Geo log i cal Quar terly, 2020, 64 (2): 480–491 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7306/gq.1512
The Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif (New Guinea, In do ne sia) as the prov e nance area for metal-bear ing shelf sed i ments from the Car o lin ian Sea
Karol ZGLINICKI1, * and Krzysztof SZAMA£EK1
1 Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute, Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 Warszawa, Po land
Zglinicki, K., Szama³ek, K., 2020. The Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif (New Guinea, In do ne sia) as the prov e nance area for metal-bear ing shelf sed i ments from the Car o lin ian Sea. Geo log i cal Quar terly, 64 (2): 480–491, doi: 10.7306/gq.1512 As so ci ate Ed i tor: Stanis³aw Wo³kowicz
In 2009, on the ini tia tive of PT Halmahera Perkasa the “Jayapura” ex plo ra tion pro ject was car ried out in In do ne sia. As part of this pro ject, ex plo ra tion of the sea bot tom in the north ern coast of New Guinea was car ried out over a dis tance of ~45 km. The suc tion dredge col lected 59 sam ples of loose sed i ments from the shelf bot tom sur face of the Car o lin ian Sea (to a depth of 60 m be low the sea-floor). The ex tracted sam ples are usu ally poorly and mod er ately sorted sands (5 sam ples), me - dium-grained sands (21 sam ples), and fine-grained sands (33 sam ples). The sand com po si tion shows, among oth ers, a wide spec trum of heavy min er als of ul tra-mafic (Cr-gar net, chro mium spinel, Mg-ol iv ine) and meta mor phic (epidote, clinochlore, am phi bole, ti tan ite) or i gin. The con tent of heavy min er als in the sed i ments is up to 54.77 wt.%. It was found that the source of heavy frac tion in the east ern and west ern parts of the coast is the rock of the ophiolite se ries build ing the Cy - clops Moun tains Mas sif. The min eral com po si tion of sed i ments from the cen tral coastal zone cor re sponds to the types of rocks build ing the meta mor phic core of the Cy clops Moun tains (am phi bo lite, gneiss es, an de site). Three min eral-geo chem i - cal subprovinces were de ter mined on the ba sis of anal y ses of heavy min eral de com po si tion and chem i cal anal y ses of sed i - ments. Shelf sed i ment from the east ern part of the coast is char ac ter ized by an in creased con tent of stra te gic met als (Ni up to 3560, W up to 3130 and Co up to 142 ppm). In the cen tral zone, the V con tent in creases up to 244 ppm and the Ag con tent up to 5 ppm. In the shelf sed i ments there is a strong de ple tion in the REE.
Key words: con ti nen tal shelf sed i ments, Cy clops Moun tains, New Guinea, heavy min er als, geo log i cal prospection, ma rine min er als.
INTRODUCTION
Min eral com po si tion of coastal sed i ments is the re sult of prov e nance rock-type and sed i men ta tion cy cle fac tors (Mor ton and Smale, 1990; Mor ton and Hallsworth, 1994, 1999; Garzanti and Andà, 2007). Sed i men ta tion pro cesses can lead to con - cen tra tion of metal-bear ing sed i ments, which may be de fined as eco nom i cally sig nif i cant in the whole spec trum of tex ture:
gravel, sand, mud, silt and clay de pos ited off shore (Van Gosen et al., 2014). Min eral com po si tion of the (in ner) shelf sed i ment is closely linked to coastal hy dro dy nam ics, where there is a di - rect in ter ac tion be tween the ma rine and lit to ral en vi ron ments (Rosa et al., 2013).
In tense weath er ing pro cesses un der trop i cal con di tions com bined with a con stant up lift of the area can con trib ute to the sup ply of large vol ume of sed i ments of dif fer ent geo chem i cal com po si tions to nearby wa ter res er voirs (Liu et al., 2012). The
rivers of New Guinea trans port 1.7 ´ 109 t–1 of sed i ments to the World Ocean yearly (Milliman, 1995). The amount of min eral masses com ing in is spa tially dis trib uted within the whole in ner shelf sur round ing the is land. A sig nif i cant part of the sed i ments is sup plied by rivers drain ing the ar eas of north ern New Guinea (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Milliman, 1995). The ex is tence of un der wa ter can yons di rected to wards the edge of the New Guinea Trench cause the di rect dis tri bu tion of sed i ments on the shelf to dis perse. Hy po thet i cally, the hypopycnal or homopycnal flows are par tic u larly sig nif i cant for the pro cess of mov ing a large vol ume of ma te rial, but there is no re search data from this pro cess. Part of the rock ma te rial is ac cu mu lated within the shelf and con ti nen tal slope. The rest of the sed i ment is moved by grav ity or hyperpycnal flows to the open sea mostly by a sys - tem of sub ma rine chan nels (Krause, 1965; Ham il ton, 1979;
Tregoning and Gorbatov, 2004; Miller and Kuehl, 2009). The quan tity and qual ity of the ma te rial sup plied to the coastal wa - ters of New Guinea de pends on the mass move ments (land slumps, land slides) and wave pro cesses hav ing a de struc tive ef fect on the coast line.
