Jacek Mikoś
Swift’s world comedy = Swifta
komedia świata
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio F, Nauki Filozoficzne i Humanistyczne 17, 27-38
U N I V E R S I T A T I S M A R I A E C U R I E - S K Ł O D O W S K A
. L U B L I N — P O L O N I A
VOL. XVII, 3 SECTIO F 1962
Z K a ted ry Ję z y k a Polskiego W ydziału H um anistycznego UMCS K iero w n ik : doc. d r L eon K aczm arek
J a c e k M I K O S
Swift’s World Comedy Swifta komedia świata Свифта „мировая номедия”
D ü rre n m a tt’s le c tu re o n problem s of th e th e a tre 1 and his conversa tio n w ith th e m em bers of th e ed ito rial sta ff of th e m o n th ly „D ialog” 2 have cast n e w ligh t o n th e p lace of com edy in E uropean lite ra tu re .3 D ü rre n m a tt h ad a tte m p te d to see th e old problem s th ro u g h th e eyes of a m o d ern re a d e r and th in k e r,4 to tra n s fe r to d a y ’s system s of reference tw e n ty -fo u r c e n tu rie s b ack to show th a t in som e aspects th e G reeks of IV c e n tu ry В. C. a n d people who live in th is u n q u iet epoch of th e A -bom b and th e sp u tn ik s face sim ilar tu rm o il and, as a m a tte r of fact, a re in th e sam e boat.
In th e vein of th e w orld com edy w h ich leads from A ristophanes to ou r day, D ü rre n m a tt m entio n s F rançois R abelais and Jo n a th a n Sw ift. As D ü rre n m a tt’s le c tu re does n o t a sp ire to th e condition o f a scholarly d isse rta tio n I do n ot w a n t to v e rify a ll his sta te m e n ts; th e aim of th is p a p e r is to show th a t S w ift’s vision of th e w orld and some devices of his tech n iqu e m ake h im p re se n t th is w orld a n d people as comedy.
W h at a re D ü rre n m a tt’s chief assum ptions ab o u t th e w orld comedy? I t is c h a ra c te ristic of th e th e a tre th a t it developed chiefly b y m eans of com edy and th ro u g h comedy. T ragedy, as th e m ost rigorous genre, p resupp oses th e existence of an a lre ad y form ed w orld. Comedy, on the
1 The lecture was delivered in 1954 and 1955. Its Polish translation appeared in „Dialog” 1961, No. 9, p. 111.
* F. D ü r r e n m a t t : Z rozm ow y w Dialogu, „Dialog”, 1963, No. 4, p. 75. * cf. G. S i n k o : Komedia świata, „Dialog”, 1963, No. 5, p. 90.
o th er hand, assum es th e existence of a form less w orld, a w orld still in m aking, undergoing n um ero us changes, a w o rld w hich is, ju s t as ours, ’’packing its th in g s” before d e p a rtu re .
Com edy has b een living and changing up to th is d a y b u t th e changes a re n ot so fu n d am e n ta l as one w ould th in k . E ven to d ay tw o k inds of com edy can be ro u g h ly distin gu ish ed b o th k n o w n since a n tiq u ity and these ty p es have th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in th e Old A ttic com edies. The Old A ttic comedy, connected w ith A ristophanes, w as th e com edy of th e w orld, th e N ew A ttic — of c h aracters. Both h av e continued into th e m odern tim es. The w orld com edy app ears not only a t th e th e a tre b u t also on th e pages of R abelais and Sw ift.
The m ost ch a ra c te ristic elem ents of com edy are a joke and an idea. The joke is u su ally unco uth or even v u lg a r an d it m ay cause a lo t of objections b u t its aim is th a t of creatin g distance. The su b je c ts of a joke a re m a tte rs p u re ly sex u al and th e re fo re th e y a re dep riv ed of an y shape; th e joke, th e re fo re is pracom edy, it tra n s m itts sex into th e comic and th is is th e only posibility of d ecen t speaking about these things. W atching th e joke one maiy see th a t th e comic lies in shaping th e form less, in fo rm in g th e chaos.
