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Introduction to the issue: Critical thinking

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Introduction to the issue:

Critical thinking

We­live­in­the­age­of­information.­The­amount­of­information­is­overwhelming­ and­it­expands­more­and­more­with­every­year.­Naturally,­not­all­information­ is­important­or­worthy­of­our­attention.­We­need­the­ability­to­evaluate­and­ select­useful­information.­This­need­is­pressing­also­because­we­live­in­a­socio‑ political­reality­where­the­truth­is­accompanied­or­even­replaced­by­post‑truth,­ alternative­facts,­fake­news,­propaganda­or­sheer­manipulation.­We­should­be­ aware­of­these­epistemically­and­morally­negative­phenomena­and­try­to­defend­ ourselves­against­them.­Critical­thinking­skills­come­in­handy­here.­They­are­ useful­for­everyone­and­turn­out­to­be­especially­beneficial­for­students­and­ researchers.­Also,­critical­thinking­may­come­to­the­aid­of­therapists,­politi‑ cians­or­journalists,­since­it­serves­as­a­universal­tool­to­all­those­who­happen­to­ face­confusion,­strong­disagreement­and­social­conflict,­to­all­who­are­engaged­ in­various­forms­of­social­communication.­It­is­no­wonder­then­that­there­ are­many­models­of­critical­thinking,­many­theories,­concepts,­and­programs­ which­may­be­successfully­implemented­in­a­specific­context.­Some­of­them­ will­be­discussed­in­this­issue. Critical­thinking­is­useful­in­everyday­life­but­it­is­also­embedded­in­sci‑ entific­and­philosophical­practice.­Science­is,­by­its­very­nature,­critical­in­the­ sense­that­it­must­adhere­to­high­methodological­standards­and­substantive­ requirements.­Moreover,­scientific­practice­is­a­creative­activity,­for­example­in­ formulating­hypotheses­or­combining­already­known­methods.­This­requires­ vigilance­and­self‑criticism.­Criticism­may­also­provoke­some­new­solutions­ and­bring­about­a­genuine­contribution­to­the­field.­The­same­refers­to­phi‑ losophy­as­a­discipline.­Critique­often­leads­to­verification­of­the­assumptions,­ methods,­conceptual­apparatus­or­argumentative­rigour.­Criticism­in­philoso‑ phy,­however,­has­a­special­status;­it­is­usually­a­process­of­creative­philosophiz‑ ing­which­may­consist,­inter­alia,­in­giving­up­some­assumptions­and­adopting­ others,­or­in­specifying­and­clarifying­concepts,­providing­counter‑arguments­ or­revising­them.