The north ern part of New Guinea (Jayapura re gion) is now a mar ginal zone of con ver gence be tween the Indo-Aus tra lian and Pa cific plates. The pres ence of con ver gent plate bound aries re - sults in the pos si bil ity of oc cur rence of char ac ter is tic de posit
* Cor re spond ing au thor, e-mail: zglinicki.karol@pgi.gov.pl Re ceived: Au gust 1, 2019; ac cepted: Oc to ber 22, 2019; first pub lished on line: February 21, 2020
min er al iza tion sim i lar to that as so ci ated with the is land arcs, such as podiform chro mite (Mosier et al., 2012), Besshi-type cop per sul phide de pos its (Dergatchev et al., 2011), Kuroko-type mas sive sul phide (Sato, 1977) and por phyry cop - per ores (Sun et al., 2017). The com plex geo log i cal his tory of the Jayapura area (Monnier et al., 1999), re sults in the pres - ence of nu mer ous base met als of po ten tial eco nomic sig nif i - cance (Baker, 1955, 1956; Ubaghs, 1955; Pieters et al., 1979;
Thirnbeck, 2001, 2004; Zglinicki, 2016). De part ment of En ergy and Min eral Re sources West Pa pua Prov ince (Ind.: Dinas Energi Dan Sumber Daya Min eral Provinsi Pa pua Barat;
Peta..., 1995) has iden ti fied five prov inces of sig nif i cant min eral de pos its on the is land of New Guinea, which in clude the Jayapura re gion with a Cu-Zn-Pb-Fe-Cr-Co-Ni zone, within the Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif. The lithologically di verse for ma tions of the area, re sult ing from the com plex geodynamic gen e sis, may abound in a num ber of el e ments and use ful met als (Baker, 1955; Ubaghs, 1955; Pieters et al., 1979). Prob a bly, un des - cribed types of de pos its may ex ist around the Cy clops Moun - tains Mas sif as: al lu vial Ag-Au, Cr, Ni, Co, PGE; coastal Ti, Ni, Co, Cr, Au, Ag, PGE; and epi ther mal Au.
The de ple tion of on shore min eral de pos its makes it nec es - sary to con duct con tin u ous re search and ex plo ra tion in ma rine ar eas (Szama³ek et al., 2013, 2015, 2018). The high geopotential of seas and oceans im plies an in crease in the deep sea min ing role (Kotliñski, 2001; Szama³ek and Mizerski, 2011). Now a days, ma rine geo log i cal and min ing ac tiv ity is fo - cused on the coastal and con ti nen tal shelf ar eas un der the ju ris - dic tion of the Coastal State (UNCLOS, 1982; Szama³ek and Mizerski, 2011; Wo³kowicz and Paulo, 2019). The quarry min - ing of loose min er als is an im por tant and eas ily ac ces si ble source of use ful metal raw ma te rial. The in creas ing de mand for non-en ergy raw ma te ri als, in clud ing met als of stra te gic im por - tance, cre ates the need to reach for min eral re sources of seas and oceans. Con sid er ing geo log i cal and min ing op por tu ni ties of ocean re sources, many re searches are con ducted in this re gion (off shore tin min ing – PT Timah TBK, In do ne sia; ex trac tion of di a monds – Namibia, De Beers Group, Solwara Pro ject, Bis - marck Sea – Nau ti lus Min er als, PNG).