A n other m eans to achieve d istance in com edy is a n idea. T ragedy is depriv ed of an idea a n d w rite rs of tra g e d y did no t need a n y new concepts. T he them es of A risto p h an es’ plays, on th e c o n tra ry , a re not in v ented actions w hich tak e place in th e p a s t b u t in th e p rese n t. The ideas ru sh into th e w orld like m issiles an d tra n s fo rm th e p re se n t into th e comic and, a t th e sam e tim e, in to som ething visible.
T ragedy presupposes th e presen ce of guilt, m isfortune, responsibility. In th e g en eral b u stle of o u r era no one is g u ilty or responsible. We a re o nly descend an ts and it is r a th e r o u r bad luck th a n guilt. O nly com edy is th e rig h t form to ex p ress o u r tim es. O u r w orld has b ro u g h t fo rth th e grotesque as w ell as th e A -bom b. T he gro tesq ue is a sensual parad ox , a shap e of som ething shapeless. A nd ou r th in k in g cann ot be d ep riv ed of th e n otion of p arad o x ju s t as ou r a r t and w orld ex ist only owing to th e A -bom b, to th e fe a r of it.
One m ig ht conclude th a t com edy is th e expression of desp air b u t such a suggestion w ould not be necessary. A nyone w ho perceives nonsense and th e inconsistency of th is w orld m ig h t fall into a fit of despair, b u t th is d e sp a ir w ould n o t be th e re s u lt of th e existen ce of th e w orld. It w ould be a n a n sw er w hich is given to th e w orld; a n o th e r an sw er w ould be th e lack of d e sp air and th e decision to e n d u re in this w orld, w h ere w e often d w ell as G u lliv er am ong giants.
So m u ch fo r D iirre n m a tt. Now, in th e lig h t of th ese rem a rk s we shall t r y to ex am in e m ore closely th e epoch and a r t of Jo n a th a n Sw ift.
II
U ndo ub tedly m uch of th e sa tiric w ritin g of th e eigh teenth centu ry , as of a n y epoch, developed d ire c tly out of th e personal spleen and spite of th e sa tirist. B u t if no o th e r period in E nglish lite ra ry h isto ry has produced g re a te r sa tirists th a n th e eig h teen th c e n tu ry did, it is, perhaps, because no o th e r period w as so c h a ra c te ristic a lly fu ll of p reten ce and sh am of m en on th e one h and and u n d e r th e stress of changes and tu rm o il, on th e other.
In th e firs t h a lf o f th e eig h teen th c e n tu ry E ngland w as th e aren a of g rea t changes. The G re a t R evolution of 1688 p u t in to pow er com- „ m ercial aristo cracy, g rea t m erc h an ts and ban k ers. Soon a fte r the T reaty of U trec h t (1713), w hich b ro u g h t E ngland new esta tes in N o rth A m erica, th e W higs cam e into p ow er and u n d e r th e leadership of S ir R obert W alpole h eld it fo r th ir ty years. W ith th ese changes, nev er y et had E ngland g row n ric h so quickly; th e c o u n try w as prosperous and in the m ain con tented even in tim e of w ar, owing p a rtly to good harvests and cheap food and p a rtly to in d u stry , a g ric u ltu re and com m erce all of w hich continued to expand. T rade was a n a tio n a l p reoccu patio n and th e c o n sta n t concern of P a rlia m e n t an d th e governm ent. "E ig h te en th - c e n tu ry po liticians realized w ith g re a t c la rity th a t w e a lth m eant pow er. C h ath am [...] p lan ned his cam paigns w ith th e m erc h an ts of London and p lan n ed th em to c a p tu re F re n c h tra d e . F o r tra d e w as w e a lth and w ealth w as po w er.” 5
T he changes also w ent in a n o th e r direction. Science and know ledge su d d e n ly becam e th e fashion of th e d ay. T h ere cam e into existence a scientific association to w hich th e k ing gave th e title of ’’The Royal Society” (1662). T he dev elopm en ts in science had opened im m ense v istas in know ledge, deep en ed m a n ’s u n d e rsta n d in g of th e w orld and m ade him q u estio n th e w hole n a tu re o f th a t b iblical u n iverse in w hich his ancestors had believed w ith unqu estio nin g faith.
