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A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S FO L IA OECONOMICA 17, 1982

K em al K u r tu lu s *

rw

CH A N N ELS OF D ISTR IB U TIO N IN A D E V ELO PIN G COUNTRY: THE CASE OF TURKEY

1. INTROD U CTIO N

A lthough th e su b ject of ch an n els of d istrib u tio n is not fu lly d eve-loped in th eo ry , it is still one of th e m ost analyzed subjects, especially in com parative m ark e tin g studies. F o r exam ple, if th e su b ject index of th e Jo u rn a l of M ark etin g is review ed it can be easily seen th a t th e u n d erstan d in g of ch an n els of d istrib u tio n in d iffe re n t co u n tries has been tre a te d as an im p o rta n t issue for years. U n fo rtu n ately , th e re h as n ot been a valid, reliable, un iq u e stu d y done to d eterm in e an d u n d e r-sta n d th e p rese n t r-sta tu s of ch an n els of d istrib u tio n in all sectors of th e T u rk ish economy. T here are some studies w hich have lim ited co n ten t an d /o r v alid ity and reliab ility . This p a p e r aim s a t ev alu atio n of th e basic resu lts of these studies and d ev elopm ent of some conclusions fro m th e ir findings and ou r observations.

T u rk ish econom y has c reated 1,195 billion TL. G ross N ational P ro -d u c t (GNP) in c u rre n t prices in 1978. P e r capita incom e w as 27,699 TL 1. T u rk ish econom y has faced v e ry high in flatio n ra te s ab o u t 40% 2 espe-cially d u rin g last tw o years. In ad d itio n to th e high population grow th, h igh in flatio n ra te s also stim u lated th e consum ption. T hus th e m ost ty p ical c h aracteristic of th e T u rk ish econom y is th a t th e d em an d exceeds su p p ly for in d u stria l an d consum er products. 25% of th e G N P w as c reated by th e in d u stria l sector, 22% by th e a g ric u ltu ra l sector, 14% by

* P ro f. Dr, In s titu te of M ark etin g , U n iv ersity of Ista n b u l (Turkey).

1 T h ese a r e estim a tes n o t ex a ct figures. In 1978, officially, 25 TL. w as U .ą. $ 1 (Sum m ar y of M o n th ly Foreign T rade, S ta te In s titu te of S tatistic s, A n k a ra 1978).

2 See: 1977V1IV1II M o n th ly B u lle tin o f S ta tistics, S ta te In s titu te o f S ta -tistics, A n k a ra 1978.

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th e com m ercial sector and 38% b y o th er sectors. The services secto r con stitu tes th e m ain categ o ry in th is group. T hus alm ost a h a lf of G N P is created by com m ercial and services sectors. A lm ost 62% of th e po-p u latio n is econom ically active of w hich 57% is w orking in ag ricu l-tu re , 21% in in d u stry and 22% in th e services. T u rk ey has a m ixed econom y in w hich th e public and p riv a te sectors alm ost have th e equal share in m an u factu rin g industries. D uring th e first 11 m onths of 1978, th e value of im ports to taled $ 5.2. billion and ex p o rts $ 4 billion 3. T h e b alance of foreign tra d e is pro b ab ly th e m ost v ital problem for th e economy. The p ro d u ct m ix of th e m an u factu rin g in d u stries w as 48% for consum er goods, 39% fo r in te rm e d ia ry goods, and 13% for inve-stm en t goods in 1978.

The m ark etin g o rien ted ex p en d itu res have a v e ry significant p lace in th e T u rk ish economy. Of course, it is n ot easy to judge th is situ atio n as good or bad. B ut from th e high u n em p lo y m en t figures, alm ost 20% d u rin g 1978, th is m ay be in te rp re te d as h ig h er m ark e tin g costs too. Because th e a b ility of a n excessive n u m b er of persons to subsist in com m ercial occupations n ecessarily im plies th a t th e cost m ark e tin g is h ig h er th a n the necessary level 4.