As part of the geo log i cal op er a tions car ried out in the Ma lay Ar chi pel ago (Szama³ek et al., 2013, 2015), geo log i cal re con - nais sance of shelf sed i ments from the Car o lin ian Sea was done. The aim of the pro ject was to de ter mine the source area, the type of par ent rocks and the spa tial vari abil ity of min eral sed i ments. The re sults may be the ba sis for the con tin u a tion of de tailed iden ti fi ca tion of the de posit from the shelf around the coast of New Guinea. Sea sed i ments of the Jayapura coast are the sub ject of de tailed geo log i cal anal y ses for the first time. The re sults may be used for re con struc tion of the geo log i cal evo lu - tion of the north ern coast and may con trib ute to a better un der - stand ing of the de vel op ment of the mar ginal con ver gence zone of New Guinea and the de posit for ma tion pro cesses.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The north ern part of New Guinea has a com plex geo log i cal his tory, so far not ex plained in de tails (Davies, 2012). The geodynamic evo lu tion of the re gion has re sulted in an iso lated coastal mas sif of the Cy clops Moun tains (Fig. 1) and a nar row con ti nen tal shelf formed in the Mel a ne sian Col li sion Arc zone (Krause, 1965; Monnier et al., 1999; Cloos et al., 2005). The geo log i cal struc ture of the Car o lin ian Sea shelf is very poorly
known in this re gion. Krause (1965) sug gests that the stra tig ra - phy and his tory of sea bed for ma tion is closely re lated to the for - ma tion of the north ern coast of New Guinea.
Geo log i cal ex plo ra tion car ried out in the 1950s (Baker, 1955, 1956; Ubaghts, 1955) and ear lier by Zwierzycki (1921) in the Cy clops Moun tains con trib uted sig nif i cantly to the petrographic and min er al og i cal rec og ni tion of the re gion.
The Cy clops Moun tains can be con sid ered an anticline com posed of two floors over lap ping an un known ground (Monnier et al., 1999). The anticline core con sists of crys tal line schists, gneiss es and meta mor phosed rocks of the calc-al ka - line se ries (Gisolf, 1921; Zwierzycki, 1921; Baker, 1955;
Monnier et al., 1999). The meta mor phic rocks con tain ore min - er als, such as chal co py rite, il men ite, he ma tite, mag ne tite, rutile, and plat i num group met als.
The up per floor of the Cy clops Moun tains is com posed of an ophiolite se quence obducing on a meta mor phic core. The struc ture of the ophiolite com plex is typ i cal for ophiolite se ries. It con sists of re sid ual, man tle peri dot ites, cumulates of iso tro pic gab bro, mas sive doler ites, troctolites and small amounts of pil - low and boninite lavas (Baker, 1955; Monnier et al., 1999;
Pubellier et al., 2004). Peri dot ites are rep re sented by harzburgites, dunites, wehrlites and websterites. Chro mium spi nels, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrites, magnetites and plat i num group met als (PGM) ap pear in ultra mafic rocks. The mafic ophiolite com plex con sists of plutonic and vol ca nic al ka line rocks rep re sented by gab bro, troctolites, doler ites and pil low lava. Un like plutonic rocks, the mafic se ries is al most un - changed by serpentinization pro cesses (Baker, 1955; Monnier et al., 1999). Bornite, chal co py rite, chalcocite, covel lite, cubanite, py rite, pyrrhotite, chro mite, he ma tite, il men ite, mag - ne tite and na tive PGEs are found in the ophiolite rocks. The ophiolite se quence is cov ered in the SE by vol ca nic rocks of the Auwewa For ma tion, and by ma rine sed i ments of the Hollandia Group on the SE side of this ophiolite se quence. The en tire Cy - clops Moun tains Mas sif is cov ered with Qua ter nary gravel and sand sed i ments (Monnier et al., 1999). Geo chem i cal stud ies of the rocks of the Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif car ried out by Monnier et al. (1999) in di cate that the ophiolite was formed in a su pra-subduction en vi ron ment. The geodynamic evo lu tion of the Cy clops Moun tains lasted from the Eocene to Plio cene.
STUDY AREA
The ex plo ra tion area in cluded a shal low sea bed (Fig. 1) on the north ern coast of New Guinea (Jayapura re gion), ~45 kilo - metres long and 6,434 hect ares in size (lo cated be tween 140°20’0"E–45"0"E me rid ian and 2°32"0"S–26"0"S par al lel).
In 2009, dur ing the re search cruise, 58 sam ples of loose sed i - ments from 24 points, ~2 km apart on av er age, were col lected with a suc tion dredge (Ta ble 1) from the Car o lin ian Sea shelf bot tom. The bot tom sed i ment was ex ca vated from the shelf dur ing sum mer time, when there was no upwelling on the coast. The cruise route and the sam pling points were de fined by the ex plo ra tion con ces sion is sued by the Gov er nor of Pa - pua Prov ince for PT Halmahera Perkasa. The sea depth ranged from 18 to 30 metres. The dis tance from the col lect ing points to the land ranged from 100 to 460 metres. The weight of the ex ca vated sed i ment was ~2 kg/per sam ple. The loose ma te rial was trans ferred to spe cially pre pared hop pers on the ship. For an a lyt i cal pur poses, the weight of sam ples was re - duced by quar ter ing to ~70 g.