B u t th e grow ing w e a lth an d d ev elo pm en t of science w ere only one p a rt of th e re a l face of th e cen tu ry . W alpole governed w ith th e help of ev id e n t and insolent b rib ery , w idespread c o rru p tio n w as follow ed by d eception and treason. "T he age of W alpole w as rough, coarse, b ru ta l, a w orld fo r th e m u scu lar and aggressive and th e cunning. The thin v e n e er of elegance and classic fo rm o bscured b u t n e v e r hid e ith e r the
crim e o r d issip atio n o f th e d ra b m iddle class v irtu e and th rift.” 6 In th e m id st of d e a th (th e re w as a v e ry high in fa n t m o rtality ) th e people sought palliatives and found th em in d rin k , gam bling and violence. ’’Both sexes gam bled fre e ly [...]. Im m ense sum s of m oney changed hands over cards and dice. D run k enn ess w as th e acknow ledged n atio n al vice of E nglishm en o f a ll classes.” 7
The grow ing w e a lth and developing science b ro u g h t fo rth a boundless self-confidence, an a ttitu d e w hich has alw ays served to cover m a n ’s fears and w eakness. ”1 do n o t th in k — w ro te in 1727 de S a u su rre , who w as not th e only v isito r to stre ss th e point — th e re is a people m ore p reju d iced in its fav o u r th a n th e B ritish people, and th e y allow th is to ap p e ar in th e ir ta lk a n d m an n ers. T hey look on fo reig n ers in general w ith contem pt, and th in k nothing is as w ell done elsew h ere as in th e ir ow n co u n try .” 8
III
The sam e h isto rical period b ro u g h t fo rth J o n a th a n S w ift a n d th e re cam e th e cohesion of tw o stim u li: of th e in n a te fe a tu re s of th e sa tirist and th e historical en v iro n m en t w hich released these featu res. W ith a critical sp irit su ch as his S w ift was b o rn in th e rig h t age because th is age d eserv ed s a tire and because, in p rin ciple a t least, it approved of criticism .
The success of sa tire , p arh ap s m ore th a n of a n y o th e r lite r a ry w ork, d epends upon th e a u th p r’s a b ility to involve his re a d e rs — to m ak e th em sh a re his condem nation. In o rd er to achieve this, th e sa tiris t m u st allow him self n e ith e r to re la x into an u n critical am u sem en t n or to lose his tem p er. S w ift’s g en eral ten d e n c y o f m ind w as to v e n t his deep, b itte r and disillusioned a n g e r ag ain st th e p ro u d fra u d of h u m an effort. To achieve th is Sw ift developed a v a rie ty of tech niques su c h as invective, dim inution, m ask, irony, alleg o ry w h ich ran g e am ong th e m eans of satirical technique. B u t a t th e sam e tim e w e m a y find in th e fra m ew o rk of these devices th e elem ents w hich serve to cre a te distan ce an d d etach m en t and w hich lead to h is w orld com edy: a joke and an idea.
Invective is th a t criticism in w hich th e a u th o r vilifies an object stro n g ly and openly. The substance of it is o u trig h t denunciation. ’’Its ten d en cy [.·.] is to w ards th e expression o f em otio nal e x tre m e : it tends
• Ibid., p. 33.
7 G. M. T r e v e l y a n : English Social History, London 1946, p. 314. 9 P l u m b : op. cit., p. 33.
to m ag n ify an d ex ag g erate th e viciousness of an object and it finds its v o cab u lary in the lexicon and h y perb ole and billingsgate.” 9
In A Tale o f a T ub S w ift describes th e P e te rs B ulls ’’T hey w ould ro a r an d sp it, a n d belch, an d piss, and f . . t, and snivel o ut fire, and keep a p e rp e tu a l coil, till you flu n g th em a b it of gold.” 10
It is a n ex am ple of in v ectiv e in w hich th e a u th o r vilifies an object stro n g ly a n d openly. B u t it is, as w ell, an exam ple of joke: the a u th o r is p lay in g w ith w ords a n d i t m akes th is en u m e ratio n ra th e r fu n n y th a n sp itefu l, rem oves o u r in te re s t fro m th e viciousness of an object tu rn in g it to hu m o ur, d istan ce an d d etach m en t.
In T he D rapier’s L etters, ’’W ood’s E xecu tion” th e people cried out to have Wood deliv ered in to th e ir hands.
Cook: I ’ll baste him.
