Necrosols of cemeteries in Masurian Lakeland

Introduction

The soil development in the surface layer of the earth's crust is a result of soil-forming factors, such as parent material, climate, organisms (vegetation and fauna), relief and time. The advent of man on Earth and the development of civilisation added another important factor in soil formation − human activity (Jenny 1941; Dokuchaev 1949; Mulins 1991). The latter factor has led to the transformation of soils, especially in the areas of intensive settlement (Baran, Turski 1996) and deforestation of natural ecological systems (Vitousek et al. 1997). Such places may include cemeteries, where specific land use has degraded the natural soil cover.

Earlier soil science studies have led to the identification of a new type of soil formed in cemeteries as Necrosol. This is a specific type of soil that is exposed to unequal pro-portions of mechanical and chemical changes in the soil profile, as well as to natural soil-forming processes. Physical changes lead to the formation of specific horizons not found in soils devoid of technogenic influence (Stroganova et al. 1998; Stroganova, Prokofieva 2000; Gerasimova et al. 2003). Human activity contributes to changes in physical and chemical properties of cemetery soils.

The issue of Necrosols did not appear in the scientific literature until the second half of the 20th _{century. The precursors in this field were Czechoslovak researchers Smolik} (1957) and Svec and Hlina (1978). Necrosols were described in detail by the Slovak researcher Sobocká (1999; 2003; 2004). The first classification was delivered by Burghardt (1994).

In Poland, cemetery soil properties have been described by Charzyński et al. (2011), as well as by Majgier and Rahmonov (2012).

IN MASURIAN LAKELAND

LESZEK MAJGIER

OIMAHMAD RAHMONOV

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Study area and soil profiles documentation

The investigation was conducted in the abandoned evangelical cemeteries in the villages of Rudówka Mała and Wejdyki. They are located in the Ryn commune in the Great Masu-rian Lake District, in the central part of the MasuMasu-rian Lakeland (Fig. 1). Moraine deposits from the Weichselian Glaciation are the parent material for soil development in this re-gion. They consist mostly of boulder clay, sand and gravel with a substantial contribution of limestone fragments of different sizes (Kondracki 2002).

The investigated cemeteries were founded in the 19th _{century by people of German} and Masurian origin. They have not been used since the end of World War II (Płotek 2011) and are devastated and overgrown as a result of natural succession (Majgier, Rah-monov 2010; 2012; RahRah-monov et al. 2010).

The cemeteries were surveyed by taking four soil profiles: two in Rudówka Mała (pro-files 1 and 2) and two in Wejdyki (pro(pro-files 3 and 4). The pro(pro-files were divided into two groups: burial Necrosols (profiles 1 and 3) and undisturbed cemetery soils (profiles 2 and 4).

Profile 1

Cemetery Rudówka Mała Ryn commune Northern Poland Coordinates: 53°55.550’ N 21°37.443’ E Soil classification (WRB 2007): Urbic Technosol

A – 0–30 cm: loose sand, dark greyish brown, fresh, penetrated by thin roots of plants, abrupt boundary.

Bu1 – 30–70 cm: large contribution of material originated from A horizon, loose sand, yellowish brown, fresh, occasionally penetrated by thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (pieces of con-crete, pieces of bricks; 5%), gradual boundary. Bu2 – 70–100 cm: slight contribution of mate-rial originated from A horizon (gravel), loose sand, yellowish brown, fresh, penetrated by large roots of plants, gradual boundary. Bu3 – 100–125 cm: large contribution of material originated from Bu2 layer, loose sand, yellowish brown, fresh, penetrated by thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (pieces of concrete, pieces of bricks, stones; 15%), gradual boundary.

Bu4 – 125–148 cm: artificial enrichment with anthropogenic organic matter, loamy sand, yellowish brown, fresh, roots of plants absent, iron concretions, a lot of artefacts (bones, coffin remains, clothing pieces, gravel, stones; <30%), abrupt boundary.

C – below 148 cm: loose sand, pale yellow, fresh, occasionally penetrated by thin roots of plants.