It should be rem em b ered th a t all of th e m ark etin g in stitu tio n s a r e a fu n ctio n of economic, social, legal and o th er en v iro n m en tal condi-tions. T herefore, th e re is no un iq u e d istrib u tio n system fo r all econo-m ies 5. D holakia and D holakia have e v alu ated one of th e iecono-m p o rta n t envi-ro n m en tal factors, n am ely th e public policy, in term s of d istrib u tio n in advanced c a p italist countries, in socialist countries, and in T h ird W orld c o u n trie s 6. T hey conclude th a t d istrib u tio n is becom ing an im p o rta n t concern of public policy in all socioeconom ic contexts. B u t u n fo rtu n a -tely in th e T h ird W orld countries, th e policym akers have focused th e ir a tte n tio n on th e d istrib u tio n sector only recen tly . T his is th e case of T u rk ey too. T hey also propose th a t none of th e m odels developed for advanced econom ies provides m uch guidance in m odernising a n d re g u -latin g th e d istrib u tio n system w h en th e level of economic d ev elo p m en t is v ery low.

3 See: S u m m ary o f M o n th ly Foreign Trade.

4 L. E. P r e s t o n , T h e C om m ercial S ecto r and E conom ic D evelo p m en t, [In:) M arkets and M a rketin g in D eveloping Econom ics, H om ew ood III, R ich a rd D. Irw in, Inc. 1968, p. 20.

5 L. C u r r i e , M a rketin g O rganization fo r U ndeveloped C ountries, [In:] Mar-k e ts and M arMar-keting..., p. 128.

1 N. D h o l a k i a , R. R. D h o l a k i a , A C o m parative V iew o f P ublic P olicy T ow ard D istribution, „E u ro p ea n J o u r n a l of M a rk e tin g ” 1978, vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 541—553.

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A lthough in several studies a v e ry high pro p o rtio n of com pany m a-nagers have m entioned ch an n els of d istrib u tio n as th e m ost im p o rta n t decision a rea, th e policy-m akers have ignored th is fact in fo rm u latin g th e public policy to w ard distrib u tio n . This can be o b served b y exam ining th e fiv e-y ear economic developm ent p lans of th e T u rk ish Republic. Even in th e last, fo u rth p lan (1979— 1983), th e im p ortance of th is sector has not been fu lly realized.

2. CHANNELS O F D IST R IB U T IO N IN TU RK EY

In exam ining th e channels of d istrib u tio n in T u rk ey a sectoral clas-sification w ill be used. In this classfication th re e m ain sectors, n am e-ly, in d u strial goods, consum er goods and services, w ill be distinguished fo r th e purpose.

C H A N N E L S O F D IS T R IB U T IO N F O R I N D U S T R I A L G O O D S

M ore th a n half, 54%, of th e production of m an u fa ctu rin g in d u stry , w hich accounted fo r 16% of th e G N P in 1978, are in d u stria l goods. How-ever, th e re are some exceptations, th e exclusive d istrib u tio n th ro u g h selling agents an d /o r selling p erso n n el is a typical ch a ra c te ristic of th e d istrib u tio n policy of th is secto r as show n in Fig. 1.

C om pared w ith th e m an u factu rin g firm s, dom estic or foreign, selling ag ents a re not su fficien tly pow erful. T h erefo re m an u fa ctu rers a re th e lead ers in th e ir channels of d istrib u tio n . C o-operation b etw een m an u fa ctu rers and selling agents is a v e ry significant condition for the effective operation of th e channel. A lm ost all of th e functions except financing, w a-rehousing and tran sp o rtatio n , to some ex ten t, are p erform ed by th e m an u fak - tu re rs. S elling ag en ts are th e m ajo r source fo r financing th e m an u fak tu rers. The service sector supplies to th e p u rchasers m ostly are

not sufficient.

H ow ever, th eo re tic ally in m ost cases th e m an u fa ctu rers h ave price lists for th e ir products and allow certain percen tag e of fun ctio n al discounts to th e selling agents, th e selling agents charge m uch h ig h er

Fig. 1. T ypical d is trib u -tion ch an n els of in d u stria l

p ro d u cts in T u rk e y * T h e t e r m c o n s u m e r u s e d in t h i s p a p e r h a s a v e r y b r o a d s e n s e . I t in c lu d e s b o t h in d i v i -d u a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l p u r -c h a s e r s .