482 Karol Zglinicki and Krzysztof Szama³ek
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Shelf sed i ments were washed with deionized wa ter to pu rify and re move so dium chlo ride (NaCl). Us ing 10% ace tic acid and 30% hy dro gen per ox ide, frag ments of ma rine fauna (foraminifers, sponges, bi valves, snails, cor als) were dis solved in a wa ter bath at 60°C. The sieve anal y sis was per formed for the sam ples of sed i ment ex tracted with a suc tion dredge, af ter re mov ing or ganic el e ments from the sam ples. The sed i ment was sieved through a set of ny lon sieves with a mesh di am e ter of 2–0.063 mm ac cord ing to Wenthworth clas si fi ca tion (1922).
For sta tis ti cal cal cu la tions, the open source pro gram GRADISTAT v.5.11 (Blott and Pye, 2001) was used. For the sep a ra tion of heavy frac tion from the sam ples, so dium polytungstate of den sity 2.89 ±0.02 g/cm3 was used. Heavy
min er als were im mersed in ep oxy resin (Ar al dite 2020). The phase com po si tion was in ves ti gated us ing an AXS D8 Ad vance Davinci Bruker diffractometer equipped with a cop per an ode lamp. Diffractograms were re corded in the an gle range 3–85°
2q (Cu Ka), mea sure ment step 0.02°, and mea sure ment time:
2.5 s/step. Crys tal line phases were iden ti fied us ing X’Pert HighScore Plus soft ware by com par ing the reg is tered diffractograms with the ICDD PDF – 2 and PDF – 4+ stan dards.
SEM-BSE mi cro scopic ob ser va tions were per formed with the use of a SIGMA VP scan ning mi cro scope equipped with two EDS de tec tors (SDD XFlash | 10). The anal y ses were per - formed at an ac cel er at ing volt age of 25 kV in a high vac uum.
Sam ples for SEM and EPMA tests were cov ered with coal.
Point anal y ses of chem i cal com po si tion were per formed with the use of a CAMECA SX-100 elec tron microprobe equipped with wave dis per sion spec trom e ters. The anal y sis was per - Fig. 1. Geo log i cal map of the Cy clops Moun tains in Irian Jaya (af ter Monnier et al., 1999)
formed at an ac cel er at ing volt age of 15 kV and a beam cur rent of 20 nA on in di vid ual spec trom e ters equipped with crys tals (TAP, LIF, PET, LPET). The stan dards in cluded in the equip - ment of the Inter-In sti tu tional Lab o ra tory of Microanalysis of Min er als and Syn thetic Sub stances of the Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy of the Uni ver sity of War saw were used for the stud ies: Mg, Si, Ca-di op side; Al, K-orthoclase; V-vanadinite; Mn-rhodo nite, Fe-he ma tite; Cu-cu prite; Zn-sphalerite; Cr-chro mite; Ti-TiO2; Na-al bite; Ni-NiO; P-xeno time; Nb (me tal lic)-Nb. The lim its of de tec tion in ppm were as fol lows: Al-257; Ca-334; Cr-469;
Cu-1648; Fe-1027; K-267; Mg-238; Mn-974; Na-373; Nb-541;
Ni-1269; P-192; Si-270; Ti-399; V- 740; Zn-2100.
Pre lim i nary mag netic sep a ra tion was per formed us ing a mag netic sep a ra tor Franz Mag netic Bar rier Lab o ra tory Sep a ra - tor Model LB-1, at 0.3A cur rent in ten sity, 20° an gle of re pose, and 15 and 20° elon gated an gle of in cli na tion.
The chem i cal com po si tion of ma rine sed i ments (bulk sam - ples or bulk anal y ses) was done in a cer ti fied lab o ra tory of Bu - reau Veri tas (BV) in Van cou ver (Can ada). The anal y ses were car ried out us ing the LF200 and FA330 an a lyt i cal pro grams (www.acmelab.com). Sam ples for the LF200 pro gram were melted with Na2B4O7/Li2B4O and then dis solved in a mix ture of ag gres sive ac ids. For the anal y sis of pre cious met als the Fire As say meth od ol ogy adopted in the BV lab o ra tory was used.
