th e b oy co uld n o t se e h is g irl d u rin g th e d a y or e v e n p ass by h er h ou se. T h ey co u ld m e e t o n ly at n ig h t and h ad to k e e p th e ir m eetin g s se c re t n o t to c o v e r th e m se lv e s w ith sham e. O n th e d a y fix ed for th e w ed d in g , p a r e n ts of th e b rid e to o k h er to h e r fia n ce 's h o u s e w h e re a m ulla an d w e d d in g g u e sts w e r e a lr e a d y w aitin g . A fte r th e w e d d in g ce rem o n y , d u rin g w hich th e g irl h a d a lo ng w h ite c o v e r on h er, th e b rid e a n d th e b rid e g ro o m w e r e led to s e p a r a te room s. E ven a h u sb an d c ou ld n o t see n his w ife d u rin g th e d ay u n til sh e b eca m e m o th er. It w a s o n ly m a te r n ity w h ich w as g iv in g freed o m of c o n tac ts fo r h u sb an d a n d w ife. A y o u n g w ife till sh e g a v e b irth to h e r child co uld n e ith e r sp e a k n o r a n s w e r a n y g u e stio n s, sh e w as o n ly tak in g o r d e r s to do v a r io u s jo b s an d r e m a in e d silen t. A b o v e th e b ed of a y o u n g w ife, h e r h u sb a n d w o u n d h a n g a lo ad e d p isto l. W h e n sh e g a v e b ir th to a son sh e w o u ld a n n o u n c e th a t w ith a shot, w h e n a d a u g h te r sh o u ld w o u ld n o t to u c h th e pistol.
It th e p a r e n ts of a ch o se n g irl d id n o t a g r e e to h e r m a rria g e , a b oy co uld d ec id e to k id n ap h er. H e in fo rm ed his fr ie n d s ab o u t su ch a plan, th e y ac co m p an ie d him ar m e d on h o rse s, th e g irl w as g iv en a no tice in a d v a n c e w h e r e sh e w as su p p o sed to ap p e a r, an d sh e w as k id na p p ed . In th e b o y 'e h o u se, th e r e w e r e a lr e a d y w a itin g h is p a r e n ts an d g u e sts to c o m p lete th e w ed d in g c ere m o n y . If th e g i rl's fam ily le a r n t so o n a b o u t th e k id n a p p in g , it w o u ld tr y to g e t h e r b ac k . A t such tim es b lo o dy sce n es co u ld h ap p en b u t th e g irl w as n e v e r r e tu r n e d to h e r p ar en ts. T h e p u r su it a n d fig h t w e r e a r r a n g e d o n ly to sa v e th e h o n o u r of th e fam ily. A fte r w ed d in g , b o th fam ilies w o u ld u su a lly com e to term s a g a in a n d th ey c o n c lu d e d a n a g r e e m e n t o n th e p a y m e n t for the g ir l (kalym ).
C o n ju g al infid elity of w ife co u ld b e p u n ish e d b y h er h u sb an d w ith d e a th or im p a irin g h e r b e a u ty a n d re tu r n in g h e r to h e r p a re n ts. N o -b o d y to o k p a r t of a w o m an w ho c o v e r e d h e r se lf w ith sh am e. Z ieliński s ta te s th a t su ch e v e n ts w e re few an d far b etw e en am on g th e w o m en in th e C au c a su s21.