2nd Cook: I’ll give him his Belly-full. 3d Cook: i ’ll give him a Lick in the Chops. D runken m an I ’ll beat him as long I can stand. Grocer: I’ll pepper him.
W hore: Pox ro t him.
F a n n e r: I ’ll th rash him. * 4th Taylor: I ’ll m ake his A... m ake Buttons.
G am ester: I ’ll m ake his Bones rattle, etc.’ 11
H ere, o u r in te re st is quick ly focused on th e w itty apposition of professions an d curses, and th e curses lose th e ir venom in the m ouths
of th e speakers.
A n o th e r device of S w ift’s tech n iq u e is d im inution. It m ay be described as ’’th e use of an y ’u gly or hom ely’ im ages w hich a re intended to dim inish th e d ig n ity of an o b ject.” 12 The sh a rp e st and m ost shocking form of d im in u tio n is achieved b y th e usage of th e elem ent of disgust. I t is effected b y dw elling up on c e rtain ph ysical an d physiological c h aracteristics of a p e rso n w hich ten d s to p rese n t him as e x trem ely contem p tib le and n a u sea tin g and includes a sexual in capacity and im potence of an y sort.
In G u lliver’s Travels:
” 1 w e n t into an o th er cham ber, b u t w as rea d y to h asten back, being alm ost overcom e w ith a h o rrib le stink. [...] The p ro je c to r of this cell w as alm o st th e an cien t stu d e n t of th e academ y, his face and b eard w ere
• J. B u l l i t : J. S w ift and the A natom y of Satire, Cambridge 1953, p. 16. “ A Table of a Tub in The W orks of Jonathan S w ift, Edinburgh, n. d., edited by W. P. N i m n o, p. 69.
11 The Drapier’s L etters to the People of Ireland, Oxford 1935, pp. 175—176. 19 B u 11 i t: op. cit., p. 45.
of a pale yellow , his h ands and clothes d aubed w ith filth . [.,.] His em ploym ent from his firs t com ing in to th e academ y, w as an o p eration to reduce h u m an excrem en t to its original food, b y se p ara tin g th e sev eral p arts, rem oving th e tin c tu re w hich it receives from th e gall, m aking th e o rd u re exhale, and scum m ing off th e sa liv a .” 13
The a ffin ity of this dim in u tio n w ith a joke is clear. The descrip tion itse lf is unco uth and d isg ustin g b u t soon we realise th a t th e occupation is im probable, created to m ake people laugh and we sm ile a fte r th e first shock.
A n o th er exam ple of dim in u tio n w hich com bines disgust w ith sexual m atte rs:
’’The m aids of honour would often strip me naked from top to toe, and lay m e a t full length In their bosoms, w herew ith I was much disgusted because to say the tru th , a very offensive smell came from their skins [...]. They would strip themselves to the skin and put their smocks in my presence, while I was placed on their toilet directly before their naked bodies, which I am sure to me was very far from being a tem pting sight, or from giving me any other emotions than those of horror and disgutst: their skins appeared so coarse and uneven, so variously coloured, when I saw them near, w ith a mole here and there as broad as a trencher and hairs hanging from it thicker than packthreads; [...] N either did they at all scruple, w hile I was by, discharge w hat they had drunk [...]’ 14
In th is dim inu tion , th e elem ents of joke and th e comic a re su b o r d in ate d to th e p rev ailin g effect of abom ination. T here is a danger, th a t invective an d d im in u tio n can be so d ire c t and v itu p e ra tiv e th at, in th e process of reducing a n ob ject to w h at is disgu sting an d loathsom e, th e a u th o r m ay lose contrbl and guidance of th e lite ra ry purpose. To avoid this d a n g e r an d to increase th e d istan ce b etw een th e re a l and th e ideal S w ift developed th e tech n iq u es of irony, w hich served to p rese n t a b road ran g e of ideas, w ith u n riv a lle d brilliance.