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prices to th e p u rch asers because of th e im balance b etw een su p p ly and dem and for these products. T herefore, th eo retically co st-oriented, cost- -p lu s pricing seem s to be th e d o m in an t pricing approach. F o r exam ple Istan b u l C ham ber of Com m erce has proposed average gross p ro fit m argins for re ta ile rs (see: T able 1). But, in th e reality , d em an d o

rien-T a b l e 1 A v erag e gross p ro fit m arg in s of re ta ile rs p roposed b y Is ta n b u l ch a m b e r of

com m erce fo r 1976— 1978 period

Type of goods Ranges of average

profit margins (%) Means (%) Deviations (%)Standard

Food and drinks 4 - 2 5 15.3 5.4

Clothing 1 3 -3 2 18.6 4.6

Housing 5 -2 5 16.2 4.0

Construction 3 - 2 0 11.3 5.0

Electrical 4 - 2 7 12.8 4.8

Other equipment 1 .5 -5 0 17.9 8.2

Hotels and restaurants 12 — 100 35 19.2

Transportation 1 0 -4 0 24.5 6

S o u r c e : O r t a l a m a K ä r H a d le v i , I s t a m b u ł C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e , 1977.

N o t e : A v e r a g e g r o s s p r o f i t m a r g i n s w h i c h a r e e x t e r n a l r a t e s , i n c r e a s e d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e d e g r e e o f l u x o r i o u s n e s s o f p r o d u c t s . F o r e x a m p l e i n f o o d a n d d r i n k s g r o u p , p r o f i t m a r g i n is d e t e r m i n e d a s 4% f o r b r e a d a n d 25% f o r s o f t d r i n k s .

ted p ricin g is applied w h en ev er conditions allow. This situ a tio n is even m ore valid for th e im p o rtin g ag ents w hich are located m ostly in Istan b u l. Since personal selling and some sales prom otion activ ities are th e m ost im p o rta n t p rom otional tools, alm ost no th in g has b een sp en t fo r ad v ertisin g , except fo r some u n im p o rta n t p restig e advertising.

A n o th er im p o rta n t observation is th a t in co n stru ctio n in d u stry , ex p ecially building eq u ip m en t in d u stry , high level of v ertical in te g ra tion of m an u fa ctu rers th ro u g h g en eral d istrib u to rs and re ta ile rs s ta r -ted in 1978.

C H A N N E L S O F D I S T R I B U T I O N F O R S E R V IC E S

Services including banking, insurance, to urism , tra n sp o rta tio n , com m unication, h ealth , education, com m erce and all o th er m ark etin g activ ities have th e g rea test p ro p o rtio n in th e T u rk ish GNP. T he ra te of increase of th is secto r has also been th e h ig h est d u rin g th e last tw o years. This is because of th e high u n em p lo y m en t ra te and th e hig h ra te of m ig ratio n to u rb a n areas. T hus th e increasing n u m b er of people have been becom ing salesm an, m o stly p ed d lers in co n su m er p ro ducts

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sector, especially for fre sh foods. B anking and insu ran ce are th e m ost im p o rta n t subsectors, especially in term s of em p lo y m en t in th e service sector.

In B anking th e re are a to tal of 38 banks o p eratin g in T u rk ey , 10 of th em being public banks, 23 of th em being p riv a te n atio n al banks, and 5 of th em being in te rn atio n a l banks. C om petition b etw een these banks to a ttra c t m ore deposits caused a n increase in th e n u m b er of bran ch es an d h eav y ad v ertisin g ex p en d itu res. A t th e beginning of 1978 th e re w ere 5,209 b ran ch es of com m ercial b anks in T u rkey. T his shows a te n -d en cy of in ten siv e -d istrib u tio n in b an king sector. C om petition in term s of service d iffe re n tia tio n has been neglected in th is sector ex cep t fo r some effo rts to develop some new services d u rin g th e last few years, such as ex press service, cre d it cards, etc. B anks h ave been accounting fo r alm ost 20% of th e to ta l a d v ertisin g ex p e n d itu re in T u rkey, w hich w as 2.1 billion TL in 1977, th a t is, 0.25% of GN P, to advertising. This secto r is also th e leading secto r in a d v ertisin g ex p en d itu re. It should be m entioned th a t up to now ad v ertisin g ex p e n d itu re has b een ex em p ted from taxes. A new law is proposed to increase th e ta x coverage in clu -din g ad v ertisin g ex p en d itu re. It is excepted th a t even th is change w ill p ro b ab ly not effect th e use of ad v ertisin g b y fin an cially p o w erful firm s including banks 7.