F u n e r a l rite s in th e C au ca su s w e r e co m p letely d iffe ren t from th o se in E u ro p e. B od y of a d ec ea se d m an w a s le ft in th e p la c e w h e r e h e died. T h e c o r p se w a s w a sh e d a n d d re ssed in c lea n clo th es to b e c o -v e r e d w ith w h ite lin e n n ext. W e e p e r s w e re c alled in, r e la ti-v e s an d fr ie n d s w e r e g a th e r in g . W o m e n w o u ld g o in sid e th e c o ttag e , w h ile
m en rem a in e d o u tsid e. T h e w ife of the d e c e a s e d m an w ith ru ffled h air a n d to rn clo th es sa t m o tio n less in th e h ou se. W e e p e r s im p ro v ise d f u -n e r a l so-ngs, i-n w h ich th e y liste d th e d ec e as ed m a -n 's v ir tu e s a-n d ac co m p lish m ents. A t th is tim e, his w ife u t te r in g p ie rc in g sh rie k s w as b e a tin g h e r b re ast, sc ra tc h in g h e r fa c e a n d d isp lay in g h e r h u g e so r -ro w an d d esp air. T h e p a r tic ip a n ts of th is fu n e ral c ere m o n y w o u ld e n te r th e co tta g e n e x t and k n e e lin g in fr o n t of the w id o w th e y w o u ld scr atch th e ir fo re h e a d s till b loo d sho w ed. W h e n n ig h t cam e, clo se r e la tiv e s w o u ld ta k e th e d ec e a se d m an to h is b u r ia l p lace. T h e y w o u ld p u t th e co r p se in a b u r ro w p r e p a r e d e a r li e r on his sid e w ith his fa ce tu r n ed to w ar d s M ek k a. T h en a te x t i.e. a p r a y e r o r a v e r s e from K o ran w e re p ass ed b ef o re his ey es. T h e g r a v e w a s c o v e r ed w ith p la n k s, an d th e m u lla w o u ld sa y a p ra y e r . D u rin g th is tim e all th o se p r e s e n t a t th e ce r em o n y h ad to m o v e b ac k n o t to h e a r th e p r a y e r. A fte r th is th e g r a v e w a s filled w ith e ar th . A t th e f e e t of th e d ec e a se d a sto n e w ith so m e in sc rip tio n w as p lac ed . A t d a w n of th e follow ing d ay, all th e w o m en w h o h a s ta k e n p a r t in th e fu n e r a l to g e th e r w ith w ife or m o th e r of tth e d ec e a se d m an, w e n t a g a in to tth e c e m e te ry sin g in g a f a re -w e ll son g on th e -w ay . T h e -w ido -w -w o u ld d isp la y h er so r ro -w lou dly, fa llin g on to th e g r a v e a n d te a r in g h e r h a ir. T h is c e re m o n y w as fo l-lo w ed b y th e fu n e ra l b a n q u e t la stin g th r e e d ay s. T h e w id o w w as n o t su p p o se d to c h a n g e h er u n d e r w e a r o r clo th in g d u r in g o ne w h o le y ea r, it m ean s th e clo th in g sh e w a s w e a rin g a t th e tim e h e r h u sb an d died. A fte r this tim e, if sh e did n o t in te n d to g e t m a r rie d ag a in sh e w ould p u t on a b lac k d r es s a n d a w h ite h e a d c o v e r. H o w e v er, if th e d e c e -a se d m -an h -ad -a b ig g er p ro p e r ty , th e w id o w w o u ld be u su -a lly m -a rried b y o n e of his b ro th e rs in o rd e r to p r e s e r v e th e p r o p e r ty . O n ly a son h ad th e rig h t to in h e rit th e p r o p e rt y of h is fa th e r. T h e w id o w could also satisfy h e rse lf w ith a sm all p a r t of th e ir b elo n g in g s an d re tu r n to h e r p a r e n ts ' h o u se 22.
O n th e m ain s tr e e t in a n aul o r n e a r a m o sque, th e r e w e re m eetin g m en. O ld e r m en talk e d ab o u t farm in g, b ra v e d ee d s of th e ir an c esto rs. Y o ung m en w e re first liste n in g a tte n t iv e ly to su ch tales, an d th en th e y w o u ld b eg in to sin g so n g s p ra isin g w ell-k n o w n h e ro e s, d esc rib in g th e ir life an d deed s. S uch m e etin g s o ften e n d e d w ith com m on singing.
V isit of r e la tiv e s a n d fr ie n d s w e r e p aid o n ly in th e m ascu lin e p a r t of th e h ou se. D uring su c h v isits, th e tim e w as sp e n t on talk s ab o u t h u n tin g e x p e d itio n s and p lu n d e r in g raid s, m o v em e n ts of R u ssian tro o p s an d th e ir p lan s. Z ieliń sk i cla im e d th a t n ew s w a s sp r ea d in g am on g th e m o u n ta in trib e s w ith am az in g sp eed. H e w a s also a m az ed b y „com m on
sen se an d g oo d m em ory " , w ith w h ich th e n a t u re h ad g ifte d this p e o -p le 23.