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The­author­of­the­first­article­in­this­issue­of­Argument: Biannual Philosophi-cal Journal­presents­a­philosophiPhilosophi-cal­and­logiPhilosophi-cal­model­of­critiPhilosophi-cal­thinking­in­ higher­education.­In­his­paper,­Andrzej­Dąbrowski­defends­a­slimmed‑down­ version­of­critical­thinking,­that­is­one­that­emphasizes­the­role­of­analysis,­ evaluation­and­argumentation­but­does­not­embrace­such­issues­as­problem­ solving,­decision­making­or­creative­thinking.­Critical­thinking­takes­place­in­ various­situations­including­the­communication­context,­here­regarded­as­the­ most­important­one.­It­may­include­scientific­discussion,­information­and­cog‑ nitive­dialogue,­deliberative­dialogue,­persuasive­or­negotiating­dialogue.­Each­ of­these­dialogical­situations­will­require­a­slightly­different­type­of­analysis­and­ argumentation. The­second­paper,­addressing­the­leading­theme­of­the­issue,­presents­a­psy‑ cho‑pedagogical­model­of­critical­thinking.­Iwona­Chaja‑Chudyba­opens­with­ the­question­“why­are­we­afraid­of­criticism?”,­and­discusses­in­detail­a­num‑ ber­of­inhibitors,­such­as:­1)­emotional­and­motivational­barriers,­2)­cognitive­ barriers,­3)­personality­barriers,­4)­the­external­barriers­of­a­given­educational­ environment,­5)­social,­cultural,­ideological­and­political­barriers,­6)­educa‑ tional­barriers.­The­typology­and­analysis­of­inhibitors­of­critical­thinking­are­ the­result­of­the­author’s­empirical­research­within­the­field­of­psychology­and­ pedagogy.­This­research­also­prompted­the­author­to­develop­her­own­concept­ of­constructive­criticism­as­a­separate­form­of­thinking­which­combines­both­ the­logical­and­analytical,­as­well­as­the­creative­elements. Martijn­H.­Demollin­argues­that­correlations­merely­suggest­the­presence­ of­a­causal­relation.­To­show­this­he­juxtaposes­authentic­scientific­discourse­ with­popular­science­discourse.­Then,­with­the­help­of­a­well‑chosen­exam‑ ple,­the­author­shows­that­a­strawman­fallacy­has­been­committed­in­popular­ scientific­literature.­Demollin­persuasively­introduces­his­own­argumentative­ pattern­for­the­argument­from­correlation­to­cause.­He­also­formulates­eight­ critical­questions:­1)­is­there­a­positive­or­negative­correlation­between­A­and­ B?­2)­is­the­correlation­between­A­and­B­significant?­3)­is­the­correlation­be‑ tween­A­and­B­not­due­to­mere­chance?­4)­can­we­rule­out­that­there­is­the­ third­variable­responsible­for­the­observed­correlation­between­A­and­B?­5)­can­ we­rule­out­that­B­causes­A?­6)­do­premises­provide­an­adequate­substantiation­ of­a­causal­relation­from­A­to­B?­7)­do­any­exceptions­to­the­causal­relation­ap‑ ply,­and­if­so,­can­they­be­clearly­delineated­as­exceptions?­8)­when­a­premise­in­ the­argument­is­missing,­does­this­prevent­a­valid­inference­to­a­causal­relation? The­next­paper­by­Paweł­Sikora­points­to­the­timeliness­of­Immanuel­Kant’s­ critical­ philosophy.­ Within­ the­ framework­ of­ the­ analytical­ philosophy­ of­ mind,­an­important­discussion­takes­place­today­on­the­role­of­concepts­and­ experience­in­cognition,­about­the­existence­of­the­conceptual­and­non‑concep‑ tual­content­of­perception.­Kant­clearly­poses­this­problem­first­when­he­asks­ whether­the­content­of­the­perception­is­free­from­conceptual­recognition,­or­is­