T here w ere a to tal of 36 in su ran ce com panies a t th e beginning of 1979. 21 of these w ere T u rk ish and th e re st w ere foreign com panies. In su ran ce services a re supplied to th e in stitu tio n a l and perso n al cu-stom ers th ro u g h licensed insu ran ce sales p ersonnel or insu ran ce agents in T urkey. D u rin g th e la st few years, selling of insu ran ce th ro u g h b a n -k ing bran ch es has becom e an increasing practice as a re su lt of financial consolidations b etw een b anks an d in su ran ce com panies. Thus, m ost of th e bank bran ch es becom e selling ag ents of th e in su ran ce com panies. The pro p o rtio n of to ta l in su ran ce sales th ro u g h selling ag ents has sig n ifican tly increased because of th is n ew developm ent. One of th e less developed areas in term s of m ark e tin g applications in T u rk ey is insurance. M ost of th e insu ran ce types, such as life in surance, fire in surance, a re still v e ry new services to th e T u rk ish consum ers. As a sector, in su ran ce is still new and m ost of th e people a re not convinced of th e ben efits of insurance. In spite of th is fact, no cooperative ad v ertisin g and public relatio n s cam paings have been u n d e r-tak en by these com panies. Basides th e ban k branches, in surance ag ents are sm all individual com panies. C om m unication and control seem to be

7 See: K. K u r t u l u s , R ek la m a r V erg ilen d ivilm a li m i? Ista n b u l, „M illiyet G azetesi ”, 11 O cak 1979.

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th e im p o rta n t p roblem s in th is sector. Since th e q u a lity of th e service is a v ery im p o rta n t d e te rm in a n t of consum er choice beh av io u r in service sectors, insu ran ce com panies should fo rm u late th e ir m ark e tin g policies accordingly. U n fo rtu n a tely this is also g en erally neglected in T urkey.

Bank

Fig. 2. T y p ical d istrib u tio n ch an n els of b a n k s a n d in su ran c e com panies Typical ch an n els of d istrib u tio n s of b an king and in su ran ce services are show n in Fig. 2. M ostly th e sales concept^ is d o m in an t in th is oligopolistic sector.

C H A N N E L S O F D I S T R IB U T IO N F O R C O N S U M E R G O O D S

A lm ost 2/3 of th e p er cap ita incom e has been sp en t for p riv a te con-su m p tio n and 4/5 fo r to tal concon-sum ption in T u rk ey d u rin g 1976. T his is v alid fo r alm ost a ll developing countries. T his sector w ill be analy sed w ith in tw o headings, nam ely, n o n d u rab le consum er goods, especially foods, and d u ra b le consum er goods.

As m entioned earlier, m u ch of th e research on th e d istrib u tio n channels in developing econom ies has cen tered on food in d u stry . T his is also th e case for T u rk ey since m ore th a n 40% of th e co n sum er’s b u d -get in sp en t on food in th e c o u n tr y 8.

The d istrib u tio n system s fo r foods in T u rk e y a re not developed suffi-ciently. E specially in term s of functions th a t in te rm e d ia ry firm s p e r-form , th ese firm s are only involved w ith th e physical flow of th e g o o d s9. K a y n ak m entioned th a t v arious ty p es of channels of d istrib u -tio n have been used in food d istrib u -tio n in T u rk ey as p rese n ted in Fig. 3. He also observed th a t in food d istrib u tio n th e re is not enough

8 See: М. О 1 u q, N. N e y z i, E. G ö n e n s a y , E. J. E n d v i g h t, W h o le-saling in T u rk e y , [In:] C om parative M a rketin g -W h o lesa lin g in F ifte e n C ountries, (ed.) B a rtels R., H om ew ood, 111., R ich a rd D. Irw in , Inc., 1963, p p . 60—90.

See: E. K a y n a k , S u p p lie r E n v iro n m e n t o f Food R etailers in a D eve-loping E conom y, „ In te rn a tio n a l J o u rn a l of P h y sica l D istrib u tio n ” 1976, vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 152— 154.

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specialization am ong channel m em bers. T hus allacatio n of d istrib u tio n fu n ctio n s am ong m em b ers of th e ch an n el is a rb itra ry . On th e w hole-saling level th e ex act n u m b er of w holesalers is n o t know b u t it can be said th a t th e n u m b er is v ery high in th is sector since th e to tal n u m -b er of w holesalers w as 22,650 and this n u m -b er w as 173,044 for re ta ile rs in 1970 in T urkey.