A ll th e M uslim C au ca sia n p eo p les w e re of S u n n ite d en o m in ation . O n ly so m e of th em a r e d e sc rib ed b y Z ie liń sk i as id o la t ro u s 24. F o r e x -am ple, to c u r e th e m se lv e s from v a r io u s d ise a s e s, th e y w e r e h a n g in g on ch o se n tr e e s v a r io u s sick p a r ts of th e b o d y m ad e of m e tal su ch as hea ds, h an d s, legs, etc . C o lo u rfu l rag s h a n g in g o n h o ly tre e s w e r e to p ro te c t th em a g a in s t fe v er an d o th e r illn e sse s. A ll h a p p y or sa d e v e n ts in th e fam ily w e re c o m m e m o ra ted in h o ly g ro v e s o r by a c a v e r n in w h ic h th e re m n a n ts of som e sa in t w e r e lyin g. T h ese tr ib e s w e r e d e -scrib ed by Z ieliń sk i as com ing fro m ,,the M o n g o lian n a tio n " . A p a rt from th eir d iffe re n t relig ion , th e y h a d d iffe re n t h o u seh o ld ap p lian c es, beliefs in e v il a n d goo d sp irits, d iffe ren t w e a p o n s i.e. b esid e s co m m o n -ly p o ssessed rifles, p isto ls a n d d a g g e rs, th e y also h a d lon g sp ea rs and clu b s m ade of h a rd w oo d w ith a ste e l b a ll a t th e top. A s trik e w ith this ball, w h ic h w as, m o r eo v e r, stu d d e d w ith th ic k nails, w as alw a y s m ortal. W o m e n k n ew how to fig h t ju st lik e m en.
Som e of th e T r a n s k u b a n trib es, b ef o re th e y ad o p te d Islam , h a d b ee n of C h ristia n belief, w h ich co u ld d ate b ac k to th e re ig n of T am a ra — the Q u e e n of G e orgia, or to e v e n e a r l ie r tim es. T h e testim o n y of it w e re sto n e c ro sses p la ced on hills, c e rta in p r e s e r v e d C h ristia n c e r e -m onies, or a few re -m a in in g -m o n a ste rie s25.
E d uca tio n of ch ild r en or m ore p r e c ise ly e d u c a tio n of b o y s from w e a lth y fam ilies lo o k ed v e r y spe c ifica lly am o ng th e C au ca sia n peop les. W h e n a child re a c h e d fo ur y e a rs, h e (v e ry seldo m she) w as s en t to th e h o u se of a ch o se n g u a r d ia n (ataly k) to be e d u c a te d th ere , ta u g h t m a rtial arts, d ex te rity , cra ftin e ss, an d e v e n h a tr e d for h e r e tic s — g ia -o urs. T h e e d u c a ti-o n h a d t-o b e h a r d a n d fr-o m -o ur p -o in t -of v ie w v e r y im p ro p er. A y o u n g b oy b eca m e ra w , in sin c er e , sly, av a ric io u s, u n r e -liab le, fa n a tic a l, an d h e w as tau g h t h o w to m a k e h is liv e lih o o d b y m e an s of p lu n d e r a n d ro b b er y . O n c e h is e d u c a tio n w as co m p leted he w o u ld r e tu r n to his p a r e n ts' hom e.
(C hild ren of p rin c e s a n d b e k a s w e r e se n t a w a y from th e ir h om es a s far as it w a s p o ssib le w h e n th e y w e re in fan ts. S ons of a little p r i n c e 's fo ste rm o th e r, ca lle d his fo ster b ro th e rs, fe lt to b e s tro n g ly a t t a -ch e d to him a n d th e y w e r e r e a d y for a n y sac rif ic e for th e ir p rin ce. G am zat Века w as k ille d b y th e fo s te r -b r o th e rs of o n e of th e so ns of the A v a rs k h a n to r e v e n g e h is d e a th a n d th a t a lth o u g h th e y w e re fa n atica l M iurid s. In th is case, th e fo ste r k in sh ip an d a d u ty of re v en g e
23 I b i d e m , p. 18. 84 I b i d e m, p. 19. 25 I b i d e m , p. 20.
p r o v ed to be str o n g e r 28. W h e n a bo y re a c h e d se v e n y e a rs of ag e, his fo ster -m o th e r w o uld p ass him o v e r to h e r h u sb an d , w h o n e x t e d u c a te d th e boy acc o rd in g to th e p rin cip le s p re s e n te d ab o v e. A fte r re tu r n in g hom e, th e y o u n g m an co uld b eg in as a n a d u lt p e rso n h is in d ep e n d e n t life, in w h ich a sig n ifican t ro le w as p la y e d b y p lu n d e rin g r a id s27.
G irls w e re e d u c a te d a t h om e w h e r e th e y w e r e ta u g h t to p erfo rm all k in d s of jo b s n e c e ssa r y in th e ir a d u lt life. Z ielińsk i ad m itte d th a t th e y o u n g g irls an d w o m en liv in g in th e C au ca su s to o k a g r e a t c a re ab o u t th e ir b e a u ty an d th e y w e re c h a r a c te r ize d w ith a g re a t d eal of co q u e try . A firm ly tig h ten ed an d se w n in le a th e r c o r se t w a s p u t on a sev e n -y e a r-o ld g irl so th a t she w o u ld h a v e a slim an d sh ap e ly fig u re. T his c o r se t w as to be re m o v e d an d m ore p r e c ise ly cu t o p en w ith a d a g g e r b y h er h u sb an d d u rin g his first v isit to his w ife28.