0 cm

50 cm

100 cm

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HORIZON A Bu1 Bu2 Bu3 Bu4 C

DEPTH [cm] 0–30 30–70 70–100 100–125 125–148 <148 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION [%]

>2 mm 3 8 40 19 42 <1

2 mm–50 µm 93 97 95 94 90 99

50–2 µm 7 3 3 3 7 1

<2 µm 0 0 2 3 3 0

TEXTURE CLASS

(USDA) loose sand loose sand loose sand loose sand loamy sand loose sand SOIL

MATRIX COLOUR

dry

moist 10YR 4/210YR 2/2 10YR 5/410YR 3/6 10YR 5/410YR 3/6 10YR 5/410YR 3/3 10YR 5/410YR 3/4 2.5Y 5/32.5Y 7/3 OC [%] 3.36 0.41 1.15 0.43 0.61 0.07 Nt[%] 0.170 0.017 0.121 0.017 0.026 0.007 C:N 20 24 9 25 23 10 pH in H2O 7.2 8.2 8.1 8.4 8,2 8.6 in 1M KCl 6.5 7.6 7.5 7.9 7.6 8.1 CaCO3 [%] 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.9 1.2 5.1 Pt [mg·kg-1] 1560 249 2010 239 259 184

Profile 2

Cemetery Rudówka Mała, Ryn commune, Northern Poland Coordinates: 53°55.550’ N 21°37.434’ E Soil classification (WRB 2007): Brunic Arenosol

A – 0–31 cm: loose sand, very dark grey, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (pieces of concrete, pieces of bricks; >5%), abrupt boundary.

Bwo1 – 31–100 cm: loose sand, dark yellowish brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, iron con-cretions, gradual boundary.

Bwo2 – 100–155 cm: loose sand, brown, fresh, penetrated by many thick roots of plants, gradual boundary.

C – below 155 cm: loose sand, light yellowish, fresh, occasionally pene-trated by thin roots of plants.

0 cm

50 cm

100 cm

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HORIZON A Bwo1 Bwo2 C

DEPTH [cm] 0–30 30–100 100–155 < 155 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION [%]

>2 mm 6 7 9 4

2 mm–50 µm 94 95 95 97

50–2 µm 6 5 5 3

<2 µm 0 0 0 0

TEXTURE CLASS

(USDA) loose sand loose sand loose sand loose sand SOIL

MATRIX COLOUR

dry

moist 10YR 3/110YR 2/1 10YR 4/410YR 3/4 10YR 4/310YR 3/2 2.5Y 6/32.5Y 4/3

OC [%] 3.66 0.39 1.07 0.05 Nt [%] 0.257 0.007 0.034 0.005 C:N 14 56 31 11 pH in H2O 7.4 8.0 8.0 8.4 in 1M KCl 6.8 7.3 7.4 8.0 CaCO3 [%] 0.3 0.9 1.9 5.4 Pt [mg·kg-1] 323 246 468 446

Profile 3

A – 0–10 cm: loose sand, dark greyish brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, abrupt boundary.

Bu1 – 10–60 cm: large contribution of material originated from A horizon, loose sand, brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a few arte-facts (pieces of concrete; <10%), gradual boundary. Bu2 – 60–110 cm: small contribution of material originated from A horizon and large contribution of material originated from Bu1 layer, loose sand, brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (pieces of concrete, stones; 10%), abrupt boundary.

Bu3 – 110–140 cm: artificial enrichment with anthro-pogenic organic matter, loose sand, brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a lot of artefacts (bones, coffin remains, pieces of con-crete, gravel; <30%), gradual boundary.

Bu3C – 140–160 cm: transitional horizon mixed with Bu3 layer, loose sand, yellowish brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (bones; 15%), gradual boundary. C – below 160 cm: loose sand, light yellowish brown, fresh, no roots.

0 cm

50 cm

100 cm

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HORIZON A Bu1 Bu2 Bu3 Bu3C C

DEPTH [cm] 0–10 10–60 60–110 110–140 140–160 < 160 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION [%]

>2 mm 9 17 18 37 25 12

2 mm–50 µm 94 94 93 95 96 93

50–2 µm 6 6 7 5 4 6

<2 µm 0 0 0 0 0 1

TEXTURE CLASS

(USDA) loose sand loose sand loose sand loose sand loose sand loose sand SOIL

MATRIX COLOUR

dry

moist 10YR 4/210YR 2/2 10YR 5/310YR 3/3 10YR 5/310YR 3/3 10YR 4/310YR 3/3 10YR 5/410YR 3/6 2.5Y 4/32.5Y 6/3 OC [%] 0.21 0.41 1.11 2.51 0.17 1.07 Nt [%] 0.006 0.034 0.027 0.064 0.024 0.020 C:N 36 12 41 39 7 53 pH in H2O 7.1 7.5 7.6 7.4 7.8 8.1 in 1M KCl 6.4 7.0 7.0 6.7 7.3 8.0 CaCO3 [%] 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.6 6.0 Pt [mg·kg-1] 240 290 308 680 660 291

Profile 4

A – 0–10 cm: loose sand, very dark greyish brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, a few artefacts (pieces of concrete; 5%), gradual boundary.

