Mateusz Bogdanowicz
President F. D. Roosevelt’s Policy
towards Poland in the Light of the
Memoirs of His Secretary of State
Cordell Hull: September 1938 - June
1941
Echa Przeszłości 15, 127-144
M a te u s z B o g d a n o w ic z
D e p a r tm e n t o f E n g lis h U n iv e r s ity o f W a rm ia a n d M a z u ry in O ls z ty n
PRESIDENT F.D. ROOSEVELT’S POLICY
TOWARDS POLAND IN THE LIGHT
OF THE MEMOIRS OF HIS SECRETARY OF STATE
CORDELL HULL: SEPTEMBER 1938 - JUNE 1941
Słowa kluczowe: F.D. Roosevelt, S tany Zjednoczone, Polska, polityka zagraniczna, druga wojna światowa
Key words: F.D. Roosevelt, U nited S tates, Poland, Foreign policy, Second World War
T h e U n ite d S t a t e s ’ p o litic a l s ta n c e to w a r d s P o la n d d u r in g W o rld W a r II d e te r m in e d th e p o s t-w a r f a te o f th e c o u n try . A lth o u g h i t w a s th e e x p a n s io n i s t p o lic y o f J o s e p h S ta lin t h a t f in a lly b r o u g h t P o la n d u n d e r th e S o v ie t d o m in a tio n , P r e s i d e n t R o o se v e lt a n d h is a d m in is tr a tio n la r g e ly c o n tr ib u te d to s u c h a f a te o f th e P o lis h s ta te . T h e p o litic a l lin e o f th e W a s h in g to n a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e tim e w a s c o n s e q u e n t a n d h o m o g e n o u s. L a rg e ly , i t s te m m e d fro m th e fa c t t h a t - th r o u g h o u t th e w h o le w a r - o n e p e rs o n , F r a n k l i n D e la n o R o o se v e lt, h e ld th e p o s t o f th e p r e s id e n t. A d d itio n a lly , th e m a in a r c h ite c t o f th e U S fo re ig n p o lic y w a s o n e p e r s o n too (C o rd e ll H u ll). E q u a lly s ig n if ic a n t is t h a t b o th h a d h e ld t h e i r offices fro m 1933; t h a t m e a n t in 1939 t h e y w e re b o th w e ll- e s ta b lis h e d p o litic ia n s , c o n fid e n t in t h e i r sk ills, e x p e rie n c e a n d f a m ilia r w ith th e r e a litie s a n d p ra c tic e o f d e c is io n -m a k in g . T h r o u g h o u t th e p e rio d , th e y a lso d e v e lo p e d th e u n iq u e s k ill o f e ffectiv e w a lk in g o v e r th e in te r v e n tio n s o f th e U S C o n g re s s in th e P r e s i d e n t ’s policy a t h o m e a n d a b r o a d - i f s u c h s te p s t u r n e d o u t n e c e s s a ry in t h e i r o p in io n .
T h e e v e n t t h a t le d to W W II m o re o r le s s d ire c tly a n d s p a r k e d a m o re a c tiv e A m e ric a n e n g a g e m e n t in th e E u r o p e a n m a t t e r s w a s th e M u n ic h C o n fe re n c e . A t t h a t tim e , P o la n d s t a r t e d a p p e a r in g m o re f r e q u e n tly o n th e p a g e s o f C o rd e ll H u ll’s m e m o irs . T h e w a r tim e p o lic ie s o f F D R w a s e x c lu siv e ly s u b o r d in a te d to th r e e m a in a im s , i.e. h e a d in g o ff th e eco n o m ic c ris is , s t r e n g th e n in g th e c o u n tr y a n d v a u ltin g t h e U S in to p r o m in e n c e a s th e le a d e r o f
th e p o s t- w a r w o rld . T h e s tr a te g y w a s c o n s e q u e n tly c a r r ie d o u t a n d flex ib ly a d a p te d to th e e v e r- c h a n g in g c o n d itio n s a n d c irc u m s ta n c e s . H o w e v er, c a n th e s a m e b e s a id a b o u t W a s h in g to n ’s a p p r o a c h to th e is s u e o f P o la n d ? I f so, th e tr a c e s o f t h a t s h o u ld b e v is ib le in t h e m e m o irs o f R o o se v e lt’s S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te , C o rd e ll H u ll. T h e p r im a r y s o u rc e s o n w h ic h th e r e s e a r c h is b a s e d a r e - a s th e b a s ic s o u rc e s - tw o v o lu m e s o f H u ll’s m e m o irs (T h e M e m o ir s o f C o rd ell H u ll) a n d v a r io u s o th e r d o c u m e n ts c o n c e rn in g th e a n a ly s e d e v e n ts (s u c h a s A m e ric a n p r im a r y d o c u m e n ts c o lle c tio n s T h e A v a lo n P ro je c t; R u h l B a r t l e t t , T h e R e c o rd o f A m e r ic a n D ip lo m a c y : D o c u m e n ts a n d R e a d in g s in th e H is to r y o f A m e r ic a n F o re ig n R e la tio n s o r T h e A m e r ic a n P r e s id e n c y P roject). T h e y p ro v id e p ro n o
u n c e d p ic tu r e o f h o w th e A m e ric a n policy to w a r d s th e P o lis h i n t e r e s t s w a s b e in g c o n s tru c te d . B e tw e e n S e p te m b e r 1938 a n d A p ril 1945, th e A m e r ic a n a p p r o a c h to th e is s u e o f P o la n d c a n b e d iv id e d in to fo u r p h a s e s . T h e f i r s t o n e , fro m th e M u n ic h C o n fe re n c e ( 2 9 -3 0 S e p te m b e r 1938) to th e G e r m a n a g g r e s s io n on P o la n d (1 S e p te m b e r 1939). T h e se c o n d p h a s e , b e tw e e n th e in v a s io n o f P o l a n d a n d H i t l e r ’s a t t a c k o n th e S o v ie t U n io n (22 J u n e 1941). T h e t h i r d p h a s e in c lu d e s e v e n ts h a p p e n in g fro m th e G e r m a n a t t a c k o n S ta lin to th e o n e s id e d S o v ie t b r e a k in g off th e d ip lo m a tic r e la tio n s w ith P o la n d (a s a r e s u l t o f th e o u tc o m e o f t h e K a ty ń m a s s a c r e s c a n d a l) o n 2 6 A p ril 1943. T h e f o u r th p h a s e is th e p e rio d b e tw e e n t h a t m o m e n t a n d P r e s i d e n t R o o se v e lt’s d e a th o n 12 A p ril 1945. I n d ir e c tly th o u g h , th e l a s t p h a s e la s te d u n t i l 2 A u g u s t 1945. A lth o u g h , a f te r 12 A p ril 1945, th e P r e s i d e n t w a s H a r r y T r u m a n , a n d th e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e w a s E d w a r d S t e t t i n i u s J r , a n d ( h a v in g S t e t t i n i u s t r a n s f e r r e d - o n 27 J u n e 1945 - to th e p o s t o f t h e U S A m b a s s a d o r to t h e fre s h ly c r e a te d U n ite d N a tio n s ) J o s e p h G rew , p r in c ip a lly n o th in g c h a n g e d a s f a r a s th e P o lis h m a t t e r s w e re c o n c e rn e d u p u n t i l t h e e n d o f th e P o ts d a m C o n fe re n c e . I n th e lig h t of th e ab o v e i t o c c u rs t h a t th e d u o R o o s e v e lt-H u ll w a s la r g e ly re s p o n s ib le fo r s h a p in g th e U S policy r e g a r d in g P o lis h is s u e s in th e f i r s t th r e e - f u n d a m e n ta l - p h a s e s o f t h e w a r; th e y a lso in i t i a t e d th e l a s t s ta g e . W h e r e a s C. H u ll’s su c c e sso r, E d w a r d R. S t e t t i n i u s J r . w r a p p e d u p th e p re v io u s a r r a n g e m e n ts m a d e in Y a lta a n d p r e p a r e d th e U S fo r t h e P o ts d a m C o n fe re n c e , t h u s f in is h in g th e f o u r th s ta g e . T h e t h i r d a n d f o u r th p h a s e s (22 J u n e 1941 - 2 A u g u s t 1945) m e a n t q u ite in te n s iv e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e U S -P o lis h r e la tio n s a n d th e P o lis h q u e s tio n ’s p r e s e n c e i n W a s h in g to n ’s policy. Y et, t h e A m e ric a n a p p r o a c h d id n o t a p p e a r o u t o f th e b lu e . I t w a s th e e v e n ts a n d d e c isio n s m a d e b e fo re , e s p e c ia lly in th e f i r s t p h a s e a n d th e A m e ric a n la c k o f i n t e r e s t in th e seco n d p h a s e t h a t b r o u g h t f r u its lik e v e ry in c o n v e n ie n t d e c isio n s a n d p o litic a l-e c o n o m ic -stra te g ic a g r e e m e n ts fo r b o th th e U S a n d P o la n d . T h o se in itia l tw o p h a s e s p r e p a r e d th e fo u n d a tio n o n w h ic h F D R a n d S ta lin w e re to r e s t th e p o s t-w a r o rd e r o f th in g s ; n o t on ly c o n c e rn in g P o la n d b u t m u c h m o re b ro ad ly , fo r th e n e x t 45 y e a r s .