C o u n cils w e re h eld w h e n e v e r im p o r ta n t m a tter s c o n c e rn in g th e w h ole c o u n try h ad to b e d iscu ssed . T h e y w e r e a tte n d e d b y p rin c e s an d u zd en s to g e th e r w ith th eir v a ssals, cler g y m en an d e ld e r s. Each co u n -cil b e g a n w ith fo r tu n e -te llin g . M e at from an im a l o fferin gs w as u se d for co m m o n m eals. It th e fo rtu n e - te llin g g av e g oo d re su lts, a p ra y e r w a s said an d a co u nc il co u ld begin. C le rg y m e n , u z d e n s an d e ld e r s w o u ld rise to sp ea k in su ch an o rd er. Y oun g p e o p le w e r e n o t allo w ed to e x p r e s s th e ir op in ion s. O n c e th e co un cil fin ish ed, m err y -m ak in g w o u ld b eg in e sp e cia lly if th e f o r tu n e -te llin g h ad p r o d u c e d fa v o u ra b le resu lts. If th e co un cil co n c er n e d issu e s co n n e c te d w ith th e w a r w ith R ussia, a co m m an d e r w a s ch o se n from e a c h tr ib e a n d it w as e st a b l i-sh ed w h en an d w h en a rm e d fo rc es w e r e to m e et a n d w h e r e th e y i-sh o u ld go. In o rd e r to m islea d th e en em y, th e r e w as s p r e a d fa lse in fo rm a tio n a n d tro o p s w e re re m o v ed fro m th e p la ce w h ich w a s to b e co m e an o b je ct of attac k . It w a s o n ly th e n th a t a sw ift a tta c k w as m ade. In th e c a se of p u rsu it, th o se e sc a p in g w o u ld sp lit a n d ru n in v a r io u s d irec tio n s in o rd e r to w e a k e n th e str e n g th of th e C o ssack s an d d ra w th em a w a y fro m th e in fa n tr y . W h e n th is aim w as ac h ie v ed , h e a r in g th e c r y „ g ia -o u r" th ey w -o u ld tu rn b ac k an d bec -om e th e attac k in g side. A fte r su ch b attle s th e y w o u ld r e tr e a t in to th e m o u n tain s to rest, a n d if a n e x p e -d itio n h a -d a- p lu n -d er in g c h a ra c te r — also to -d iv i-d e th e ir loot. N ex t, th e y w o u ld d iv id e th e m se lv e s into p a r tic u la r trib e s a n d r e tu r n to th eir au ls a n n o u n cin g th e ir re tu r n w ith v o lley s a n d joy fu l sho u tin g . O n th e o th e r han d, w h e n th e e x p e d itio n e n d e d w ith a failu re , th e y w o u ld be re tu r n in g h om e a t nigh t. O n th e to m b -sto n e of a k ille d m o u n tain e e r
26 M. B u t o w t - A n d r z e j k o w i c z , S z k i c e K a u k a z u [S k e t c h e s of th e C a u c a -s u -s ] , v o l . 1, W a r -s z a w a 1853, p. 81— 85.
27 Z i e l i ń s k i , O p i s a n i e o p l e m i o n a c h . . . , p. 21— 22. 28 I b i d e m , p. 23.
th er e w as place d an in scrip tio n a n d im ag e of th e w ea p o n w ith w h ich h e h a d b een killed. T h e m o u n ta in e er s s u rr o u n d e d b y th e e n e m y tro o p s w ith o u t a n y ch an ce to e sc a p e w o u ld kill th e ir h o rs e s m ak in g a kind of e n tr e n c h m e n t from th e ir d ead b o dies a n d d efe n d th em se lv es from b ehin d it till th e la st o ne d ie d „sing in g f u n e r a l so n g s" 29.
O n th e o th e r han d, if so m e au l w a s th r e a te n e d , p r e p a r a tio n s fo r its d efe n ce w e re c a r rie d o u t to g e th e r w ith n eig h b o u r s. O n th e ro a d s lead in g to th e v illa g e, th e r e w e re d ug d e e p d itc h es m ask e d w ith w o o d b eh in d w h ich d ef en d e rs w o uld h id e th em se lv es. N e x t a sm all d e ta c h -m en t w as se n t a g a in st th e e n e -m y to g e t in v o lv e d in fig h ting an d d re w th e e n e m y in to an am bu sh. B u nches of stick s w e re p lace d a t d iffe ren t p o in ts of th e m o u n tain s an d w oo ds, w h ich w e re p u t o n fire b y lo o k -o u t m en on d u ty in c ase of d a n g er. T h at w as a sig n al th a t th e e n e m y w a s a p p ro ac h in g an d also it in d ic ate d th e p la ce in w h ich aid w as re g u ired .