The iro n ist tak e s a disguise, say s one th in g w hile m eaning som ething else and b y disdaining to e x e rt h im self d ire c tly ag ain st an opponent he preserv es a shield of sa fe ty and a s ta tu s o f su p e rio rity to w h a t he attacks. D rapier, B ickerstaff, G u lliv er a re only a sm all fractio n of S w ift’s assum ed identities. The m ajo r k ind of ’p erso n a’ is th e m ask of ’the detached o b serv er’; th e a u th o r assum es th e role of a sp eak er w ho offers his advice from th e p oint of view of a w ell inform ed and in te llig en t lay m an whose opinion reflec ts th a t of th e g e n e ra lity of m ankind.
·* G ulliver’s Travels in The W orks of Jonathan S w ift edited by W. P. N i m n o, p. 174.
In T h e D rapier’s L e tte r s th e hero is intro d uced:
"I w as bred a t a Free School w here I acquired some little knowledge in the
L atin tongue. I served m y A pprenticeship in London and th ere set up for myself w ith good success [...] till I retu rn ed into this Kingdom and began to employ my thoughts in cultivating the Woolen M anufacture through all its Branches.” 15
In G u lliv e r’s T ra vels
”My fath er had a little estate in N ottingham shire; I was the third of five sons. He sent me to Em anuel College in Cambridge, a t fourteen years old, where I resided close, and applied close to my studies.” 18
In A M odest Proposal th e a u th o r of th e proposal re p e a ts th e opinions of o th er people:
”[...] I have been inform ed by a principal gentlem an in the county [...]” 17, "I am assured by our m erchants [...]” 18, ”[...] by a very knowing American of my acquaintance [...]” 11 and ”1 profess, in my sincerity of my heart, th a t I have not the least personal interest in endeavouring this necessary work having no o ther m otive th an the public good of my country.” 80
H aving p u t on a disguise th e a u th o r m ay b eg in to produce his ideas. T h e ir ran g e is broad: T h e B a ttle o f B ooks o r A Full an d T ru e A ccount
o f th e B a ttle fo u g h t L ast F riday b e tw e en th e A n cien t and th e M odern B ooks in S t. Ja m es’s L ib ra ry — th e H om eric conflict w hich tak es place
” on th e plain s of St. Ja m e s’s L ib ra ry ”. A Tale o f a Tub, a sa tire on the co rru p tio n s in relig io n and lea rn in g hid in th e sto ry of a fa th e r who leaves as a leg acy to his th re e sons, P e te r (The R om an Church), M artin (The Anglican), Ja c k (the dissen ters) a coat apiece, w ith d irection th a t on no account a re th e coats to be alte re d . O r A M odest Proposal; w h at gives to th is essay its u niq ue h o rro r is th e proposal itself: " in fa n t’s flesh w ill b e in season th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r” 21 so it m ay be an economic ’’saleable com m odity.” 22 This ’id ea’ is based on th e carefu l statistical analysis of th e pop ulation and e x a ct com p utation incom e deriv ab le from th e young a n d su c cu le n t children.
18 Drapier’s Letters, p. 102. 18 G ulliver’s Travels, p. 114.
17 A Modest Proposal in T he Poetical W orks of Jonathan S w ift edited by T h o m a s R o s c o e . 18 Ibid., p. 18. 18 Ibid., p. 18. 88 Ibid., p. 23. 81 Modest Proposal, p. 17. 88 Ibid., p. 18.
A nd th e rich est source of ideas: G u lliver’s T ravels, T ra vels in to
Several R em ote N ations of th e W orld. T he im ag in ary voyages a re S w ift’s
chosen vehicle w hich gives h im freed o m to ex p ress his ow n view s and ideas and allow s him to o ffer th e re a d e r a com prehensive criticism of his own country, people, m ann ers, m o rals and in stitu tio n s, to tra n sfo rm th e chaos of th e d a y into th e comic.
As Sw ift was chiefly concerned w ith th e vicious lim itatio n s of m an k in d his p rim a ry ta sk w as to achieve th e d efin itio n of m an ’s n a tu re . L illip u tian s and g iants se rv e to h im to v iew m an, Y ahoos to p ass his fin al judgem ent.
F rom th e f ir s t percep tio n of th e firs t L illip u tian , th e re a d e r is in v ited to consider m an and his littlen ess:
” 1 perceived it to be a h u m an c re a tu re n ot six inches hig h ” 23, th e ir king ” [...] is ta lle r, b y alm ost th e b re a d th of m y nail; th a n a n y of his co u rt" 24, and ”1 p u t th em a ll in m y rig h t hand, p u t five of th em into m y rig h t p o ck et.” 25
So fro m th e v e ry beginning w e k n o w th a t th e L illip u tian s a re h u m an beings an d th e re a d e r sees th ro u g h th e n a tu re of L illip u tian s th e n a tu re of m an and th e n th ro u g h th e even ts a t th e co u rt th e situ a tio n in England.