T h e p a p e r is a n a tt e m p t to a n a ly s e th e c o n d u c t o f P r e s id e n t R o o se v e lt a n d h is a t t i t u d e to th e b r o a d ly u n d e r s to o d P o lis h q u e s tio n in th e f i r s t tw o p h a s e s c h a r a c te r is e d a b o v e. T h e m a in p e rs p e c tiv e t a k e n o n in th e r e s e a r c h is th e c o o p e ra tio n b e tw e e n R o o se v e lt a n d h is S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te . T h e re fo re , W a s h in g to n ’s d e c isio n s a r e f ilte r e d th r o u g h C o rd e ll H u ll’s p e r c e p tio n o f th e m a tte r s .
* * *
C o rd e ll H u ll’s m e m o irs c r e a te - fro m th e f i r s t g la n c e - a c le a r v is io n o f P o la n d . T h e in d e x o f th e m e m o irs c o n ta in s 58 d ir e c t re fe re n c e s to P o la n d . In c o m p a ris o n to o th e r c o u n trie s , e.g. A r g e n tin a (68 re f e re n c e s ) o r th e N e t h e r la n d s (55 r e fe re n c e s ), t h e n u m b e r s p ro v id e a p ic tu r e o f th e p la c e m e n t o f P o la n d in th e U S p o litic s b e tw e e n 1933 a n d 1944 (a s t h a t p e rio d th e m e m o ir s cover).
T h e f i r s t m e n tio n of P o la n d r e g a r d s th e W a rs a w c o n n e c tio n w ith th e m a te r ie l t r a d e w ith B r i t a i n t h a t w e re d isc lo se d in G e ra ld N y e C o m m itte e ’s in v e s tig a tio n (1 9 3 4 -3 6 ) lo o k in g in to th e U S in v o lv e m e n t i n a r m s t r a d e w ith b o th th e b e llig e r e n t s id e s o f th e G r e a t W a r 1. G e n e r a lly th o u g h , in th e in itia l p e rio d o f C. H u ll in office, P o la n d a p p e a r s in t h e c o n te x t o f W a rs a w ’s s t r u g gle w ith th e G r e a t W a r d e b t to A m e ric a 2. T h e is s u e w a s a s e r io u s o n e; firs t, th e P o le s b o rro w e d $ 159 m illio n . A m o n g t h e E u r o p e a n c o u n tr ie s , P o la n d w a s th e f ifth b ig g e s t A m e ric a n d e b to r 3. T h u s , fo r W a s h in g to n , th e P o lis h f a ilu r e to p a y th e m o n e y b a c k a n d d e fa c to no w ill o f th e P o lis h g o v e rn m e n t to r e - n e g o tia te th e is s u e , w a s a s ig n fo r F D R o f little c re d ib ility o f t h e P o lis h p o litic a l e lite s a n d t h e i r p o o r re lia b ility . S eco n d , in t h a t p e rio d , a s C. H u ll s u g g e s ts , P r e s id e n t R o o se v e lt d id n o t e n g a g e h im s e lf in a n y m a t t e r s c o n n e c te d w ith c o lla b o r a tio n w ith P o la n d w h a ts o e v e r; h e c e d e d s u c h th in g s o n th e D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te .
A n o th e r m e n tio n o f P o la n d in C. H u ll’s m e m o irs c o n c e rn s th e M u n ic h c ris is . O n th e n i g h t fro m 2 5 to 2 6 S e p te m b e r 1938, t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d h is S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e w r o te a t e l e g r a m to N . C h a m b e r la in , E . D a la d ie r , E . B e n e s a n d A. H itle r a p p e a lin g to c o n tin u e n e g o tia tio n s . T h e te le g r a m w a s e d ite d in th e p e a c e -lo v in g a n d in d is tin c tly c irc u m lo c u to ry to n e - n o fa c ts , no d e ta ils , lo ts o f r h e to r ic a n d a v o id in g in itia tiv e s o r r e s p o n s ib ility :
I earn e stly re p eat th a t so long as negotiations continue, differences m ay be reconciled. Once th ey are broken off, reason is ban ish ed and force asserts itself. And force produces no solution for th e fu tu re good of h u m an ity 4.
1 Cordell Hull, Memoirs of Cordell Hull. New York: Macmillan Co., 1948, 380. 2 Ibidem, 370.
3 World War I: Recovery and Collapse. Access: 10 March 2014, http://pages.ucsd.edu/ 'jlbroz/Courses/Lund/handouts/Lecture9_WWI_Recovery_Collapse.pdf.
F r o m th e P o lis h v ie w p o in t, i t s e e m s s ig n if ic a n t t h a t th e D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te s e n t th e te le g r a m to th e U S d ip lo m a tic m is s io n s in P o la n d a n d H u n g a ry w ith in s tr u c tio n s to c o m m u n ic a te t h e c o n te n ts to th e P o lis h a n d H u n g a r ia n M in is tr ie s o f F o re ig n A ffa irs, a s - a c c o rd in g to H u ll - ‘P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y h a d a d d e d t h e i r v o ice s a n d m e n a c e s to th e c ris is b y c la im in g s e c tio n s o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’5. T h a t p ro v e s th e U S p ro -C z e c h o slo v a k ( a c tu a lly p ro -C zech ) lik in g s w ith no r e g a r d to t h e r e a litie s o r h is to ric a l-s o c ia l c irc u m s ta n c e s . N o w h e re d o es S e c r e ta r y H u ll m e n tio n th e C zec h a t t a c k o n Z ao lzie in 1919 a n d t h e o v e r ta k in g th e a r e a b y force, th e C ze c h a r m y b r u ta lity , c rim e s a n d a r r e s t s o f in n o c e n t P o le s6.
F u r th e r m o r e , H u ll c o m p le te ly d is r e g a r d s t h e so c ia l s t r u c t u r e o f S lo v a k ia , w h e re - p a ra d o x ic a lly - th e S lo v a k s w e re a m in o r ity (sic!) a s c o m p a re d to th e ( d is c r im in a te d b y P r a g u e ) H u n g a r ia n s . T h a t is th e f i r s t s ig n t h a t th e W a s h in g to n a d m in is tr a tio n w a s s e t u n fa v o u r a b ly to th e ‘a c c o m p lic es’ - a s t h a t w a s h o w H u ll p e rc e iv e d P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y - in d is m a n tlin g C z e c h o slo v a k ia , w h ic h e n jo y e d v e r y good m e d ia c o v e ra g e a n d lik in g a n d h a d good r e la tio n s w ith th e U S in th e in t e r w a r y e a r s 7.
H u ll s t a t e s t h a t C h a m b e r lin , D a la d ie r a n d B e n e s a n s w e r e d th e te le g r a m a lr e a d y 2 6 S e p te m b e r 1938. To th e c h a g r in o f th e P r e s id e n t a n d S e c r e ta r y of S ta te , B e r lin d id n o t re s p o n d . C. H u ll r e m a in s m e a n in g f u lly s ile n t a s fo r th e a n s w e r s fro m W a rs a w a n d B u d a p e s t - w h ic h d id n o t a r r iv e e ith e r. S e c r e ta r y H u ll o p e n ly d e c la re s t h a t a n y w a y W a s h in g to n w a ite d a lm o s t e x c lu siv e ly fo r th e re s p o n s e fro m H itle r. H is s ile n c e a n d th e la c k o f r e a c tio n fro m P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y - in th e m e m o irs - s e e m q u ite s u g g e s tiv e in th e s e n s e o f how F D R a n d H u ll p e rc e iv e d b o th th e c o u n trie s .
O n 30 S e p te m b e r 1938, ‘A s P o la n d ’s a n d H u n g a r y ’s d e m a n d s o n C z e c h o s lo v a k ia fo r c e s s io n o f te r r i t o r y s till c r e a te d a d a n g e r o u s s it u a t i o n in C e n tr a l E u r o p e ’8, th e U S A m b a s s a d o r in W arsaw , A n th o n y J . D re x e l B id d le s u g g e s te d to th e P r e s i d e n t h e in itia te a n o th e r c o n fe re n c e in v itin g C z e c h o slo v a k ia , H u n g a r y a n d P o la n d . H u ll, h o w ev e r, h a v in g c o n s u lte d F D R , c o n c lu d e d t h a t w a s n o t a good id ea . To s t a t e t h a t th e ju s tif ic a tio n fo r t h a t w a s o d d w o u ld b e a n u n d e r s ta te m e n t: ‘[...] sin c e th e P o lis h -C z e c h d is p u te h a d b e e n d is c u s s e d a t M u n ic h , w e d id n o t c o n s id e r th e s u g g e s tio n f a v o u ra b ly ’9. N o n s e n s ic a l th e a r g u m e n ta tio n it w a s sin c e no P o lis h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s h a d t a k e n p a r t in th e M u n ic h C o n fe re n c e . M o re o v er, in th e s ig n e d p o s t-c o n fe re n c e a g r e e m e n t, t h e r e is no m e n tio n [sic!] c o n c e rn in g e i t h e r P o la n d o r P o lis h -C z e c h o s lo v a k or
5 Ibidem.
6 Por.: Andrea Orzoff: Battle for the Castle: the Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe 1918-1948. New York: OUP, 2011, Chapter 3.
7 Por.: Ladislav Cabada, Sarka Waisowa, Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic in World
Politics. Plymouth: Lexington Books, 22-31.
8 Ibidem, 596.
P o lis h -C z e c h d i s p u t e s 10. S e c r e ta r y H u ll w r ite s F D R o rd e re d A m b a s s a d o r B id d le in fo rm th e P o lis h M in is te r o f F o r e ig n A ffa irs J ó z e f B e c k t h a t F D R tr u s t e d t h a t P o la n d w o u ld so lv e th e d is p u te s w ith o u t r e s o r tin g to m ilita r y c o n flic ts 11.