O n th e p lains, th e m o u n ta in e e r s fig h tin g on h o rse b a c k w e r e sc o -rin g su c ce sses w ith th e e n e m y c a v a lr y b u t th e y w o u ld ru n b e f o re a r tille r y and in fa n try , w ith w h ich th e y did n ot w ish to u n d e rta k e figh tin g in th e o p en field. A n y w a y , th e y fo u g h t m o st w illin g ly on ho r- se-back. They w ou ld le a v e th e ir h o rse s o n ly w h e n th e y h ad to d efend th eir h o m e stead s. A t su ch tim es, w o m en , c h ild r en and c a ttle w o u ld b e h id d en in th e m o u n tain s an d m en a lo n e w e re d e fen d in g d o g g ed ly e a c h h ou se. It co u ld also h ap p e n th a t e l d e r ly m en an d w o m en w o uld rem ain in v illa g e s w ish in g n e ith e r to e s c a p e n o r b e ca u g h t a liv e 30. H ig h in th e m o u n tain s, th e d ef en c e w as e a s ie r, b ec au se h o u se s w e re b u ilt of sto n e an d b ein g situ a te d on ro ck s th e y re se m b le d sm all f o r-tresses. P assa g e s fro m o n e h o u se to a n o th e r o r e v e n on ro ofs fa cili-ta te d d efen ce. T h e au ls of Lezings w e r e m o st s tro n g ly fo rtified.
B r av e ry a n d d o g g ed n ess in fig h ting w e r e g u ite u n u su al am o n g th e m o u n tain trib es. W h e n fire-a rm s failed th e m th e y w o u ld fig h t w ith th eir d ag g e rs no m a tte r th a t th e e n e m y o u tn u m b e re d th e m c o n s id e -rab ly. A m azin g d e x te r ity w as n e c e ss a ry to com e o u t safe a n d sou n d from such fights. Z ieliń sk i e v a lu a te d h ig h ly th e in fa n tr y of L ezings an d c a v a lr y of C a b ard in s. H e found, h o w ev e r, th a t th e w a r lik e sp irit w as g ro w in g w e a k e r an d w e a k e r am o n g th e C au ca sia n n a tio n s s u p p o r-tin g his o b se rv a tio n s w ith ex am p les ta k e n fro m a c e n tu r y e a r l ie r 31. Q u ite a d iffe ren t c h a r a c te r istic tr a it of th e C au c asia n n a tio n s w as th e ir su o er stitio n . T h e y w e re d e e p ly co n v in c e d ab o u t e x is te n c e of g hosts, b eliev e d in ch a rm in g of th e ir a rm s a n d in m ag ics of v a r io u s kin ds. To p r o te c t th e m selv e s a g a in st charm s, th e y u sed to w e a r p
ra-29 I bi de m , p. 25. 30 I b i d e m , p. 26. 31 I b i d e m , p. 23— 27,
v e r s from K o ran w r itt e n d o w n b y c le rg y m e n a n d sew n in l e a th e r of d if fere n t co lo u rs a n d shap es. T h e y w e r e tellin g th e f u tu re in d iffe r en t w a y s such as tan g lin g th re a d s b e tw e e n th e ir fin gers, o b se rv in g e v e -n i-ng glow , su -n -set a-n d su -n -rise , cloud s, etc. D iffere -n t ill-n esses w ere cu re d by ch a rm in g g r a sse s, ro o ts an d w a ter s. W o u n d s w e r e tre a te d w ith ju ic e an d o in tm en ts m a d e fro m g ra sse s, b u t b ef o re it th e y w e re c le a n ed u sin g h o t m o lten b u tter . T h at w as do n e to p re v e n t g a n g r e n e . H o n ey co m b s fou nd in b e e h iv e s a n d resem b lin g d o u g h w e re also u se d as o in tm e n ts32. T his m ay h a v e b e e n p ro p o lice. T he m o st am azing th in g ab o u t th is tr e a tm e n t w as th e fa ct that, ac co rd in g to Z ieliń sk i, it w as effectiv e.