The situ a tio n in B robdingnag is m o re com plex. It is n o t o nly th a t G u lliv er has sh ifted fro m a g ian t am ong th e pigm ies to a p igm y am ong th e giants.26 ’’W ith in the com pass of Book II, th e re is a double p e r spective: th e giants show m a n ’s defects en larg ed a t th e sam e tim e th a t
G ulliver rev eals h u m an little n e ss.”27 W h at is tre a te d as nau g htin ess in h um an boys seem s c ru e lty w h en a g ian t b oy holds G u lliv er high in th e a ir b y th e legs V and th e m ischievous schoolboy aim s a h azel n u t a t his head.29 T hro ugh a ll holding up of h u m a n defects to view by m eans of en larg em en t, h u m an insignificance is s till before us in G ul liv e r’s littlen ess, even in ten sified because i t is com bined w ith th e m em ory of L illip u t.
The beings w ho in h ab it th e allegorical w o rlds th a t G u lliv e r visits a re p ro g ressiv ely less h u m an fro m voyage to voyage. G u lliv e r and th e rea d e r alike a re led th ro u g h an increasing iso latio n of h u m an tra its in th e firs t th re e books to th e com plete a b stra ctio n in th e fo u rth . The
** G ulliver’s Travels, p. 115. “ Ibid., p. 118.
“ Ibid., p. 11.
“ cf. a play by J. B r o s z k i e w i c z : Divie przygody Lem uela Gullivera, „Dialog”, 1961, No. 8.
17 E. L e y b u r n : Satiric Allegory: Mirror of Man, New Haven 1956, p. 83. “ G ulliver’s Travels, p. 141.
Yahoos a re th e cu lm in atio n o f th e sym bolic p a tte rn Sw ift has created fo r th e co rru p tio n s of m an. T h ey em body in a crude anim al form m ost of th e vices (and supposed glories) of th e civilized m an. This anim al alleg o ry is used fo r p o rtra y in g h u m an irra tio n a lity an d its h o rro r and G u lliv er sees th a t m uch of h u m an g lo ry is a m ore com plex version of Yahoo b ru ta lity ’. It is also a n a tte m p t to show to the co rru p ted
people of th e tim e, those h u m an tra its w hich th e Y ahoos lack.
B u t th e voyages h av e also a n o th e r aim : to escape from th e reality, to cre a te distance. The ’’Voyage to L illip u t” is an allegory of the po litical situ atio n , th e q u a rre l b etw een Big- E ndians and S m all- Endians is th a t b etw e en R om an C atholics and P ro te stan ts, H igh- H eels a re the T ories and L ow - H eeels a re th e W higs; B lefuscu is F ran ce and Flim nap, th e T re asu re r, is S ir R o b ert W alpole, and green, red and b lue ribands, to w in w hich he show ed so m uch a g ility a re th e O rders of th e Thistle,
th e B ath an d th e G a rte r. , ’
T hus th e problem s of th e epoch a re lessened, show n fro m a p e r spective, as m ischiefs of children, conv erted d o w n w ards in to h u m o u r and th e comic.
IV
Invective, dim inution, irony, alleg ory - th ese elem ents of satirical tec h n iq u e allo w Sw ift to v e n t his deep a n g e r against th e h u m an frailties. B ut in th e p a tte rn of th ese a rtistic devices th e re a re in terw o v en jokes and ideas w hich a re n o t expressions of S w ift’s p ro p en sity to shock th e audience w ith his d isg ustin g im a g e ry an d q u e e r notions. T hey serve to cre a te d istan ce and d e ta c h m e n t and th e n a n o th e r d im ension in w hich h u m o u r a n d th e comic p rev a il over spite an d scorn. If w e a re able to d isc e rn th e ro le of jokes a n d ideas, th e in fern o p ic tu re of th e tim es loses its blackn ess and h o rro r. W e leave b ehind a tra n s ie n t a c tu a lity and ev en ts o f th e e ig h teen th c e n tu ry and w atch th e w o rld - w ide p ro blem s w hich grow in to a b stra c t generalizations. S w ift’s w orld com edy is one m ore a tte m p t to show th e h u m an condition -b y m eans of a m ean
joke or a bold idea, in a g rim ace o f grotesque.