The anal y ses were car ried out us ing op ti cal mass and emis - sion spec trom e try cou pled with in duc tively in duced plasma
(ICP-MS and ICP-OES). The loss of ig ni tion (LOI) was de ter - mined by roast ing the sam ple at 1000°C. The con tents of or - ganic car bon and el e men tal sul phur were de ter mined with the LECO an a lyzer.
Con cen tra tions of rare earth el e ments were nor mal ized (N) to PAAS; Post-Archean Aus tra lian Shale (McLennan, 1989).
Eu and Ce anom a lies were cal cu lated from EuN/Eu* = 2EuN/(SmN + GdN), Ce/Ce* = 3CeN/(2LaN + NdN), and Ceanom = log(Ce/Ce*) for mu las, which are used to de ter - mine the anom aly val ues for ma rine sed i ments (de Baar et al., 1985). The La-Th-Sc, Th-Co-Zr/10 and Th-Sc-Zr/10 di a grams (Bhatia and Crook, 1986) were used to de ter mine the bed rock source.
RESULTS
PETROGRAPHY OF MARINE SEDIMENTS
Sea sed i ment (Fig. 2) shows lo cal vari abil ity re lated to bi o - log i cal ac tiv ity on the shelf, geo log i cal struc ture of the Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif, and coastal line shape. The re sults of the sieve anal y sis of loose ma te rial (Ap pen dix 1*) showed that the shelf sed i ment is rep re sented by coarse-grained sands (23 sam ples) and me dium-grained sands (20 sam ples);
fine-grained sands (16 sam ples) are a smaller group. The sam -
No. Sam ple Lon gi tude Lat i tude Wa ter
depth [m]
Dis tance from coast
[m]
1 NMI 01/25/60 140°38’10.4"E 2°27’58.2"S 22 330 2 NMI 02/17 140°44’36.0"E 2°31’30.1"S 25 130 3 NMI 03/42 140°36’55.0"E 2°26’23.9"S 24 460 4 NMI 05/62/63 140°44’23.6"E 2°30’36.2"S 25 380 5 NMI 06/23 140°28’58.6"E 2°25’46.3"S 22 125 6 NMI 07/14/64 140°40’48.1"E 2°28’41.9"S 23 220 7 NMI 08/04 140°25’50.0"E 2°24’40.2"S 26 340 8 NMI 09/29 140°33’40.7"E 2°26’27.7"S 28 158 9 NMI 10/61 140°34’41.7"E 2°26’42.9"S 28 170 10 NMI 12/20 140°31’54.6"E 2°26’12.8"S 18 250 11 NMI 13/51/68 140°35’43.5"E 2°27’10.6"S 23 260 12 NMI 15/59/66 140°37’44.3"E 2°27’04.5"S 30 240 13 NMI 16/33 140°30’54.7"E 2°25’46.8"S 28 100 14 NMI 18/41/67 140°39’15.5"E 2°28’20.3"S 25 390 15 NMI 19/22 140°29’44.8"E 2°26’30.6"S 27 110 16 NMI 21/39/43 140°40’17.1"E 2°28’27.2"S 15 200 17 NMI 24/55/65 140°41’50.1"E 2°28’45.2"S 28 261 18 NMI 27/53/58 140°42’48.2"E 2°29’08.7"S 27 140 19 NMI 28/34/52 140°31’54.6"E 2°26’12.8"S 18 250 20 NMI 32/11 140°26’56.4"E 2°25’19.7"S 20 220 21 NMI 36/38 140°27’55.0"E 2°25’53.3"S 22 132 22 NMI 35/37 140°23’14.0"E 2°23’55.1"S 18 240 23 NMI 40/54/56 140°43’41.0"E 2°29’45.8"S 24.5 270 24 NMI 57/31 140°20’48.4"E 2°23’40.6"S 20 290
T a b l e 1 Lo ca tion data of the ma rine sed i ment sam ples
* Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi: 10.7306/gq.1512
ples con tain sig nif i cant amounts (av er age 58.88 wt.% of sed i - ment) of car bon ate skel e tons of ma rine or gan isms, such as foraminifers, sponges, bi valves, snails and coral frag ments oc - cur ring mainly in coarse- and me dium-grained frac tions.
Terrigenous com po nents (on av er age 41.12 wt.%) are a less nu mer ous group. There are no biogenic sil ica com po nents.
The av er age con tent of car bon ate com po nents in coarse-grained sam ples is 86.69 wt.%. The av er age car bon ate con tent is 45.13 wt.% for me dium-grained and 36.10 wt.% for fine-grained sed i ments.