T h e su c cess o r fa ilu re of a p lan n e d p lu n d e rin g raid w e re re ad fro m b o n es of th e rig h t f ro n t sh o u ld e r of ro e o ffering. If the fo rtu n e- -telling a u g u r e d u n fa v o u ra b ly , a raid w a s p o stp o n ed 33.
Z ieliń sk i d e sc rib e d n o t q u ite c le a r ly an d w ith o u t tak in g in to c o n -sid e ra tio n d iffere n c es b e tw e e n tr ib e s th e class d iv isio n and in te rn a l re la tio n s. A c co rd in g to him , e a c h trib e w as d iv id e d in to four e sta te s. T h e first tw o w e re com p o sed of ,,h ig h e r o r d e r" an d p riv ileg e d no bility. T h e o th e rs h a d to se cu re th eir ra n k b y th e ir m e rits an d se rv ic e s r e n d e r e d for th e ru lin g p rin ces. A ll of th em w e re d ep e n d e n t on th e p r in -ces w h o se w ill w as u n lim ited a n d w h o w ie ld ed co m p lete p o w er o v er th e ir su b jects. U zden s w e r e re le a se d from a n y o b lig a to ry se rv ic e s w ith th e ex c e p tio n of th e ir full re a d in es s to re p o r t a t th e sid e of th e ir liege lo rd w h e n su ch a n e c e ss ity ar o se. Liege su b je cts w e r e p assin g an a g r e ed p a r t of th e ir cro p s to th e ir lieg e lo rd s. F am ily co nflic ts and q u a r r e ls w e re ju d g e d b y eld er s in th e fam ily a n d n o b o d y h ad a rig h t to in te r fe r e in th e se m a tte rs 34.
T w o law s w e r e o b lig ato r y in th e d a ily life: a d a t — c u sto m a ry law , a n d s h a r ia t — K o ra n law . In th e form er case, th e q u es tio n s of g u ilt an d p e n a lty w ere d ecid e d u p o n b y th e e ld e rs, in th e la tte r — b y th e cle rg y . Ju d g m en ts co uld n o t b e ap p ealed . It o ften h a p p e n e d th a t th e w ro n g e d p a r ty w o u ld p a y th e w ro n g -d o er b a c k in his ow n coin, an d th e la tte r as th e g u ilty o n e could n o t see k le g al d efence. C iv il law s in c lu d e d also relig io u s d u tie s i.e. p ra y e r, alm s, o b se rv in g a h olid ay o n F rid a y , R am azan — 28 d ay s of a b s ta in in g fro m d rin k in g and food d u rin g th e day, an d n e x t sev e n d a y s of fe asts an d m erry -m ak in g . C ash p e n a lty h a d to b e p aid for all o ffen ces to th e aul e ld e r m a n to oe u tiliz e d fo r co m m on p u rp ose s.
T h e cr im in al law w as v e r y se v e re . M a n s la u g h te r w as ipunished
32 I bi de m , p. 28. 33 I b i de m , p. 29. 34 I b i de m , p. 30,
w ith a blo od y rev en g e, w h ich so m e tim e s im p lied fu ll e x te r m in a tio n of th e fa m ily up to th e se v e n th g en e ra tio n . M o th e rs w e r e te llin g th e ir ch ild re n ab o u t th e n e c e ss ity to re v e n g e th eir fam ily 's h a rm s from th e ir in fan cy . S o m e tim es w h en a w h o le fam ily h a d b e en d es tr o y e d , th e re v e n g e w as ta k e n o v e r b y frie n d s. S e v e re p u n ish m e n t w a s also m e ted fo r fr a u d as an u n b e co m in g act.
T h e m o u n ta i n e e r s tr e a te d e x tr e m e ly s e r io u sl y th e g u e stio n of h o s p ita lity fully re m a in in g a t th e se r v ic e of th eir g u ests. T h e y w o u ld e n t e r -tain th em s in c e r e ly seein g to it th a t all th eir n e ed s w e r e satisfied and th e ir se c u r ity p ro tec te d . V io la tio n of th is cu sto m w a s h a r d ly c o n c e i-v able. If th is h a p p e n e d all in h a b ita n ts of th e au l fe lt o blig ed to co m m it a b lo o d y re v e n g e — th e g u ilty o n e c o u ld n o t a v o id d e a th o r c o n -tem p t.