I th in k th a t o u r epoch th re a te n e d w ith th e te r r o r of w a r and a vision of se lf- an n ih ilatio n and d e h u m a n iz a tio n 30, calling in question beliefs an d m o rality , m ay . b e tte r u n d e rsta n d and estim ate S w ift’s a rt. This tim e w ith o u t an y ironic u n d erto n e we a re facing th e facts w hich he
show ed as in cip ien t n e a rly th re e cen tu ries ago.31 B ut, ow ing to th at, w e m ay lea rn th a t o u r epoch in n o t unique: th e tim es of changes and rev aluation s have alw ays b ro u g h t uneasiness, fe a r and d e te rm in a tio n . A nd th e re w as alw ays a w rite r w ho could express th e stran g e, fe a rfu l and w on derful exp eriences of his tim es.
S T R E S Z C Z E N I E
W niniejszym a rty k u le dokonano an alizy tech n ik i saty ry czn ej J o n ath an a S w ifta opierając się na poglądach F rie d ric h a D iirren m atta, dotyczących kom edii. U kazano, w ja k i sposób i dzięki czem u k o n k retn e środki arty sty czne, u żyte przez Sw ifta, d a ją w końcow ym efekcie obraz kom edii św iata.
D ü rre n m a tt tw ierdzi, że kom edia zakłada istn ien ie św iata nie u k sz ta ł tow anego, podlegającego przem ianom , św iata, k tó ry odchodzi. Z adaniem kom edii jest stw orzenie d y stan su , oderw an ie się od w yd arzeń a k tu a l nych. Osiąga to p rz y pom ocy tak ich środków , ja k tłu s ty „ k a w a ł” (któ rego przedm iotem są sp ra w y czysto płciow e i dlatego w łaśnie są one pozbaw ione w szelkiej postaGi) oraz pom ysł, ak cja w ym yślona, p rz e k ształcająca teraźniejszość w kom izm i fo rm u jąca chaos.
Skoro trag ed ia zakłada istn ien ie w in y i odpow iedzialności, nam przystoi ty lk o kom edia, bow iem n ik t z n as nie je s t w in n y i n ik t za nic nie odpow iada. N ie znaczy to jed n ak, że kom edia je st w yrazem z re zygnow ania; jest ona raczej w y razem p o staw y pozbaw ionej rozpaczy i nastaw ionej n a w y trw a n ie — tw ierd zi D ü rre n m a tt.
W n a stę p n e j części a rty k u łu p rzed staw io n y jest ob raz A nglii na przełom ie X V II i X V III w. W zrost bogactw a narodow ego, rozw ój n au k i, now e spojrzenie n a w szechśw iat sp ra w ia ją, że w A nglii w z ra sta ją n a stro je sam ozadow olenia i p rzeko n anie o w yższości n a ro d u . N a te n w łaś nie ok res p rzy p ad a tw órczość Jo n a th a n a Sw ifta, k tó ry sw ój gorzki i głęboki gniew k ie ru je przeciw ko d u m ie i ilu zji potęgi ludzkiego um ysłu. G niew ten jest jed n a k zaw sze k o n tro lo w a n y ścisłym i zasadam i tech nik i satyry czn ej.
11 ”1 told him of invention [...] to m ake a certain powder, into a heap of which the sm allest spark of fire falling would kindle the whole In a m om ent; although it w ere as big as a m ountain, and m ake it all fly up in th e air together w ith a noise and agitation greater than thunder. T hat a proper q u an tity of this pow der ram m ed into a hollow tube would drive a ball of iron or lead w ith such violence and speed, as nothing was able to sustain its force.”