ABo – 10–30 cm: loose sand, brown, fresh, calcium carbonate concretions, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, gradual boundary. Bwo1 – 30–80 cm: loose sand, light yellowish brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, iron concretions, gradual boundary.

Bwo2 – 80–100 cm: loamy sand, pale brown, fresh, penetrated by many thin roots of plants, gradual boundary.

0 cm

50 cm

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HORIZON A ABo Bwo1 Bwo2 C C2

DEPTH [cm] 0–10 10–30 30–80 80–100 100–120 < 120 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION [%]

>2 mm 7 9 5 8 0 3

2 mm–50 µm 95 94 94 86 99 95

50–2 µm 5 6 6 12 1 5

<2 µm 0 0 0 2 0 0

TEXTURE CLASS

(USDA) loose sand loose sand loose sand loamy sand loose sand loose sand SOIL

MATRIX COLOUR

dry

moist 10YR 3/210YR 2/1 10YR 4/310YR 2/2 10YR 6/410YR 4/4 10YR 4/310YR 6/3 10YR 5/410YR 4/4 2.5Y 4/32.5Y 6/3 OC [%] 3.04 0.47 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.04 Nt [%] 0.146 0.046 0.008 0.006 0.010 0.006 C:N 21 10 12 10 — — pH in H2O 6.9 7.7 8.1 7.8 7.5 8.5 in 1M KCl 6.3 7.4 7.6 6.8 6.8 6.8 CaCO3 [%] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 Pt [mg·kg-1] 572 267 152 111 188 144

Influence of the burial process and cemeteries

use on soil properties

Cemetery soils were divided in accordance with their character into burial Necrosols (with the direct influence of the burial on the profile) and undisturbed cemetery soils (soil in the cemetery area, not exposed to direct influence of the burial, but exposed to indirect im-pact of cemetery use). Morphological descriptions were made for all investigated profiles, and samples were taken from genetic horizons and layers for laboratory analysis. Soil samples were submitted to standard physical and chemical analyses (van Reeuwijk 2006).

In the past, the soils in abandoned cemeteries were exposed to strong techno- and anthropogenic pressure, related to the nature of these sites and the consequent type of land use. As a result, they have special properties compared to soils that remain outside the influence of cemeteries. The research results also showed significant differences between soils located in individual cemeteries.

As evidenced by the research, one of the most important morphological features of burial Necrosols was the distortion of the natural sequence of genetic horizons and their replacement with the mixed human-disturbed layers (Bu). A larger number of technogenic layers was mainly connected with the contribution of material of the overlying layers and horizons (especially gravel), the presence of man-made artefacts coming from the cemetery infrastructure (concrete, brick, glass, plastic) and the presence of plant material that has entered deeper into the soil profile.

In the case of profiles 1 and 3, the technogenic layers artificially enriched with organic matter (Bu3 and Bu4) were associated with the process of grave digging, deposition of a coffin and backfilling. In this way, there was a secondary supply of technogenic mate-rial to the soil profile, which exerted further impact on the soil chemistry. The depth of this layer was determined by the nature of the burial. In the studied burial Necrosols, the depth of the technogenic layer enriched with ex situ organic matter ranged from 110 cm to 150 cm. The distinguishing feature of this layer was its peculiar brown colour, result-ing from the decomposition of coffin wood. This is characteristic of burial Necrosols.

The investigated burial Necrosols were distinguished by a large contribution of skeletal particles (>2 mm) − mainly artefacts, which Sobocká (2004) considers to be typical of Necrosols. This is especially important for the technogenic layers, which in some cases of the analysed profiles contained over 30% of the skeletal particles (gravel and man-made artefacts).