Z ieliń sk i p ra is e d th e m o u n ta in er s for th e ir co m m o n sen se, h o sp ita -lity , b ra v e r y , b u t h e also co n d em n e d th em for th e ir re v en g e fu ln e ss , cra ftin e ss, ro b b e rie s, m er c erin e ss, u n r e lia b ility a n d se c re tiv e n e ss. In h is opin ion, th e y w o u ld n o t a p p ro a ch o th e rs b u t fo r p ro fit. M ak in g u se of th is c h a ra c te r istic tr a i t of th e m o u n ta in e er s, th e g o v e rn o r of th e C a u c a su s — p r in c e M ich al W o r o n c o w o r d e r e d to in c re a se th e n u m b e r of tr a d e e x c h a n g e p o in ts in o r d e r to b rin g th em c lo se r to R u ssia n s an d e s ta b lis h m u tu al re la tio n s. T h is w a s aim ed a t so ften in g ste r n cu sto m s a n d r e s to r in g p e a c e 36. In th is w ay , th e r e w a s b eg u n a n e w sta g e in r e la tio n s b e tw e e n R u ssia n s an d th e p eo p les of th e C aucasus., w h ich in Z ieliń sk i's o p in io n — w a s b rin g in g d e sira b le effects.
C e rta in trib e s liv in g on th e o t h e r sid e of th e K u b a n R iv er w e r e d e p a rtin g from th is g e n e ra l p ictu re . F o r in sta n ce , B ash lib ay e v ts w e re / less w a r lik e a n d le ss h ar d -w o rk in g b u t m o re jo y fu l a n d less v io len t. Z ieliń sk i m e n tio n s th e ir te r r ib le cu sto m of b u r y in g a liv e old p a re n ts by th eir ch ild ren . T his w a s su p p o sed to b e an e x p r e ss io n of so n s' ca re . F o r tu n a te ly , th is cu sto m w as g iv e n up, b u t o ld m e n w e r e in ste ad d r e s -sed in w o m en 's d re sse s an d tr a n s f e r re d to th e fem in in e p a r t of th e h o u se36.
T h e trib e s liv in g in th e m o u n tain s b elo w th e E lb ru s e n jo y e d m o re p e ac efu l e x is te n c e th a n o th ers. P o or a g ric u ltu r e w as p ro v id in g o n ly a m o d est su b siste n ce. T h e se m o u n ta in ee r s w e r e b ak in g g u ite ta s ty b u t h a r d lo a v e s of b r e a d k n o w n as „ c zu r ek i" m ad e fro m b a r le y flo u r in h o t a sh e s or b u r ro w s d u g in th e g ro u n d .
O se tia n s w e r e fam o us for th e ir p ro d u c tio n of b e e r a n d ch eese. T h e y
33 I b i d e m, p. 37. 36 I bi de m , p. 39.
p o ssessed p oo r ca ttle, g o a ts, a few h o rse s and d o n k e y s. Both m en an d w o m en w e re e x tr e m e ly g oo d -lo ok in g . In e a c h aul, th e r e cou ld b e foun d m an y b e au ties, w h o se d e lica te an d p ierc in g lo o ks a n d c o q u e tr y , a c c o r -din g to Zieliń ski, co uld m elt th e iciest h e a rts. M o reo v er, th e y e n jo y e d big fre ed o m a n d r e s p e c t of m en, a n d co u ld w ield ar m s in a m a ste rly w a y. T h ey h a d th eir f a v o u rite g a m es a n d k n ew r ite s th a t w e re su p p o sed to e n su r e go od cro ps. W o m en ru le d a t hom e an d m en h un ted , ro b -b ed o r id led th e ir tim e a w a y 37.
T h e C a u c a sian a r is to c r a c y led a co m fo rta ble life. M en h a d two or th r e e w iv es a n d r ic h ly e q u ip p ed h ou ses. In D ag estan , alm o st all h j d o rc h a rd s, an d in th em m an y flo w ers a p a r t from f ru it trees. T he m ost f a v o u r ite flow e rs w e re ro ses. T h e p la n t c o v e r w as v e r y d iff e re n tiate d in th e C au ca su s. T h e r e w e re g ro w in g fr u it tre e s an d sh ru b s of all p o s-sib le k in d s b eg in n in g w ith a p p le - tr e e s an d e n d in g w ith fig - tre es and v in e. B esides, th e re c ou ld b e fo un d an u n u s u al n u m b er of v a rio u s w il -dly g ro w in g b u t v e r y b e au tif u l tre es.