A lso, C. H u ll d e s c rib e s th e r e a c tio n to th e ab o v e o f th e P o lis h A m b a s s a d o r to t h e U S , C o u n t J e r z y P o to c k i. S e c r e ta r y H u ll c la im s t h a t C o u n t P o to c k i s t a t e d t h a t th e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t s tr e n g th e n e d in th e te r m s o f p re s tig e , in w h ic h H u ll a lle g e d ly d o u b te d . Y et, w h ic h is m o s t in tr ig u in g , fro m th e a c c o u n t o f C. H u ll i t t u r n s o u t t h a t on ce C o u n t P o to c k i p a s s e d h is d e c la r a tio n to H u ll ‘u n f o r tu n a te ly , o u r c o n v e rs a tio n w a s i n t e r r u p t e d b e fo re I h a d a c h a n c e to c o m m e n t o n t h is r e m a r k ’12. H e d o es n o t in fo rm , r e g re tta b ly , w h a t th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f th e in c id e n t w e re n e i t h e r w h a t th e c a u s e o f s u c h a s u d d e n a n d v io le n t d is r u p tio n o f th e m e e tin g w a s. S e c r e ta r y H u ll w a s n o t a p o litic ia n o f s h y o r tim id c o n d u c t. I t s e e m s l ittle lik e ly t h a t a n a m b a s s a d o r o f a r e m o te a n d in s ig n if ic a n t - fro m th e U S p e r s p e c tiv e - c o u n try , in th e office o f th e U S S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e in th e s e a t of th e U D D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te in t h e C a p ita l o f th e U S a llo w e d h im s e lf th e lib e r ty o f n o t a llo w in g th e h o s t to s p e a k A n d a p a r t fro m a ll o th e r is s u e s , n o w h e re d o e s S e c r e ta r y H u ll m e n tio n in h is m e m o irs th e P o lis h in itia tiv e s to w a r d s C z e c h o s lo v a k ia b e fo re M u n ic h . K a z im ie rz W ie rz b ia ń s k i, th e p r e s s a tta c h e o f th e P o lis h le g a tio n in P r a g u e in 1 9 30s, c o n c lu d e d in 1985 in ‘P r z e g lą d P o ls k i” t h a t
In 1938, before the p artitio n of Czechoslovakia, we proposed negotiations to Benes Unofficially, we sen t an offer to the Prim e M inister an d the M inister of Foreign Affairs, in which we suggested th a t if Czechoslovakia p u ts forw ard an initiative of [...] realistic m ilitary and political talk s, Poland w as not going to tu r n down such negotiations [...].Ten days la te r [...], we received a refusal[...]. In exile in Jeru salem , I m et one of m y interm ed iaries responsible for th e contacts w ith Benes; he confirm ed th a t - quite sim ply - th e Moscow did not ag ree13. T h u s , W a rs a w c o u ld h a v e ju s tif ie d c o n c e rn s a s fo r th e lo y a lty o f th e C z e c h o slo v a k s in n e g o tia tio n s . I t is u n lik e ly t h a t W a s h in g to n w a s n o t a w a re o f s u c h in itia tiv e s ; u n le s s t h e S o v ie t in f iltr a tio n o f P r a g u e w a s so a d v a n c e d t h a t B e n e s w a n te d to h id e i t fro m R o o sev e lt. N o t to m e n tio n t h a t H u ll c o m p le te ly d id n o t k n o w o r u n d e r s t a n d th e h is to r y o f th e C ie s z y n S ile s ia a n d o n e -s id e d ly r e p r e s e n te d th e p ro -C z e c h s ta n c e .
A s fo r th e e ffe c ts o f th e M u n ic h C o n fe re n c e , H u ll a n d F D R - s im ila rly to t h e i r B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h c o u n te r p a r ts - h a d no illu s io n s w h a ts o e v e r; th e
10 Neither the Munich Agreement nor the conference protocols mention any Polish-Cze- choslovak settlements whatsoever. See: Yale Law School, the Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Munich Pact September 29, 1938. Access: 5 March 2014, http:// avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/munich1.asp.
11 Ibidem.
12 Cordell Hull, op. cit., 596.
13 Zaolzie: Polski Biuletyn Informacyjny. Nr 6, Cieszyn, 23 June 2004, access 22 March 2014, http://www.zaolzie.org/zaolziearchiwum/biuletyn6/biuletyn20040623.htm.
n e g o tia tio n s h a d j u s t b o u g h t th e W e s t a little tim e a n d n o th in g m o re t h a n t h a t 14. F D R p ro v e d i t in h is ra d io s p e e c h o f 2 6 A p ril 1939: ‘I t is b e c o m in g in c re a s in g ly c le a r t h a t p e a c e b y f e a r h a s no h ig h e r o r m o re e n d u r in g q u a lity t h a n p e a c e b y th e sw o rd ’15. T h e re fo re , th e e v e n ts t h a t c a m e a b o u t a f te r 1 S e p te m b e r 1939 w e re no s u r p r is e a t a ll to W a sh in g to n . T h e m a t t e r g a th e r e d d y n a m is m w h e n - 13 M a y 1939 - A m e ric a n C h a rg e
d ’a ffa ir e s in B e rlin , A le x a n d e r K irk , te le g r a p h e d W a s h in g to n in fo rm in g t h a t
o th e r d ip lo m a tic o fficers in th e G e r m a n c a p ita l e x p r e s s e d c o n v ic tio n t h a t th e P o lis h - G e r m a n m ilita r y c o n f r o n ta tio n w a s lo o m in g a h e a d 16. 2 4 J u n e 1939, th e so u rc e s q u o te d b y K ir k r e p o r te d o n t h e in te n s if ie d a c tiv itie s o f th e
W e h r m a c h t a n d c o n s ta n t m ilita r y m o b ilis a tio n in G e rm a n y . I t g a v e th e im
p r e s s io n o f o n g o in g p r e p a r a tio n s fo r w ar. S im u lta n e o u s ly , K ir k s u g g e s te d G e r m a n y - in th e lo g istic , m ilita r y a n d p o litic a l te r m s - is r e a d y to a t t a c k P o la n d n a y d a y so o n 17. T h e n , A m e ric a n w e re m o re t h a n a w a r e o f th e s i t u a tio n . E v e n m o re so, a s th e U S A m b a s s a d o r to F r a n c e , W illia m C. B u llitt, r e p o r te d to H u ll o n 28 J u n e 1939 o n th e in f o r m a tio n re c e iv e d fro m th e P o lis h a m b a s s a d o r to F ra n c e . T h e P o le c la im e d t h a t th e c h a n c e s o f th e o u tb r e a k of P o lis h - G e r m a n w a r b y m id -A u g u s t w e re lik e 80 to 100. A d d itio n a lly , 30 J u n e 1939, B u llitt p a s s e d to S e c r e ta r y H u ll th e o p in io n of a F r e n c h F o r e ig n O ffice official, A le x is L eg er, t h a t - b y m id -A u g u s t 1939 - a c ris is on a la r g e s c a le w a s b o u n d to h a p p e n 18.
I n th e a b o v e s itu a tio n , th e U S d ip lo m a c y w a s in a d iffic u lt s itu a tio n . O n th e o n e h a n d , t h e in v e s tig a tio n o f G. N y e C o m m itte e s e t th e so c ie ty - a n d , f i r s t o f a ll - t h e U S C o n g re s s - re lu c ta n tly , if n o t a g a in s t, th e U S e n g a g e m e n t in th e E u r o p e a n m a tte r s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , b o th t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d th e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e r e a lis e d th e s it u a t i o n w a s b e c o m in g g ra v e ly s e rio u s a n d - m a y b e - th e a c tiv e U S in v o lv e m e n t in th e co n flic t w o u ld b eco m e in e v ita b le . C. H u ll’s m e m o irs o ffe r n o e v id e n c e t h a t - a t t h a t tim e - th e U S d e c isio n m a k e r s h a d a n y id e a how , a n d if a t a ll, th e c o n flic t lo o m in g a h e a d in E u r o p e c o u ld b e h e a d e d o ff a n d - s im u lta n e o u s ly - P o la n d c o u ld b e s a v e d fro m H itle r. F D R a n d H u ll w e re a lso c lu e le s s a s fo r w h a t ro le th e U S s h o u ld p la y in t h a t h ig h ly c o m p lic a te d s itu a tio n .
2 6 J u n e , P o lis h A m b a s s a d o r C o u n t P o to c k i in fo rm e d th e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e t h a t P o la n d w a s g e ttin g r e a d y to f ig h t in c a s e o f G e r m a n a g g re s s io n . T h e r e s p o n s e fro m C. H u ll p ro v e s h o w s lig h t th e A m e ric a n p o litic a l s tr a te g y a n in itia tiv e w a s in th e c a s e o f th e E u r o p e a n w a r b r e a k o u t.
14 Cordell Hull, op. cit., 650.
15 Franklin D. Roosevelt: 135 - Radio Address to the Herald-Tribune Forum. October 26,
1938. The American Presidency Project, access 26 February 2014, http://www.presiden-
cy.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15557. 16 Cordell Hull, op. cit., 651. 17 Ibidem.
I com m ented to him th a t conditions in Europe were not favourable. Increasing signs and circum stances of an ominous n a tu re were appearing. Sooner or la te r - no one could say w hen - w ith Europe o highly geared to a w ar basis, som ething very serious w as likely to occur unless in the m eantim e steps were ta k e n to avoid i t 19.