O pierając się na m ate ria le A Tale o j a Tub, T he D rapier’s Letters,
T he B a ttle o f th e Books, A M odest Proposal, G u lliver’s Travels zasad
niczą część a rty k u łu pośw ięcono szczegółowej analizie tak ich środków w yrazu , jak : in w ekty w a, pom niejszenie, m aska, ironia i alegoria. Szcze gólną uw agę zwrócono na rolę „kaw ałów ” i pom ysłów, k tó re sp raw iają, że zaciera się pow ierzchow ne w rażen ie nienaw iści i pogardy, a na p ierw szy p lan w y su w ają się kom izm i hum or. K ondycja ludzka ukazana jest w grym asie groteski, a a k tu a ln e p ro b le m y tra c ą sw ą ostrość i u ra sta ją do ran g i a b stra k c y jn y c h uogólnień. P om aga n am to zrozum ieć, że nasza epoka nie je s t w y jątk o w a; w szystkie o k resy zm ian i dew alu acji sta ry c h pojęć pow odow ały niepew ność, s tra c h i determ in ację, a zadaniem pisarza było i je s t u kazy w anie ty ch dziw n y ch i w span iałych dośw iadczeń swoich czasów. Р Е З Ю М Б В статье ан али зи ру ется сатирическая тех н и ка Д ж онатана С виф та н а основе взглядов Ф ридри ха Дю рренмата на сущ ность комедии. А втором д елается попы тка п оказать, каки м образом и при помощи к а к и х х уд ож ественны х средств С ви ф т создает в итоге образ „миро вой ком едии” . По Д ю рренмату исходным пунктом комедии я вл я ется сущ ествова ние м ира ещ е не сф орм ировавш егося, подвергаю щ егося изменениям. Ц ель комедии — создать отдаленность, отры в от ак ту ал ьн ы х собы тий. В комедии достигается это при помощи та к и х средств, к а к „по хаб щ и н а” (предмет которой — сексуальн ы е явления). Зам ы сел, вы м ы ш ленны е события, придаю т современности комизм и создаю т впе ч атлен и е хаоса. Е сли трагедия основы вается на вине и ответственности, нам к лицу только ком едия, ибо цикто из нас ни в чем не виновен и никто ни з а что не отвечает. Это однако не значит, что комедия в ы р аж ает отречение; ком едия вы р а ж а ее т состояние, которое х арактери зуется стойкостью, которому ч уж до отчаяние. Т ак утверж д ает Дюрренмат. Д алее, автор говорит об Англии на руб еж е X V II и X V III веков. Рост народного богатства, р азви ти е науки, новы й взгл яд на вселен ную становятся причиной того, что в Англии растет самодовольство и убеж дение в превосходстве английского народа. Это бы л именно период Творчества Д ж онатана С виф та, которы й зад ал ся целью обра ти ть свой горький и глубокий гнев против вы сокомерия и мнимого могущ ества человеческого разум а. Этот гнев всегда, тем не менее,
регулируется точны м и принципами сатирической техники. Основы ваясь на A T ale o f a Tub, T he D ra p ie rs L e tte rs, T he B a ttle of th e Books, A. M odest P roposal и G u lliv e r’s T ravels автор п освящ ает глав ную часть статьи подобному ан ал и зу та к и х худ о ж ествен н ы х изобра зи тел ьн ы х средств как: инвектива, уничиж ение, м аска, ирония и а л легория. Особое вним ание обращ ается на роль ш у тк и и прибаутки, благодаря которы м исчезает впечатлен и е — впрочем только внеш нее — ненависти и презрения. Н а передний п л ан вы двигаю тся ком изм и юмор. Ч еловеческое сущ ествование представлено в причудливой гримасе, акту ал ьн ы е проблемы тер яю т свою остроту и становятся абстрактны м обобщением. Это помогает понять, что соврем енная нам эпоха не я в л я е т с я какой-то особенной; к а ж д ы й период изм енений и переоценки стары х понятий в ы зы в ал неуверенность, стр ах и от чаяние, а заданием писателя б ы л и остается п оказ эти х странны х и зам еч ательн ы х экспериментов своего времени.
P a p ier dru k . sat. III kL BO g F o rm a t 70 X 100 D ru k u str. 12 A nnales UMCS L u b lin 1901 L ZG raf. Im. PKW N, L u b lin , U nicka 4 Zam. 95. 9.1.85 700 + 75 egz. H-3 M an u sk ry p t o trzy m an o 9.1.65 D ata uko ń czen ia 4.XII.85