W h ile su m m ing up his o b se rv atio n s, Z ielińsk i sta te d th a t no C a u -c a s ia n tr ib e k n e w its o rig in s a n d p a s t r e a -c h in g f u r th e r b a -c k th an g ra n d f a th e r s' m em o ry. E x c ep tio n s h e r e w e re L ezgins an d C ab ard ins. T h e fo rm er c o n sid er ed th e m se lv es to be of In d ia n o rig in an d th e la tte r of A r ab origin. It is no w o n d e r Z ielińsk i did n o t tr y to ex p lain the o rig in of th e C a u c a sia n n a tio n s as h e co u ld u se o n ly ow n his ow n o b -s e rv a tio n -s an d p e rh a p -s v e r y few -so u rc e m ateria l-s. H i-s m a n u -sc r ip t d e-sp ite its m an y u n c le a r sta te m e n ts a n d the fac t th a t h e a d o p te d the sam e n am e of th e C a u c a sia n m o u n ta in e e rs for a lm o st all n a tio n s inh i -b iting th a t reg io n of th e w o rld re p re s e n ts a v e r y rich so u rc e of k no w led g e ab o u t life in th e C au c a su s o v er 100 y e a r s ago. T ill now , this so u rc e h as n o t b ee n u tilize d to a n y b ig g er d eg ree. In r e c e n t y ea rs, B o hd an B a ran o w sk i38 d re w a tte n tio n to it an d took it in to ac co u n t in his w o rk d e v o ted to th e P o lish -A z er b aija n i c u ltu r a l re latio n s in the first h alf of 19th ce n tu ry .
D o cto ra l-S ,tm icn t I n s ti tu te of H is to r y , U n iv e r s i ty ol Ł ód ź
37 I b i d e m , p. 42.
C z e s ł a w a K u l e s z a Z Y C IE G Ó R A L I K A U K A S K I C H W P O Ł O W IE X I X W . W p ie r w s z e j p o ł o w ie X I X w . n a K a u k a z i e p r z e b y w a ło w i e l u P o la k ó w . N a j -c z ę ś -c ie j b y li to z e s ła ń -c y p o li ty -c z n i , j e ń -c y lu b z a w o d o w i ż o ł n ie r z e ar m ii r o s y j s k i e j n a r o d o w o ś c i p o ls k ie j . W ś r ó d z e s ł a ń c ó w p o li ty c z n y c h b y ł o b a r d zo w i e l u lu d z i w y -k sz ta łco n y ch '. S łu ż ą c w -k a u -k a s -k i c h -k o r p u s a c h m u s i e l i u c z e s tn ic z y c w w a l-k a c h R o s ji p r z e c iw w o ln y m n a r o d o m K a u k a z u . P o n ie w a ż t e r e n e m w a lk b y ł p r z e w a ż n i e D a g e s ta n i p ó łn o c n y K a u k a z, tam te ż n a j c z ę ś c ie j k ie r o w a n o P o la k ó w . W i e lu z n ic h p is y w a ł o p a m ię tn i k i, l is t y d o r o d z in y i z n a jo m y c h , k o r e s p o n d e n c j e d o p is m , w s p o m n i e n ia , k tó r y c h te m a te m b y ły g e o g r a fi c z n e , h i s to r y c z n e i e tn o g r a f ic z n e o b s e r w a c je a u to r o w . J e d n y m z t a k ic h a u to r ó w b y ł F lor ian Z ie liń s k i. W p r a c y , k tó r a d o ty c h c z a s p o z o s ta w a ła w r ę k o p is ie , p o d a ł b ar d z o c i e k a w e m a te r ia ły e tn o g r a fi c z n e d o ty c z ą c e g ł ó w -n ie D a g e s ta -n u . B ar d z o s k o m p l ik o w a n e p r o b le m y e tn i c z n e n a r o d ó w K a u k a zu b y ły j e d n a k d la n ie g o z b y t tr u d n e , D l a t e g o p r a w i e w s z y s t k i c h m ie s z k a ń c ó w K a u k a zu o b ją ł n a z w ą „ p le m io n a k a u k a s k ic h g ó ra li" . W s w o j e j p r a c y p t. O p i s a n i e o p l e m i o -n a c h k a u k a s k i c h g ó r a l i , z i c h o b r z ę d a m i , o b y c z a j a m i w c y w i l -n y m , w o j e -n -n y m , i d o - m o w y m b y c i e p r z e d s ta w ił w a r u n k i ż y c ia , w y p o s a ż e n ie d o m ó w , o b r z ę d y ś l u b n e i p o -g r z e b o w e , w y c h o w y w a n i e d z ie c i , ż y c i e p u b li c z n e , w ie r z e n ia , z a b o b o n y ltd . M im o p e w n y c h b r a k ó w r ę k o p i s Z ie l iń s k ie g o s ta n o w i c e n n y m a te r ia ł i ź r ó d ło w i e d z y o K au -k a z ie p i e r w s z e j p o ło w y X I X w . /