N o th in g m o re n o th in g le s s a s f a r a s th e A m e ric a n v is io n o f h o w to a v o id th e o u tb r e a k o f W o rld W a r II is c o n c e rn e d . F ro m th e P o lis h p e rs p e c tiv e , i t is i m p o r t a n t t h a t F D R a n d C. H u ll w e re r e g u la r ly re c e iv in g r e p o r ts c o n c e rn in g th e p r e s s u r e o f B e r lin o n P o la n d 20. M o reo v e r, W a s h in g to n h a d r e lia b le in fo r m a tio n p ro v in g t h a t th e a s s is ta n c e to P o la n d b y G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e w a s d e c e p tiv e . H u ll c la im s t h a t a p o te n tia l e m b a rg o o n G e rm a n y , b a s e d o n th e U S N e u tr a lity A cts, w o u ld o n ly p u s h H itle r to a c t e v e n m o re e n e r g e tic a l ly. In d e e d , d iffic u lt i t is to im a g in e h o w B e r lin c o u ld b e h a v e in m o re d y n a m ic a m a n n e r.
A d d itio n a lly , th e h e a d o f th e G e r m a n F o re ig n A ffa irs M in istry , J o a c h im v o n R ib b e n tro p , a s s u r e d H itle r in h is c o n v ic tio n - tr u e , a s th e f u tu r e w a s to d e m o n s tr a te - t h a t L o n d o n a n d P a r i s w e re in c a p a b le o f p ro v id in g a n y effec tiv e a s s is ta n c e to P o la n d . A n yw ay, s u c h a s s is ta n c e w o u ld h a v e to b e fo u n d e d o n th e A m e ric a n s u p p lie s , w h ic h - e x c e p t th e le g is la tiv e n e u t r a l i t y l i m i t a tio n s in th e U S - c o u ld e a s ily a n d e ffe c tiv e ly b e b lo ck ed . T h e m e m o irs do n o t m e n tio n a t a n y p la c e t h a t A m e ric a n s p a s s e d s u c h k in d o f in f o r m a tio n to th e P o lis h side. A n o th e r b i t o f e v id e n c e h o w in s ig n if ic a n t - fro m th e U S p e rs p e c tiv e - P o la n d w a s in t h a t f i r s t p h a s e o f th e a n a ly s e d e v e n ts is th e A m e ric a n t r e a t m e n t o f th e q u e s tio n o f th e R ib b e n tro p -M o lo to v P a c t o f 2 4 A u g u s t 1939. I n h is m e m o irs , H u ll o p e n ly c la im s t h a t W a s h in g to n h a d in f o r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g t h e e x t r a S o v ie t-G e rm a n a r r a n g e m e n ts r e g a r d in g P o la n d a n d th e B a ltic s ta te s . H e s t a t e s t h a t h e k e p t p e r s u a d in g th e S o v ie t A m b a s s a d o r, A le x a n d e r A. T ro y a n o v sk i, th e w a r co u ld b e a v o id e d once th e U S , B r ita in , F r a n c e a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n w o rk e d o n p e a c e a lto g e th e r 21. Y et, th e A m e ric a n a p p ro a c h - f i r s t - ig n o re d th e s itu a tio n , in w h ic h i t w a s H itle r w h o r u le d th e g am e. T h e j o in t U S -B ritis h - F re n c h - S o v ie t in flu e n c e o n h is d e c isio n s w a s close to n o n e b y th e n . S eco n d , in no w a y w e re P o la n d a n d /o r th e B a ltic s t a t e s ta k e n in to c o n s id e r a tio n b y th e p o te n tia l p e a c e m a k e r s . U n f o r tu n a te ly fo r b o th th e s u b je c ts o f th e p a c t, s u c h a n a t t i t u d e o f th e U S to w a r d s t h e is s u e s o f C e n tr a l a n d E a s t e r n E u ro p e a n d th e p e r c e p tio n o f S ta lin a s a r e g io n a l ‘s ta b ilis e r ’ w a s to r e m a in u n c h a n g e d u p till 1945.
C o rd e ll H u ll, i n h is m e m o irs , f r e q u e n tly - h a v in g m e t fo re ig n d ip lo m a ts a n d p o litic ia n s - m o re o r le s s e x p lic itly e x p a n d e d o n t h e i r a r g u m e n t s 22. I n te r e s tin g ly e n o u g h , th e a r g u m e n ts o f th e P o lis h s id e a t t h a t tim e a r e n o t
19 Ibidem. 20 Ibidem, 653. 21 Ibidem, 656-7.
c o m m e n te d on, s o m e tim e s n o t e v e n o u tlin e d . T h a t p o s e s a q u e s tio n h o w m u c h a tte n tiv e ly th e S e c r e ta r y of S t a t e lis te n e d to th o s e a r g u m e n ts ; a n d th e n , h o w p re c is e ly a n d c o n s c ie n tio u s ly h e p r e s e n te d th e m to th e P r e s id e n t.
I n A u g u s t 1939 F D R a p p e a le d to H itle r a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t o f P o la n d , I g n a c y M o ścick i, n o t to g iv e u p th e n e g o tia tio n s 23. H u ll c la im s h e w a s s c e p ti c a l a b o u t t h e in itia tiv e in te r m s o f i t s r e a l e ffe c tiv e n e ss. Y et, w h e n M ościcki r e s p o n d e d m e r e ly 2 4 h o u r s l a t e r d e c la rin g P o la n d w a s re a d y fo r a n y s o r t of t a lk , H itle r r e m a in e d s ile n t. T h a t w a s a u n iq u e m o m e n t w h e n - in h is m e m o irs fro m t h a t p e rio d - H u ll p r e s e n ts th e P o lis h p o litic ia n s n o t a s a g ro u p o f a d v e n tu r o u s tr o u b le m a k e r s , s tu b b o r n a n d p r e f e r r in g s e ttle m e n ts b y force (a s i t k e p t h a p p e n in g to C. H u ll b e fo re a n d a f te r 24); th e y a r e p ic tu r e d a s w illin g to c o o p e ra te a n d c o n s e q u e n t. I n th e te le g r a m to M ościcki a n d H itle r, H u ll s e e s a n F D R ’s a t t e m p t to m a k e G e rm a n y th e d ir e c t c u lp r it o f th e w a r if th e c o n flic t w e re im p o s s ib le to a v o id 25. F ro m th e v ie w p o in t o f th e in t e r n a t i o n a l law , s u c h a c o n c lu sio n m ig h t h a v e h a d s u b s t a n t i a l w e ig h t. S adly, P o lis h a s s u r a n c e o f th e r e a d in e s s to n e g o tia te n e v e r re c e iv e d a n y A m e ric a n re s p o n s e . C. H u ll s t a t e s t h a t 28 A u g u s t 1939, P r e s i d e n t M o ścick i c o m p la in e d to A m b a s s a d o r B u llitt in F r a n c e t h a t F D R h a d n o t r e s p o n d e d to h is te le g r a m . H u ll’s e x p la n a tio n s e e m s le s s t h a n w e a k - t h e A m e ric a n s a lle g e d ly w a ite d fo r t h e a n s w e r fro m B e rlin . F o r W a rsa w , t h a t w a s y e t a n o th e r fa c to r p ro v in g th e l ittle i n t e r e s t o f th e U S in P o la n d 26.
O n 5 A u g u s t 1939, th e U S A m b a s s a d o r to P a r is , W illia m C. B u llitt, a d v is e d th e P r e s id e n t to a p p e a l to P o la n d , G e rm a n y , B r ita in , F r a n c e a n d I ta ly to r e f r a in fro m b o m b in g c iv ilia n . T h e d ir e c t a n d p r a c tic a l e ffe c t o f s u c h a n in itia tiv e w a s c le a rly n o n e ; s till, a re s p o n s e fro m a ll p a r t i e s b u t - p r e s u m a b ly - H itle r, m ig h t p u t th e b e llig e r e n ts in th e d e s ir e d in W a s h in g to n lig h t. F D R w o u ld b e p ro v id e d w ith a p o s s ib ility to a s s i s t th e ‘civ ilise d , a n d - in th e p u b lic ey e - w o u ld s tig m a tis e th e ‘b a r b a r i a n s ’27.
* * *
A fte r th e N a z i a t t a c k o n P o la n d , o n 1 S e p te m b e r 1939, th e f ir s t s te p o f W a s h in g to n w a s to s e n d te le g r a m s o f th e a b o v e c o n te n t to th e a p p r o p r ia te a d d r e s s e e s . A s p r e s u m e d , H itle r s c o rn e d th e a p p e a l, w h ic h p u t P o la n d in th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f a v ic tim , a tta c k e d a n d d e s e r v in g h e lp 28.
22 Ibidem, 526, 1480.
23 The telegram itself: Ruhl J. Bartlett (ed.), The Record of American Diplomacy: Docu
ments and Readings in the History of American Foreign Relations. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1960,
596-598.