Fig. 3. T ypical d istrib u tio n ch an n els of foods in T u rk e y g en eral

A t th e re ta il level, th e re are so m an y d iffe re n t ty pes of re ta ile rs , such as su p erm ark ets, m ark ets, gro cery stores peddlers, etc. R etailers a re m uch sm aller th a n w holesalers. F inan cin g of re ta ile rs is th e m o st im p o rta n t function of w holesalers. B rokers a re also th e m ain fin an cin g source for producers, especially for vegetables and fru its. M ost of th e food pro d u cers a re w orking on a sm all scale ex cep t th e canned food producers. This also causes th e increase in th e n u m b er of ch an n el m em bers. Significant increases in th e n u m b er of ag ric u ltu ra l, sales a n d m ark etin g cooperatives h ave been observed d u rin g th e la st few y e a rs, in 1976 about 2,000 cooperatives w ere established 10.

10 See: 1977 S ta tistica l Y ea rb o o k o f T u rk e y , S ta te In s titu te o f S tatistics, A n k a -r a 1978, p. 399.

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A new p ro ject called TANSA is proposed by th e g o v ern m en t to d i-strib u te foods d ire c tly to th e consum ers by in te g ratin g th e production cooperatives and m unicipal re ta il selling stores. A stu d y rev ealed th a t m ore th en 60% of th e selling price of fresh tom atoes has gone to th e ch an n el m em bers. A lm ost all of th e m ark e tin g fu n ctio n s a re carried out by th e in te rm e d ia ry in stitu tio n s in th is sector. In addition to these c h aracteristics, th e lim ited m obility of consum ers, high freq u en cy of p urch ases and c u ltu ra l facto rs also account for long d istrib u tio n channels in th is sector.

D u rin g th e last few y ears th e im p ortance of su p e rm a rk e ts is grow ing; especially in big cities. N ew su p e rm a rk e t chains h ave been en te rin g th e food m ark et. B ut th e coverage is one of m ajo r co n strain ts in th is deve-lo p m en t n . In ru ra l areas tra d itio n al channels of d istrib u tio n are still th e d o m in an t system . In th is sector, th e d ru g in d u stry has its own d i-strib u tio n system . It d ii-strib u tes d ru g s th ro u g h its ow n sales-force an d/or d ru g w h o lesalers located in Ista n b u l to d ru g stores. In sum m ary, in te r-m ed iary in stitu tio n s in food d istrib u tio n are v e ry larg e in nur-m ber, fi-n a fi-n cially pow erless ifi-n stitu tio fi-n s, afi-n d th e y are supposed to perfo rm alm ost all of th e m ark etin g functions, such as, handling, w arehousing, financing, risk taking, stn d ard izatio n , etc. B ut th ey p erfo rm only a few of th ese fu n ctio n s as a resu lt of th e ir c u rre n t statu s. These in te rm e -d ia ry in stitu tio n s shoul-d be reorganize-d, fin an cially rein fo rce-d an-d sti-m u lated to use sti-m o d ern sti-m an ag esti-m en t techniques.

The consum er d u rab le p ro d u cts have gained g re a t im p o rtan ce in th e T u rk ish econom y d u rin g th e la st few y ears, especially a fte r 1970. In 1978, m ore th a n 16% of th e consum er budgets w as sp en t fo r th ese p ro -ducts. C hanges in th e life style, v e ry fast u rb anization, m ark e tin g ac ti-v ities and high in flatio n hati-ve stim u la te d th e d em an d for consum er du rab les. The m a jo rity of these in d u stries a re assem bly in d u strie s d e-spite th e fact th an , in m o n eta ry term s, ab o u t 70% of th e p a rts a re produced in th e country. Thus, one of th e m ost im p o rta n t c h a ra c te ri-stics of th is in d u stry is its heav y dependence on foreign resources, i.e. im ports. Irre g u la ritie s in th e pro d u ctio n of th is in d u stry a re an o th e r im p o rta n t characteristic. A lthough th e re ta il prices a re co n trolled by th e M in istry of In d u stry , h ig h er prices can be ch arged b y re ta ile rs as a re su lt of th e im balance b etw een su p p ly and d em an d in term s of p la -ce a n d /o r tim e. This can be done d ire c tly or in d ire ctly by retailers. T he m ost com m on ap plication of th e in d ire ct w ay is to charge v e ry hig h in te re s t ra te s fo r credits. Since m ost of th e sales are on cred it, th is is

11 See: A. G o l d m a n , O u trea ch o f C onsum ers and th e M odernization o f U rban Food R eta ilin g in D eveloping C ountries, „ J o u rn a l of M a rk e tin g " O ctober 1974, p. 16.