All the examined soil profiles were characterised by neutral to alkaline reaction. This is due to a high content of carbonates in the parent material, and thus the presence of these compounds in other horizons and layers. In addition, a significant contribution of artefacts in Necrosols, especially elements of the cemetery infrastructure (concrete de-bris), affects the soil alkalisation due to their chemical composition. The increase in pH of Necrosol layers and horizons was noted (Tables 1–4). The reaction of mechanically untransformed soils (undisturbed cemetery soils) was indirectly affected by a cemetery through a secondary supply of carbonates.

As evidenced by the research, the organic carbon (OC) content both in burial Necro-sols and undisturbed cemetery soils varied. The highest OC content was recorded in humus horizons of burial and undisturbed Necrosols (from 0.21% to 3.66%) and the technogenic layers enriched with organic matter from ex situ (Bu4, Bu3) of the burial Necrosols (from 0.61 % to 2.51 %). A similar situation was observed for the total nitro-gen (Nt) content (Tables 1–4).

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Phosphorus is a crucial geochemical indicator in pedological studies of anthropo-genic and technoanthropo-genic soils (Goffer 1980; Gebhardt 1982; Andrzejewski, Socha 1998; Bednarek 2007, 2008; Bednarek, Markiewicz 2007; Markiewicz 2011). Its higher content in the soil may reflect the anthropogenization of the environment (Brzeziński et al. 1983; Bednarek et al. 2004; Chudecka 2009). The usefulness of the phosphorus method in the research on cemetery soils has been ascertained by other authors (Sobocká 2004; Charzyński et al. 2011; Żychowski 2011; Majgier, Rahmonov 2012), as well as by the pre-sent study.

The total phosphorus content (Pt) in the studied soils was determined by Bleck method, modified by Gebhardt (1982). The highest accumulation of Pt was found in the A horizons and layers enriched with organic matter from ex situ (profile 1 – Bu4 and profile 3 – Bu3) of the burial Necrosols (259–2 010 mg·kg-1_{), and in the humus horizons} of both burial Necrosols and undisturbed soils (240–1 560 mg·kg-1_).

For comparative purposes, based on the soil outside the cemeteries, the background value of phosphorus was determined for the cemeteries in the Ryn commune. The standard phosphorus content in the area was up to 300 mg·kg-1_{. This value is close to} the average geochemical background for north-east Poland, i.e. 250 mg P·kg-1 (Geo-chemical Atlas of Poland 1995).

High levels of phosphorus accumulation in the humus horizons of all soils from the investigated cemeteries are associated with organic fertilisers used for soil fertilization in the areas where ornamental plants are grown. Similar values were found for other soil used for garden vegetation growing (Chudecka 2009). However, a high concentration of phosphorus in the technogenic layers (especially in the layers artificially enriched with organic matter) is closely linked with burials. It should be noted that the recorded con-tents of Pt were lower than the results obtained at archaeological sites (Bednarek et al. 2004; Bednarek, Markiewicz 2007; Bednarek 2008) and in mass graves (Żychowski 2011).

Summary

Due to different degrees of soil transformation within the cemeteries, it is suggested that the soils developed due to mechanical transformation, leading to disturbances in natural genetic horizons, should be classified as burial Necrosols. Other undisturbed cemetery soils have not been transformed mechanically, but they are indirectly affected by burials, especially in surface horizons.

Burial Necrosols develop due to mechanical transformation leading to disturbances in natural genetic horizons and the formation of intermingled technogenic layers with the presence of anthropogenic layers artificially enriched with organic matter. These layers have a specific brown colour, derived from decaying coffin wood and a high con-tent of extraneous material in the form of artefacts (for example bones, coffin remains).

Undisturbed cemetery soils do not have technogenic layers, instead they preserve their natural genetic horizons. The major changes in their morphology are observed in the surface horizons, which contain technogenic material (fragments of concrete, brick and glass) from the cemetery infrastructure (especially tombstones).

Chemical changes in burial Necrosols apply to the entire soil profile and include the following parameters: increased content of organic carbon (OC) and total nitrogen (Nt), a high content of total phosphorus (Pt) and higher pH value, all in relation to untrans-formed soil outside the cemeteries. Similar changes of chemical properties in undis-turbed cemetery soils are recorded only in the surface horizons.

Based on our research and the research by Charzyński et al. (2011), we believe that the qualifier Necric should be added to the list of qualifiers for Technosols RSG in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB 2007). This will improve the characterization of burial Necrosols. Furthermore, a suffix for technogenic subsoil layer artificially enriched with organic matter should be also added (characteris-tic of burial Necrosols) in FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (2006).

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