24 Ibidem, 597, 1439, 1445. 25 Ibidem, 663-4.
26 Ibidem, 663. 27 Ibidem, 671.
28 By 14 September 1939, FDR had received a telegram from Warsaw; Ambassador Biddle reported that the Germans indeed bombed the civilian locations and civilian groups. Cordell
I n th e t e r m s o f fo re ig n p o licy m a k in g t h a t w a s i t w h e n i t co m es to th e U S a c tiv itie s a t th e m o m e n t o f th e o u tb r e a k o f W o rld W a r II. C o rd e ll H u ll te le p h o n e d P a r i s a n d L o n d o n to in q u ir e w h a t th e tw o w a r lik e s u p e rp o w e rs t h a t h a d g u a r a n t e e d P o la n d ’s in te g r ity p la n n e d . T h e fa c ts q u ic k ly c a m e fro m th e U S A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , J o s e p h K e n n e d y . H e r e p o r te d th e m a t t e r s flew o u t o f h a n d le a n d th e B r itis h h e lp w a s d o u b tf u l29. L a t e r t h a t day, th e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e ta lk e d to P o la n d ’s A m b a s s a d o r C o u n t P o to c k i. A t th e d ip lo m a t’s r e q u e s t fo r in f o r m a tio n fro m E u ro p e , H u ll w r ite s in h is m e m o irs , h e p a s s e d o n to P o to c k i w h a te v e r h e k n e w . N e v e r th e le s s , C. H u ll d o e s n o t p u t i t s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d ly w h a t e x a c tly h e to ld th e a m b a s s a d o r, e s p e c ia lly w h e n i t co m es to K e n n e d y ’s c o n c lu s io n s 30. I n th e face o f w a r, th e U S D e p a r tm e n t o f S t a t e s t a r t e d s t a n d a r d s e c u r ity p ro c e d u re s i n th e c a s e o f w a r: e v a c u a tio n o f th e d ip lo m a tic p e r s o n n e l a n d th e e m b a s s y a s su c h , o r g a n is in g a n a l y s t c o m m itte e s to a s s e s s t h e le v e l o f t h r e a t to th e U S t r a d e a n d fre e d o m o f s h ip p in g 31. Y et, f i r s t a n d fo re m o s t, th e U S C o n g re s s th e U S N e u tr a lity A c ts , w h ic h fo rb a d e th e U S g o v e r n m e n t a n y s o r t o f s u p p o r t to w h ic h e v e r sid e o f b e llig e r e n ts , w e re k e p t v a lid 32.
5 S e p te m b e r 1939, th e P r e s i d e n t a n n o u n c e d - d r a f te d b y C. H u ll’s D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e a n d F D R h im s e lf - t h e U S d e c la r a tio n o f n e u tr a lity . I n it, F D R r e f e r r e d to th e ab o v e m e n tio n e d N e u t r a l i t y A c ts ’ lim ita tio n s a n d , in p o in ts , in fo rm e d a b o u t th e U S a t t i t u d e to w a r d s th e E u r o p e a n co n flict. I n no w a y d id th e d o c u m e n t s t a t e w h a t - if a n y th in g - W a s h in g to n w a s p la n n in g to do fo r th e in v a d e d P o la n d , w h ic h - in th e d o c u m e n t - a p p e a r s j u s t once, in th e p re a m b le ; o d d ly i t in fo rm s t h a t : ‘[...] a s t a t e o f w a r u n h a p p ily e x is ts b e tw e e n G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e ; P o la n d ; a n d t h e U n ite d K in g d o m , In d ia , A u s t r a l i a a n d N e w Z e a la n d ’33. I n s u c h a c o n te x t, H u lls ’ r e m a r k s b e lo w so u n d m o s t p e c u lia r:
Hull, op. cit., 678. The American attempts at making Hitler an aggressor in the legal sense do not seem well thought-out. No matter whether a belligerent was an invader or an invaded party, according to the Neutrality Acts, it had to be excluded from the US assistance. Therefore, the purpose of the US initiative like the above is difficult to justify. Indeed the Americans did not plan to exclude Poland from the restrictions. The actions might - again - suggest that it was a short-range and symptomatic treatment without a fuller vision in the matter.
29 Cordell Hull, op. cit., 672. 30 Ibidem
31 Ibidem, 673.
32 The reading of the Neutrality Acts proves how much - at least ostensibly - FDR was to be supervised and limited in his initiatives concerning belligerents anywhere in the world. See the contents of the Acts: Digital History, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbo- ok.cfm?smtID=3&psid=4057; http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID= 3&psid=4059; http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=4072; http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=4074; access: 5 March 2014. Also see.: Krzysztof Michałek, Na drodze ku potędze: Historia Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki,
1861-1945. Warszawa: KiW1993, 366-370.
The P re sid en t and I, long before the o u tbreak of war, saw clearly th a t it would be to our n ational in te re st to assist B ritain and France, first in the effort to keep the w ar from coming, and second, to win th e w ar if it came. [...] a G erm an victory over B ritain and F rance would place us in direct contact w ith the r u th less leaders of G erm any riding a powerful m ilitary m achine. W ith J a p a n on a ram page in the O rient, our position in th a t event would be of th e utm ost danger34.
T h e A m e r ic a n s c a r e f u lly fo llo w e d t h e S e p te m b e r e v e n ts in P o la n d . & S e p te m b e r 1939 a lre a d y , A m b a s s a d o r B u llitt te le g r a p h e d fro m P a r i s t h a t h e re c e iv e d in fo rm a tio n fro m th e F r e n c h M in is tr y of F o re ig n A ffa irs c o n c e r n in g th e im m in e n c e o f th e S o v ie t a t t a c k o n P o la n d . F ro m th e m e m o irs , o r r a t h e r fro m th e s ile n c e in t h a t m a tte r , it c a n b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e A m e ri c a n s d id v ir tu a lly n o th in g w ith t h a t k n o w le d g e . M o st c e r ta in ly W a s h in g to n d id n o t p a s s th e in f o r m a tio n o n to t h e P o le s. I t w a ite d u n t i l 17 S e p te m b e r 1939, w h e n th e U S A m b a s s a d o r to M oscow , S te i n h a r d t , re c e iv e d th e n o te fro m t h e S o v ie t C o m m is s a r o f F o r e ig n A ffa irs, V. M olotov. T h e n o te in fo rm e d a b o u t th e U S S R g o v e r n m e n t’s d e c isio n to e n t e r t h e P o lis h e a s t e r n te r r i t o r y in a m ilita r y w a y to: ‘p r o te c t t h e liv e s a n d p r o p e r ty o f th e p e o p le in h a b itin g th e a r e a s o f U k r a in e a n d B e la r u s ’35. A llegedly, a c c o rd in g to C o m m is s a r M o lotov, n e i t h e r P o la n d n o r th e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t e x is te d a n y m o re. S im u lta n e o u sly , M o lo to v e m p h a s is e d t h a t M oscow p la n n e d to a c t in a n e u t r a l w a y to w a r d s th e U S 36.
T h e A m e ric a n d e c isio n m a d e in t h a t s itu a tio n t u r n e d o u t - m a y b e - o n e o f th e m o s t c o n s e q u e n tia l o n e s d u r in g th e w ar. A s H u ll h im s e lf p u t it:
A lthough R ussia’s invasion of Poland could be considered an act of war, the P resid en t and I decided not to include R ussia in our application of the N eu tra li ty Act. We did not w ish to place h e r on the sam e belligerent footing as Germany, since to do so m ight th r u s t h e r fu rth e r into H itler’s arm s. We h ad the feeling th a t R ussia and G erm any would not become full allies and th a t H itler h ad not abandoned his am bitions w ith reg ard to R ussia37.
I t s e e m s u n b e lie v a b le : C o rd e ll H u ll h a p p e n s to f o r g e t a b o u t th e long- la s t i n g t r a d itio n s o f th e G e rm a n -S o v ie t c o lla b o r a tio n d a tin g b a c k to th e R a p a llo A g r e e m e n t o f 1922. H e a lso ig n o re s - w h ic h th e A m e ric a n h a d p e rfe c tly k n o w n - t h e p r e - w a r G e r m a n - S o v ie t m a n o e u v r e s t r a i n i n g th e G e r m a n t a n k fo rc e s a n d L u ftw a ffe in th e U S S R , th e R ib b e n tro p -M o lo to v A g re e m e n t a n d its s e c r e t a r r a n g e m e n ts . 17 S e p te m b e r 1939 th e U S S R e n te r e d th e w a r - a c tiv e ly a n d i n a m ilita r y m a n n e r - a t H itle r ’s sid e . I n th e lig h t o f th e in t e r n a t i o n a l law , b o th t h e a g g re s s io n s w e re id e n tic a l (e.g. b o th la c k in g th e d e c la r a tio n o f w a r o n P o la n d ).
34 Cordell Hull, op. cit., 684. 35 Ibidem.
36 Ibidem. 37 Ibidem.
A p a r t fro m t h e P o lis h - R u s s ia n p e rs p e c tiv e , th e A m e r ic a n d e c isio n o n th e t r e a t m e n t o f th e U S S R a f te r th e in v a s io n o f P o la n d , w a s - te c h n ic a lly s p e a k in g - a n d a c t o f in c o n s e q u e n c e o r o p e n d is lo y a lty to w a r d s F r a n c e a n d B r ita in , th e c o u n tr ie s w h ic h th e U S h a d d e c la re d to s u p p o r t in p e a c e a n d w ar. F o r th e B r itis h , i t w a s o n e o f th e f i r s t s ig n s to w h a t e x te n t t h e in t e r e s t s o f th e U S a n d th e B r itis h E m p ir e w e re d is c r e p a n t, r e g a r d le s s so m e c o m m o n v a lu e s , a n u m b e r o f s h a r e d p u r p o s e s a n d F D R d e c la r a tio n s .