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an im p o rta n t practice. T hese in te re st ra te s can be as h ig h as 70% a n n u a lly in re frig e ra to r re ta il sales.

A n o th er c h a ra c te ristic of this sector is m ain ly th e fin an cially po-w erfu l p ro d u cer and exclusive d istrib u tio n th ro u g h g en eral d istrib u to rs th a t a re g en erally v e rtica lly in te g rate d w ith p ro d ucers, an d selling agents a t th e re ta il level. T here is an u n im p o rta n t ex cep tio n to th is d istrib u tio n system th a t is selling d ire c tly to consum ers th ro u g h p ro -d u cer ow ne-d re ta il stores.

The v ertical in te g ratio n including selling ag en ts is also observed in th is in d u stry . P ro d u cers are th e channel lead ers in th is in d u stry . H andling, w arehousing and tra n sp o rta tio n functions a re p erfo rm ed by th e gen eral d istrib u to rs w hereas pricing, cu sto m er services and p ro -m otional functions are p erfo m ed by th e producers, and th e o th er -m a r-k etin g functions, such as, contact, financing of

custom ers and d eliv ery are p erfo rm ed b y th e sel-ling agents.

A ty p ical d istrib u tio n channel in th is in d u stry can be rep resen ted as in Fig. 4. H eavy prom

otio-nal cam paigns, m o stly ad v ertisin g com paigns, are u n d e rta k en by pro d u cers to increase th e sales. M ostly th e sales concept is accepted and applied in th is oligopolistic in d u stry . In th is reg ard , it is observed th a t th e needs and w an ts of consum ers are not tak en in to account by m ost of th e firm s; in one stu d y th is p ro p o rtio n w as d eterm in ed a t 81% , in p ro d u ct planning and developm ent. In sum m ary, typical ch aracteristic of the econom y of scarcity are observed in th is in d u stry 12.

3. CONCLUSION

A s a sum m ary, it can be said th a t th e sales concept is still do m in an t

in th e T u rk ish econom y as a re s u lt of ex istin g economic, social, poli-tical and o th er en v iro n m en tal conditions.

C hannels of d istrib u tio n are m ostly v e ry com plex. M ost of th e m a r-k etin g functions are le ft to th e channel m em bers. B ut in m ost cases th ey are not p erform ed su fficien tly because of th e ir financial, physical and m an ag erial constraints.

12 See: C. A. S a m i , W holesaling an E conom y o f S carcity: T u r k e y , „ J o u rn a l of M ark e tin g ” J u ly 1964, p. 58.

Fig. 4. T yp ical d is tri-b u tio n ch an n els of co n su m er d u ra b le s in

(10)

-C onsum ers are n ot p ro tected . S tan d ard izatio n , q u a lity control, se r-vices, a d v ertisin g and price discrim in atio n are th e m ajo r areas fo r th e co n su m er protection.

A sig n ifican t m odernization in d istrib u tio n ch an n els has ta k e n place d u rin g th e last year, especially a fte r 1970, th ro u g h th e in tro d u ctio n of d e p a rtm e n t stores and su p er m ark ets. It is expected th a t th is develop-m e n t w ill co n tinue in th e fu tu re.

K e m a l K u r tu lu s

K A N A ŁY D Y STRY BU C JI W K R A JA C H R O Z W IJA JĄ C Y C H SIĘ. PR ZY K ŁA D T U R C JI

W o p arciu o p o d staw o w e d an e dotyczące g o sp o d ark i tu re c k ie j, a u to r dok o n ał c h a ra k te ry s ty k i k a n a łó w w sy stem ie d y stry b u c ji w T u rc ji. P o d k re śla ją c złożoność i kom pleksow ość te j p ro b lem aty k i, a u to r om ów ił zm iany w k a n a ła c h d y -stry b u c ji w T u rc ji w o sta tn ic h la ta c h zm ierzające do zw iększenia ich g o sp o d ar-czspołecznej efektyw ności. Z m iany te m ieszczą się w ogólnej te n d e n c ji do m o-d e rn iz a c ji h a n o-d lu w gospoo-darce tu re c k ie j i sta n o w ią te j m o o-d ern izacji szczególny w y raz.

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