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it­always­already­contained­in­a­cognitive­reference­to­it.­Sikora­considers­which­ side­of­this­debate­would­have­been­supported­by­Kant.­In­the­author’s­opinion­ Kant­is­ultimately­a­conceptualist­despite­some­non‑conceptual­themes.­Sikora­ places­Kant­somewhere­between­strong­conceptualism­(in­line­with­the­in‑ terpretation­of­Wilfrid­Sellars,­John­McDowell­and­early­Judson­Brewer)­and­ moderate­non‑conceptualism,­not­necessarily­in­Christopher­A.B.­Peacocke’s­ style,­but­nevertheless­quite­an­original­one.­In­a­broader­context,­this­article­ can­be­treated­as­an­example­of­a­clash­between­classical­arguments­and­some­ new­ones­within­philosophical­discourse. Jakub­Gomułka’s­article­is­a­good­example­of­critical­thinking­applied­to­ the­procedure­of­argumentation­and­some­mathematical­issues.­The­author­ presents­three­points­of­view,­including­Georg­Cantor’s,­Ludwig­Wittgenstein’s­ and­his­own­that­he­labels­as­quietist­conventionalism.­According­to­Cantor­ there­are­different­actual­infinities.­Wittgenstein,­on­the­other­hand,­rejects­ the­very­idea­of­actual­infinity.­His­initial­objections,­formed­in­the­late­1920s,­ were­further­enhanced­several­years­later­with­the­charge­of­the­lack­of­applica‑ tion­of­Cantor’s­calculus.­Gomułka­distances­himself­from­both­of­them.­He­ claims­that­we­can­defend­Cantor’s­theory­and­operate­with­certain­mathemati‑ cal­techniques­taking­any­assumptions­we­like­as­long­as­we­restrain­ourselves­ from­ontologising­them. The­main­focus­of­Adriana­Warmbier,­the­author­of­the­sixth­article­in­the­ topical­section,­is­a­reflection­on­the­subjective­ability­to­create­various­kinds­ of­rules­and­norms­ordering­human­action.­This­is­a­question­of­normativity­ posed­by­Kant­and­later­taken­up­by­others,­including­Christine­Korsgaard.­ The­latter­seeks­to­consolidate­normativity­by­recognizing­two­requirements­ relating­to:­1)­the­Kantian­thesis­on­the­existence­of­a­universal­will­and­2) ac‑ cepting­that­this­universal­will­is­a­law­of­self‑constitution­and­as­such­consti‑ tutes­a­constitutive­principle­of­a­person’s­identity.­Wermbier­claims­that­the­ second­requirement­defended­by­Korsgaard,­which­in­the­author’s­intention­is­ to­supplement­Kant’s­theory,­is­burdened­with­serious­problems.­This­difficul‑ ty­results­from­the­limitations­of­the­procedural­concept­of­rationality­which­is­ to­lead­to­the­formulation­of­an­unconditional­moral­norm. The­subsequent­three­papers­are­indirectly­linked­with­the­problem­of­criti‑ cal­thinking.­Paweł­Dybel­discusses­selected­aspects­of­the­history­of­psychoa‑ nalysis­in­Poland­1900–1939.­He­is­specially­interested­in­the­interconnections­ between­psychoanalysis­and­patriarchalism. The­article­questions­the­way­in­ which­Eli­Zaretsky­captures­the­role­of­Freud’s­psychoanalysis­in­transforming­ the­self‑knowledge­of­modern­societies­in­his­Secrets of the soul.­According­to­ Zaretsky,­in­Central­European­countries,­Poland­included,­psychoanalysis­then­ served­in­the­democratization­of­social­life­and­led­to­the­destruction­of­the­ patriarchal­order;­while­in­Western­countries­it­became­medicated,­becoming­ a­tool­of­social­control.

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The­next­author,­Przemysław­Szczurek,­presents­a­critical­reconsideration­ of­Yudhiṣṭhira,­a­protagonist­of­the­ancient­Indian­epic­Mahābhārata,­who­is­ referred­to­as­an­ideal­ruler­portrayed­as­a­hero­full­of­doubts­and­self‑criticism­ as­to­his­own­status­and­duties.­Szczurek­develops­his­comparative­interpreta‑ tion­on­the­basis­of­an­intertextual­analysis­of­both­the­Hindu­and­Buddhist­ sources. The­next­paper­deals­with­the­aesthetics­as­a­philosophy­of­art.­Maria­Pop‑ czyk’s­central­problem­is­the­body­of­the­viewer­juxtaposed­with­the­image­of­ the­painting;­both­body­and­image­are­considered­to­be­independent,­which­is­ a­condition­of­any­fully­aesthetic­experience.­She­demonstrates­how,­through­ phenomenology,­pragmatism­and­the­idea­of­incarnation,­post‑Kantian­aes‑ thetic­may­be­extended.