I n s u c h a s itu a tio n th e N a z i a n d S o v ie t t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m s g re w s tro n g e r, w h ic h b o th C. H u ll a n d P r e s i d e n t R o o se v e lt w a n te d to av o id . T h e ir a c tio n , h o w ev er, t u r n e d o u t c o m p le te ly in e ffe c tiv e , p a s s iv e a n d - s im p ly - in c o rre c t. C o u ld A. H itle r a n d J . S ta lin b eco m e ‘e v e n m o re p e rf e c t a llie s ’? W h a t e lse w o u ld th e y h a v e to do to b e p e rc e iv e d fu ll a llie s o n e x a c tly t h e s a m e s id e o f th e b a r r ic a d e ? I t is d iffic u lt to r e s i s t a n im p r e s s io n t h a t th e ab o v e H u ll’s c o m m e n ta ry c o n c e rn in g th e t r e a t m e n t o f R u s s ia - w r i t t e n a s a fla s h b a c k a s s e s s m e n t w h e n m a n y d e c isio n s a n d t h e i r o u tc o m e w e re k n o w n a n d v e r i fie d - w a s a c tu a lly a n u n s u c c e s s fu l a t t e m p t to ju s tif y W a s h in g to n ’s la c k o f d e te r m in a tio n , lo s s a n d t h e in a b ility to la y o u t th e c o u n tr y ’s p o licy in a c o n s e q u e n t a n d c le a r - c u t w ay. I t is also a n e ffo rt - h o w fu tile th o u g h - to h id e th e la c k o f i n t e r e s t , k n o w le d g e a n d t h u s th e p r o p e r p e rs p e c tiv e a s for th e s tr a te g ic w o rld re g io n o f C e n tr a l E u ro p e .
T h e in c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e A m e r ic a n d e c isio n m a k e r s s e e m s sh o c k in g . E v e n if th e S o v ie t d e e d w a s in d e e d j u s t a ta c tic a l m o v e a im e d a t p u s h in g b a c k t h e lin e o f p o te n tia l d e fe n c e a g a i n s t th e G e r m a n s , w h ic h - a c c o rd in g to H u ll w a s c o n firm e d b y t h e in f o r m a tio n fro m th e C h in e s e A m b a s s a d o r to W a s h in g to n , H u S h ih 38, i t w a s c a r r ie d o u t a s a n o p e n , u n p ro v o k e d , u n j u s t i fie d b y th e in t e r n a t i o n a l la w a t t a c k o n a n in d e p e n d e n t s t a t e b e in g a n a lly o f th e p o w e rs e n jo y in g - th e o r e tic a lly - th e U S s u p p o r t a n d lik in g . M o reo v er, if S ta lin in d e e d m o u n te d h is d efe n c e lin e s a g a in s t H itle r, t h e i r c o n flic t w a s s u r e to h a p p e n an y w ay .
A lo n g w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e w a r f a r e in P o la n d , th e s itu a tio n b e c a m e to o d a n g e r o u s fo r t h e A m e r ic a n s r e s i d i n g i n t h e c o u n try . B y 2 4 S e p te m b e r1 9 3 9 th e A m e ric a n d ip lo m a tic c o rp s w a s e v a c u a te d th r o u g h R o m a n ia to P a r i s ( A m b a s s a d o r B id d le a n d h is sta ff) a n d to B e r lin (C o n su l G e n e r a l J o h n K. D a v ie s a n d s ta f f ) 39. S e c r e ta r y H u ll w a s o f h ig h o p in io n a b o u t t h e i r w o rk a n d c o n g r a tu la te d th e m o n t h e i r a c h ie v e m e n ts a lth o u g h , in h is m e m o irs , h e d o es n o t e x p la in w h a t s ig n if ic a n t m e r its o f h is d ip lo m a ts in P o la n d h e m e a n t. T h e n , a n u m b e r of c h a n g e s h a p p e n e d to th e P o lis h a u th o r itie s . P r e s id e n t M o ścick i h a v in g b e e n i n te r n e d i n R o m a n ia a n d r e s ig n e d fro m h is p o s t, th e so -fa r S p e a k e r o f th e P o lis h p a r lia m e n t, W ła d y s ła w R a c z k ie w ic z w a s sw o rn a s th e n e w p r e s id e n t (2 O c to b e r 1939). A fte r F D R -H u ll c o n s u lta tio n s , th e U S
38 Ibidem. 39 Ibidem, 685.
g o v e r n m e n t d e c id e d to a c k n o w le d g e th e n e w P o lis h a u th o r itie s a n d a s s u m e d th e m a s a c o n tin u a to r o f th e p re v io u s g o v e rn m e n t. A lso, C o u n t P o to c k i w a s a c k n o w le d g e d th e P o lis h a m b a s s a d o r o f th e n e w g o v e r n m e n t in th e U S. A m b a s s a d o r B id d le in P a r i s w a s in s t r u c t e d to c o n tin u e a s th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e U S w ith th e P o lis h g o v e rn m e n t. I n th e m e m o irs , i n th e c o n te x t o f th e ab o v e e v e n ts , C. H u ll w ro te s o m e th in g t h a t w a s to b e a g la r in g c o n tra d ic tio n to t h e l a t e r s ta n c e o f W a s h in g to n (in T e h e ra n , 1943 a n d Y a lta 1945): ‘M e re s e iz u r e o f te r r ito r y , h o w e v e r, d o e s n o t e x tin g u is h th e le g a l e x is te n c e of a G o v e rn m e n t’40.
T h e A m e ric a n s te p t h a t sy m b o lic a lly c o n c lu d e d th e U S a c tiv itie s a s f a r a s P o la n d w a s c o n c e rn e d in t h e f i r s t p h a s e o f th e a n a ly s e d p e rio d w a s R o o se v e lt’s in itia tiv e to offer th e e x - P r e s id e n t I. M o ścic k i re fu g e in th e U S. 2 8 S e p te m b e r 1939 S e c r e ta r y H u ll, h a v in g c o n s u lte d th e P r e s id e n t, i n s t r u c te d th e U S P le n ip o te n tia r y M in is te r in R o m a n ia , F r a n k l i n M o tt G u n th e r, to p a s s o n to t h e R o m a n ia n g o v e r n m e n t th e A m e ric a n o ffer r e g a r d in g M ościcki. R o o se v e lt w a s r e a d y to w r ite a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r to K in g C h a r le s o f R o m a n ia a s k in g h im to r e le a s e t h e e x - P r e s id e n t o f P o la n d . I n h is m e m o r a n d u m to C. H u ll o f 19 O c to b e r 1939, F D R p u t th e w h o le c a s e lik e t h a t :
Now th a t a definite Polish G overnm ent h as been set up in F rance and former P resid en t Mościcki is no longer P resident, I recur to th e historic U nited States friendship for Poland and the historic fact th a t we have alw ays welcomed refu gees from defeated democracies. [...] The U nited S ta tes would be glad to receive th e form er P resid en t Mościcki if he cares to visit th is country41.
H a v in g d o n e n o th in g fo r P o la n d , a c tu a lly b lo c k in g c e r t a i n in itia tiv e s of o th e r A m e r ic a n p o litic ia n s , s u c h a s H . H o o v e r’s 42, in h is i n t e r n a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith a close c o lla b o ra to r, F D R c a n tin g ly m o u th e d p la titu d e s ; s i m u l t a n e o u sly , n o n c h a la n tly a n d in a n a r r o g a n t m a n n e r th e P r e s i d e n t la b e lle d P o la n d a s a ‘d e f e a te d d e m o c ra c y ’ w h ile th e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t d id n o t sig n c a p itu la tio n a c t, a n d th e P o lis h r e g u l a r a r m y w a s b e in g fo rm e d i n th e W e st a s w e ll a s f o u g h t a t h o m e in th e u n d e r g r o u n d . A g a in , th e a b s e n c e o f p r o p e r i n t e r e s t a n d c a r e o f th e P r e s i d e n t a n d h is S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e r e s u l t e d in s im p lific a tio n s a n d b lu r r e d im a g e o f th e m a t t e r s t h a t c o n c e rn e d th e s e c u r ity o f th e U S . F in a lly , on ce e x - P r e s id e n t M o ścick i w a s r e le a s e d in D e c e m b e r
1939, h e ch o se to s e ttle in S w itz e r la n d a n d n o t th e U n ite d S ta te s . * * *
T h e se c o n d of th e a n a ly s e d p h a s e s i n th e U S -P o lis h r e la tio n s , S e p te m b e r 1939 - J u n e 194, is o n e o f m o s t in te n s e s ta g e s o f th e W W II. I n th e c o n te x t o f th e tr iu m p h s o f H itle r a t th e tim e , i t s e e m s o b v io u s t h a t th e P o lis h c a s e h a d
40 Ibidem, 686. 41 Ibidem 687.
42 Józef Smoliński, Polsko-amerykańskie stosunki wojskowe, 1776-1945. Warszawa: Bello na, 2004, 322.
to fa d e a w a y in th e U S p o litic s. T h e q u e s tio n is h o w m u c h i t fa d e d aw ay. W h e n th e u n d e r g r o u n d r e s is ta n c e a g a i n s t th e G e r m a n s w a s b e in g o rg a n iz e d in P o la n d o n t h e m a s s sc a le , th e P o lis h g o v e rn m e n t-in -e x ile in L o n d o n w a s m o b ilis in g a ll s o r ts o f a v a ila b le r e s e r v e s to s u p p o r t th e B r itis h w a r effo rt, P o la n d v ir tu a lly v a n is h e d fro m th e A m e ric a n p o litic a l w a r p la n s . T h e m e n tio n s in th e m e m o irs o f C o rd e ll H u ll, o r r a t h e r th e la c k o f th e m , c o n firm s it. B e tw e e n O c to b e r 1939 a n d A p ril 1943, i.e. th e P o lis h -S o v ie t p o litic a l c ris is o v e r th e K a ty ń M a s s a c re , P o la n d b a s ic a lly d is a p p e a r s fro m th e m e m o irs. T h e o n ly m e n tio n is th e in f o r m a tio n t h a t 14 J u n e 1941 th e P r e s id e n t o r d e re d to fre e z e t h e P o lis h a s s e ts ‘a s w e ll a s th o s e o f th e o c c u p ie d E u r o p e a n c o u n tr ie s n o t a lr e a d y fro z e n , s u c h a s A lb a n ia , A u s tr ia , C z e c h o slo v a k ia , D a n zig [...] 43.
M o reo v er, th e P o lis h p r im e m in is te r , G e n e r a l W ła d y s ła w S ik o rs k i, a c k n o w le d g e d b y W a s h in g to n fro m 2 O c to b e r 1939, o n th e p a g e s o f w h o le H u ll’s m e m o irs , a p p e a r s o n ly six tim e s h a v in g d e s e rv e d o n ly th r e e r e fe re n c e s in th e in d e x . I n th e a n a ly s e d p e rio d h e d o es n o t a p p e a r a t a ll ( a p a r t fro m th e a lr e a d y m e n tio n e d in f o r m a tio n o n th e U S a c c e p ta n c e o f th e n e w P o lis h a u th o r itie s in exile). I t s e e m s d iffic u lt to fin d a m o re e x p lic it e v id e n c e fo r th e c o m p le te e v a p o r a tio n o f a n y A m e ric a n i n t e r e s t in P o la n d w h a ts o e v e r.
T h e r e a s o n s fo r s u c h a s t a t e o f th e m a t t e r s a r e m a n ifo ld . T h e f ir s t, a n d p ro b a b ly th e m o s t s ig n ific a n t, w a s th e f a c t t h a t a t th e tim e th e W e s t w a s g e n e r a lly in r e t r e a t , a n d th e U S r e m a in e d n e u tr a l. T h a t n e u t r a l i t y a n d th e is o la tio n is t U S C o n g re s s lim ite d a n y p o te n tia l p ro -P o lis h m o v e s o f W a s h in g to n , e v e n i f s u c h in itia tiv e s e x is te d a t all. A lso, fo r a p e rio d d iffic u lt to d e fin e , P o la n d w a s to r e m a in u n d e r G e r m a n a n d S o v ie t o c c u p a tio n s . B y J u n e 1941, H itle r w e n t fro m v ic to ry to v ic to ry ; a n d l a t e r on, u n t i l th e w in te r 1 9 4 1 -4 2 n o t m u c h s e e m e d to in d ic a te a n y b r e a k th r o u g h in t h a t r e s p e c t. H e n c e , w h ic h a p p e a r s a n a t u r a l c o u rs e o f a c tio n fo r th e R o o se v e lt a d m in is tr a tio n , th e p r a g m a tic a n d ta s k - o r ie n te d d u o H u ll-R o o s e v e lt e lim in a te d th e P o lis h c a se fro m t h e i r p o litic a l a c tiv itie s a t t h a t tim e .
A d d itio n a lly , i t s h o u ld n o t b e fo rg o tte n t h a t in t h e w h o le a n a ly s e d h e r e p e rio d th e U S S R a n d G e r m a n y w e re c o u n tr ie s b o u n d w ith a n a llia n c e 44. A s la te a s 10 J a n u a r y 1941, th e c o u n tr ie s s ig n e d a n a g r e e m e n t c o n c e rn in g tr a d e a n d b o rd e r s . A lth o u g h t h e N a z i a t t a c k o n th e U S S R b e g a n m e r e ly h a l f a y e a r la te r , in J a n u a r y 1941, fo r th e W e st, th in g s lo o k e d q u ite u n a m b ig u o u sly : M oscow a n d B e r lin in d e e d w e re a llie s in th e fu ll s e n s e o f th e w o rd - n e i t h e r m o re n o r le s s d i s t r u s t f u l to w a r d s e a c h o th e r t h a n th e B r itis h a n d A m e ric a n s fro m D e c e m b e r 1941 o n w a rd s . T h a t w a s a n o th e r r e a s o n fo r th e U S n e g le c t o f t h e P o lis h is s u e : a s lo n g a s t h e r e la tio n s b e tw e e n S ta lin a n d H itle r w e re a s th e y s e e m e d , W a s h in g to n s a w n o r e a s o n to in v e s t p re c io u s
43 Ibidem, 945.
44 Henry Kissinger expands on the implications of the Soviet-Nazi Alliance. See: Henry Kissinger, Dyplomacja. Warszawa: Philip Wilson, 2002, 358-400.
tim e a n d e ffo rt o f t h e c o u n tr y ’s le a d e r s in to s o m e th in g t h a t w a s c la s s ifie d a s se c o n d a ry o r e v e n t e r t i a r y p rio rity . T h a t w a s h o w d is m e m b e re d P o la n d w a s p e rc e iv e d b y R o o se v e lt a n d H u ll. T h e fa c t t h a t M oscow e x p e rie n c e d a c o m p le te ly d if f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t in W a s h in g to n t h a n B e r lin a d d itio n a lly w e a k e n e d th e P o lis h s ta n d in g .
T h e s ta n d in g t h a t e v e n b e fo re h a d n e v e r b e e n s tr o n g e n o u g h . B e fo re th e W W II, th e U n ite d S t a t e s d id n o t h a v e a n d v ita l in t e r e s t s , b e i t p o litic a l o r eco n o m ic. I n th i s p a r t o f E u ro p e , W a s h in g to n tr a d itio n a lly fo c u se d o n th e p r e - w a r C zech o slo v ak ia. T h e b la c k P R t h a t P o la n d re c e iv e d in th e U S a f te r th e c o llap se o f C z e c h o slo v a k ia a n d th e P o lis h re g a in in g o f C ie sz y n S ile s ia from P ra g u e . N o t h a v in g a n y th in g to lose in P o la n d , th e A m e ric a n s co n clu d ed - b r u ta lly y e t ob jectiv ely - th e r e w a s no p o in t in t h e i r in v o lv e m e n t th e re .
A n o th e r is s u e d is c o u ra g in g th e R o o se v e lt a d m in is tr a tio n to a t l e a s t m o re o p e n p ro -P o lis h d e c la r a tio n s w a s th e N a z i p ro v o c a tio n in M a r c h 1940 - th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e so -c a lle d W h i t e B ook’. I n th e book, i t w a s s u g g e s te d t h a t th e a lle g e d ly P o lis h d o c u m e n ts c o n firm e d t h a t th e U S d ip lo m a ts - a n d b y d e f a u lt P r e s i d e n t R o o se v e lt, t h e i r e m p lo y e r - in s tig a te d th e P o le s to r e s is t th e G e rm a n s . H itle r a s s u m e d t h a t o n ly i f R o o se v e lt lo s t th e ele c tio n s, could th e r e b e a n y g u a r a n te e o f th e p ro lo n g e d U S n e u tra lity . T h e re fo re , th e G e rm a n M in is tr y o f P r o p a g a n d a co v ere d th e co st o f th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e m W h ite B ook’ in a n im p re s s iv e e d itio n , A lso, B e rlin s e c re tly s e n t to th e U S $ 5 m illio n to s u p p o r t th e A m e r ic a n is o la tio n is t c irc le s 45. T h u s , a p a r t fro m a n y th in g e ls e , F D R h a d to h a v e c o m p le te ly d if f e r e n t p r io r itie s in t h a t 1940 - th e y e a r o f e le c tio n s.
T h e a r g u m e n t o f th e a lle g e d la c k o f s u p p o r t o f t h e P o lis h c a s e fro m W in s to n C h u rc h ill, th e B r i t i s h p r im e m in is te r , d o es n o t s e e m fu lly ju s tifie d . T h r o u g h o u t th e w h o le w a r, a n d in th e h e r e a n a ly s e d p e rio d in p a r tic u la r , B r i t a i n w a s m a in ta in e d b y th e U S ; h a d i t n o t b e e n fo r th e A m e ric a n s u p p o r t, th e B r itis h w o u ld c e r ta in ly h a v e lo s t th e c a p a b ility to f ig h t H itle r 46. R o o se v e lt a n d H u ll a s s is te d B r ita in , b u t t h e y w e re n o t i n t e r e s t e d in h e lp in g her. T h e y m e r c ile s s ly a b u s e d th e w e a k n e s s o f t h e E m p ir e m e th o d ic a lly d is m a n t lin g a n d e n fe e b le d th e B r itis h in a ll a v a ila b le w a y s, s u c h a s c o e rc in g L o n d o n to s ig n o r a c c e p t a s t r i n g o f - d is a s tr o u s fo r B r i t a i n (in t h e im p e ria l s e n s e ) - a g r e e m e n ts a m o n g th e U S , C a n a d a a n d th e E m p ir e , i.e. O g d e n s- b u r g ( A u g u s t 1 9 4 0 ) D e s tr o y e r s fo r B a s e s ( S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 0 ), L e n d lease (M a rc h 1941) a n d H y d e P a r k (A p ril 1941)47. T h a t w a s p o ssib le a s th e p o liti
45 According to some historians:’ the size and effects of those actions are an example of one of the most massive foreign interventions in the home affairs in the history of the US.’ Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy 1932-1945. New York: OUP 1995, 226.