The­ Book symposium,­ whose­ subject­ matter­ engages­ critical­ thinking­ in­ a­socio‑political­context,­with­special­focus­on­the­current­state­of­American­ democracy,­comprises­two­articles.­Anand­Vaidya­in­his­reaction­paper­pre‑ sents­some­insightful­comments­on­the­recently­published­monograph­Political

argument in a polarized age: reason and democratic life­(2020)­by­Scott­Aikin­

and­Robert­Talisse.­Vaidya­poses­some­challenges­which­are­subsequently­ad‑ dressed­by­Aikin­and­Talisse­in­their­comprehensive­response.­The­authors­of­ the­book­believe­that­it­is­not­argument­as­such­which­should­bother­us­in­ contemporary­politics.­The­problem­lies­in­argument­that­really­polarizes­and­ does­not­allow­us­to­see­those­with­whom­we­deeply­disagree­as­people­who­ even­have­minds.­For­Aikin­and­Tallise,­the­key­question­is­how­we­can­engage­ in­real­disagreement­in­ways­that­give­due­respect­to­the­political­equality­of­ others.­The­authors­suggest­that­epistemology­and­critical­thinking­can­be­ helpful­in­diagnosing­political­ignorance­in­a­more­nuanced­manner.­In­other­ words,­epistemology­and­critical­thinking­can­make­us­better­in­our­public­ engagements.

The­column­Review papers and polemics contains­two­review­papers:­one­be‑ ing­a­critique­of­the­sociologization­of­culture­authored­by­Janusz­Krupiński,­ and­another­by­Anna­Szklarska­who­presents­her­detailed­reflections­on­the­re‑ cently­published­book,­Rewolucja Kartezjańska i inne eseje [The­Cartesian­revo‑ lution­and­other­essays]­by­the­renowned­Polish­philosopher­Paweł­Kłoczowski. The­paper­of­Avani­Sabade­included­in­the­column­Teaching philosophy­is­ another­contribution­to­the­leading­theme­of­the­issue.­While­referring­to­ critical­thinking­Sabade­uses­the­widely­known­literary­figure­of­Sherlock­Hol‑ mes.­As­she­believes,­this­attractive­fictional­character­may­be­instrumental­in­ popularizing­critical­thinking­among­young­people­more­effectively.­The­argu‑ ment­is­that­Sherlock­Holmes’­abilities,­such­as­being­observational,­question‑ ing,­imaginative,­inferential,­experimenting,­consulting,­prone­one­to­analysis,­ to­judging,­deciding­but­also­not­ignoring­emotions.­Holmes­is­also­famous­ for­and­may­promote­such­dispositions­as­attentiveness,­the­habit­of­inquiry,­

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*  Ph.D.­(habil.),­associate­professor,­Department­of­Philosophy­and­Sociology,­Pedagog‑ ical­University­of­Cracow,­Poland.­E‑mail:­andrzej.dabrowski@up.krakow.pl.

**  Ph.D.­(habil.),­professor­of­Department­of­Philosophy­and­Sociology,­Pedagogical­ University­of­Cracow,­Poland.­E‑mail:­marzenna.jakubczak@up.krakow.pl.

self‑confidence,­ courage,­ open‑mindedness,­ a­ willingness­ to­ suspend­ judg‑ ment,­trust­in­reason,­seeking­the­truth.­All­the­above­mentioned­character‑ istics­largely­overlap­with­the­skills­taught­during­classes­on­critical­thinking.­ The­author­shows­that­Sherlock­Holmes­has­all­the­abilities­and­dispositions­ selected­by­Robert­H.­Ennis­except,­perhaps,­for­the­emotional­abilities. The­issue­also­contains­a­Polish­translation­of­a­paper­by­Jacques­Poulain,­ a­contemporary­French­thinker,­who­raises­a­philosophical­critique­against­glo‑ balization­and­terrorism.­The­final­column­includes­two­reviews­of­books­now­

available­in­Polish­editions:­Andrzej­Dąbrowski­discusses­Harvey­Siegel’s­Criti-cal thinking and indoctrination,­and­Andrzej­Warmiński­has­reviewed­Denis­

Dutton’s­The art instinct.

Andrzej DĄBROWSKI* & Marzenna JAKUBCZAK**

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