46 See: Mateusz Bogdanowicz, The Political Significance of Canada and the Evolution of
Her Role within the Politics of the United States During World War II, 1939-1945. Olsztyn,
Wydawnictwo Wydziału Humanistycznego, 2012. 47 Ibidem.
ca l o b je c tiv e s o f th e U S a n d B r i t a i n w e re c o n v e rg e n t o n ly u p to a p o in t a n d b a s ic a lly o n th e ta c tic a l level. T h e lo n g -ra n g e p la n s o f b o th th e c o u n trie s w e re e n tir e ly d is c r e p a n t: C h u r c h ill w a n te d th e r e s to r a tio n a n d s t r e n g t h e n in g o f th e E m p ire ; R o o se v e lt w a n te d to t a k e th e E m p ir e o v e r fro m L o n d o n a n d p ro m o te th e U S to th e p o s itio n o f th e p o s t- w a r s u p e rp o w e r. T h u s , th e p o s itio n o f th e B r itis h p rim e m in is te r d id n o t e n title h im to c h a lle n g e F D R a n d c e r ta in ly n o t o n t h e g r o u n d o f th e P o lis h c a se. C h u r c h ill s im p ly d id n o t s t a n d a c h a n c e to force R o o se v e lt to do a n y th in g fo r B r i t a i n a g a i n s t th e P r e s i d e n t ’s w ill, n o t to m e n tio n m a k in g F D R do a n y th in g fo r P o la n d u n d e r in flu e n c e o f th e B r itis h le a d e r 48.
I n te r e s tin g ly e n o u g h , C. H u ll’s n o m e n tio n in h is m e m o irs c o n c e rn in g th e P o lis h in itia tiv e s a im e d a t a t t r a c t i n g W a s h in g to n ’s i n t e r e s t in P o la n d ’s c a s e d o es n o t m e a n s u c h s te p s w e re n o t u n d e r t a k e n b y th e P o les. A s so o n a s 9 M a r c h 1940, P r im e M in is te r W . S ik o rs k i m e t t h e U S P r e s i d e n t E nvoy, S u m n e r W elles, w h o w a s in fo rm e d a b o u t th e G e r m a n c r u e ltie s e x e rc is e d in o c c u p ie d P o la n d a s w e ll a s w a s o u tlin e d th e c u r r e n t w a r s it u a t i o n 49. T h e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t w a s h o p in g to p ro v o k e a r e a c tio n a m o n g th e U S so ciety s im ila r to th e o n e t h a t h a d r e s u lte d fro m th e p u b lic is in g o f th e G e r m a n a tr o c itie s in B e lg iu m d u r in g th e G r e a t W ar. T h e U S so c ia l c o n d e m n a tio n , g e n e r a l s y m p a th y a n d lik in g to w a r d s th e p e r s e c u te d co u ld c r e a te a f a v o u r a b le p o litic a l a tm o s p h e r e , th e y e a r 1940 w a s a n e le c tio n y e a r a n d th e U S P o lis h d ia s p o r a w a s a s ig n if ic a n t e le c to ra l force. U n f o r tu n a te ly , th e abo v e m e a s u r e s t u r n e d o u t in e ffe c tu a l, w h ic h C. H u ll’s no m e n tio n s e e m s to c o n firm .
A s fo r th e A m e ric a n sid e , th e y j u s t lim it th e m s e lv e s to m e r e a n d m e a n in g le s s d e c la r a tio n s . 29 J a n u a r y 1941, a n o th e r A m e r ic a n E n v o y to E u r o pe, W e n d e ll W illk ie , d u r in g h is v is it p a id to P M S ik o rs k i, a s s u r e d h im t h a t th e U S g o v e r n m e n t d e c id e d to p ro v id e th e P o lis h n a tio n w ith a s e x te n s iv e s u p p o r t a s p o s s ib le 50. Y et, n o d e ta ils w e re a g r e e d u p o n ; a g a in , no c o m m e n t in H u ll’s m e m o irs p ro v e t h a t W illk ie ’s w o rd s w e re j u s t c o u rte o u s a n d o s te n sib le g e s tu r e s .
G e n e ra lly , th e o n ly p r a c tic a l a c h ie v e m e n t in th e U S -P o lis h r e la tio n s a t th e tim e w a s P M S ik o r s k i’s v is it to th e U S (6 M a r c h - 9 A p ril 1941) a n d th e in itia l t a l k s o n th e is s u e o f P o la n d ’s in c lu s io n in to th e L e n d L e a s e p r o g r a m m e 51. F o rm a lly , th e f in a l d e c isio n w a s m a d e 19 J u n e 1941; th e lo g istic a r r a n g e m e n ts d ra g g e d on, h o w e v e r, a n d P o la n d re c e iv e d th e f i r s t A m e ric a n d i
48 It is clearly visible in the Churchill-FDR correspondence from any of the war periods, e.g. documents 511 and 512, Francis L. Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Wartime
Correspondence. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1975, 666-668.
49 Krzysztof Szczepaniak, Anna Herman-Łukasik, Barbara Janicka, Stosunki dyploma
tyczne Polski - informator. Tom II: Ameryka Północna i Południowa, 1918-2007. Warszawa:
Wydawnictwo Askon, 2008, 167. 50 Ibidem.
s p a tc h in th e e a r ly 1942. N e v e r th e le s s , a s e a r ly a s in D e c e m b e r 1943, P o la n d w a s e x c lu d e d fro m th e L e n d L e a se - a s a r e s u l t o f th e j o in t g o v e rn m e n ta l d e c isio n o f B r i t a i n a n d th e U S . I t w a s o n e o f th e e le m e n ts o f th e p r e s s u r e (b la c k m a il? ) e x e r te d o n P o la n d to s o fte n S ik o r s k i’s g o v e r n m e n t s t r i c t s ta n c e to w a r d s th e S o v ie t re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e K a ty ń M a s s a c re .
T h e in e x is te n c e o f w h a ts o e v e r m e n tio n s o f th e ab o v e is s u e s in th e S e c re t a r y o f S t a t e ’s m e m o irs p ro v e s t h a t h e p e rc e iv e d th e m a s o f sec o n d a ry , t e r t i a r y i f n o t f o u r th - r a te im p o r ta n c e fro m th e U S p e rs p e c tiv e . T h e r e is m u c h m o re to it. T h e m e m o irs w e re w r itte n fro m a c e r ta in p e rs p e c tiv e , i.e. 1947. A lth o u g h th e w o rld h a d tr a n s f o r m e d it s e l f to ta lly b y th e n , F D R policy to w a r d s S ta lin h a d p ro v e d d is a s tr o u s ly in e ffe c tiv e , th e fa te o f C e n tr a l a n d E a s t e r n E u ro p e h a d b e e n d e te r m in e d fo r th e n e x t 50 y e a r s , C o rd e ll H u ll d id n o t c h a n g e h is p e rs p e c tiv e o f s e e in g th e P o lis h is s u e , w h ic h - in m a n y a s p e c ts - t u r n e d o u t th e k e y f a c to r s a s f a r a s th e p o s t- w a r n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e U S S R a r e c o n c e rn e d . * * * In th e lig h t o f th e ab o v e a n a ly s e s , th e r e a p p e a r th r e e b a s ic s e ts o f co n c lu sio n s. T h e f i r s t c o n c e rn s W a s h in g to n ’s a t t i t u d e to th e P o lis h is s u e b e tw e e n S e p te m b e r 1938 (M u n ic h ) a n d A p ril 1939 (F D R s p e e c h o n th e im m in e n c e o f w a r). I n th e l ig h t o f th e m e m o irs o f C o rd e ll H u ll, th e U S fo re ig n policy r e g a r d in g th e sw e llin g m ilita r y co n flict in E u ro p e a p p e a r s a s a c h a o tic b u n c h o f loose in itia tiv e s o f im m e d ia te r a t h e r t h a n lo n g -ra n g e n a tu r e . N o th in g se e m s to p ro v e t h a t e ith e r th e P r e s id e n t o r h is S e c re ta ry o f S ta te m a d a c le a r v isio n o f th e c o n se q u e n t, e ffectiv e A m e ric a n s te p s in th e t h e n c u r r e n t s itu a tio n .
E x a c tly th e s a m e s h o u ld b e c o n c lu d e d w h e n i t co m es to th e a s s e s s m e n t o f th e U S a t t i t u d e to w a r d s P o la n d in p a r tic u la r . In itia lly , d u r in g th e M u n ic h c ris is , P o la n d w a s p e rc e iv e d - b y th e U S d e c isio n m a k e r s a n d th e so c ie ty - a s a tr o u b le m a k in g a d v e n t u r e r t h a t w a s s e e th in g w ith re v e n g e o n th e C z e c h s a n d lu r k in g - w ith t h e H u n g a r ia n s - fo r a c o n v e n ie n t m o m e n t to d iv id e C z e c h o slo v a k ia , s e r v in g H itle r a f a v o u r a t th e s a m e tim e . T h u s , W a s h in g to n lim ite d i t s a c tio n s to m e r e a p p e a ls fo r m o re n e g o tia tio n s .
T h a t w a s a m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e c le a r e s t a p p e a s e m e n t th e A m e ric a n way. H u ll’s m e m o irs p ro v e l ittle o r ie n ta tio n o f th e U S d e c isio n m a k e r s in h o w c o m p lic a te d a n d sp e c ific a lly p e c u lia r th e E u r o p e a n m a t t e r s w e re , a n d C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n o n e s in p a r tic u la r . S im p lific a tio n s , (e.g. Z ao lzie a n d C ie sz y n S ile s ia c a se ) i f n o t m is r e p r e s e n ta tio n s ( th e a lle g e d P o lis h -C z e c h o s lo v a k s e t tle m e n ts in M u n ic h ) c o n ta in e d in th e S e c r e ta r y ’s c o m m e n ts p ro v e h o w m u c h fu d g e d th e im a g e o f th in g s F r a n k lin D. R o o se v e lt m u s t h a v e h a d o n th e s t a t e o f th e m a t t e r s in t h a t tr o u b le a r e a o f th e w o rld .
T h e se c o n d c a te g o ry o f c o n c lu sio n s c o n c e rn th e p e rio d b e tw e e n M a y 1939 a n d th e e n d o f th e G e r m a n c a m p a ig n in P o la n d (e a rly O c to b e r 1939. T h e