Bot tom sed i ments af ter the re moval of ma rine fauna are com posed of fine-grained sands (33 sam ples) con tain ing 0.77–84.40 wt.% of terrigenous com po nents, on av er age 35.05 wt.% (Ap pen dix 2). There are no fine-grained sed i ments (silt and clay) as a con se quence of the sam pling method us ing a suc tion dredge. The con tent of terrigenous com po nents is from 0.24 to 84.84 wt.% (av er age 54.87 wt.%). The least nu - mer ous group of sed i ments are coarse-grained sands (5 sam - ples) with an in vari able con tent of de tri tal com po nents. The con tent of terrigenous com po nents in the coarse-grained sam - ples var ies from 19.36 to 39.60 wt.%.
THE MINERALOGY OF MARINE SEDIMENTS
Min eral com po si tion of the shelf sed i ments shows spa tial di ver sity within the whole ex am ined sea bed along the coast.
The pres ence of light min er als (21.58 wt.%) and heavy min er als (20.37 wt.%) was found in the sed i ments (Fig. 3). Bar ren and ore min er als were sep a rated from the heavy min eral frac tions.
Heavy min er als dom i nate in the grain class 0.1–0.25 mm. The con tent of heavy frac tion is up to 54.77% of the sed i ment mass.
Phase anal y sis of sea bed sed i ments from the north east ern coast re vealed the pres ence of cal cite, ar agon ite, ha lite, quartz, plagioclases and talc. The group of heavy min er als con sists of sid er ite, gar net, pyroxene, ser pen tine, ol iv ine, chrome spi nels and mag ne tite. Tung sten min er als have not been ob served.
The sam ples con tain frag ments of li mo nite clasts. Bot tom sed i - ments from the cen tral coastal zone are char ac ter ized by a dif - fer ent min eral com po si tion. Within the sea bed from the cen tral part of the coast, two zones – east ern and west ern – have been iden ti fied. The bot tom sed i ment in the east ern sec tion is dom i - nated by ar agon ite, ha lite, cal cite and talc. The heavy com po - nents are ol iv ine, py rox enes, and min er als of the ser pen tine
group. Use ful min er als are rep re sented by chro mium spi nels, mag ne tite, cop per and iron sulphides, rutile and he ma tite. In the west ern sec tion, the min eral com plex con sists of al bite, ar agon - ite, bi o tite, cal cite, quartz, mus co vite and plagioclase. The heavy min eral com plex con sists of am phi boles, epidotes, clinochlore, pyroxene, sid er ite and ti tan ite. Ore min er als in clude il men ite, he ma tite, mag ne tite, rutile and cop per and iron sulphides. The bot tom sed i ment ex tracted from the north-west - ern part of the coast is char ac ter ized by the pres ence of ar agon - ite, cal cite, ha lite and talc. The group of heavy and com plex min er als com prises am phi boles, ol iv ine, chrome spi nels, magnetites, py rox enes and ser pen tine group min er als.
GEOCHEMISTRY OF MARINE SEDIMENTS
The chem i cal com po si tion of shelf sed i ments shows wide lat eral dif fer en ti a tion along the whole coast line (Ap pen dix 3).
Ma rine sed i ments from the north east ern part of the coast, in con trary to the up per con ti nen tal crust (Rudnick and Gao, 2003), were en riched in stra te gic met als (Ap pen dix 4): Ni up to 3561 ppm, W up to 3130 ppm, and Co 47–142 ppm, and sig nif i - cantly im pov er ished in LILE (Large-Ion Lithophile El e ments).
Sam ples JP6 and JP7 show a clear en rich ment in Sr up to 3231.5 ppm. In creased con tents of MgO 16.25–38.33 (wt.%) and Cr2O3 0.849 (wt.%) are found in the sed i ments. In con trary to the sam ples from the east ern part of the coast, the ma rine sed i ment from the cen tral and west ern zones is char ac ter ized by in creased con tents of Cu 7–28 ppm, V 41–244 ppm, Zr 12–55 ppm and TiO2 up to 0.78 wt.%. The sed i ment is en - riched in LILE. The sam ples show a het er o ge neous dis tri bu tion of TOT/C val ues from 0.07 to 8.26%. The TOT/S is ho mo ge - neous through out the coast line. The loss on ig ni tion (LOI) for the sed i ments ranges from 2.5 to 31.1%.
The con tents of pre cious met als do not ex ceed nor mally the lower de tec tion limit of the test method used. The max i mum con tents in shelf sed i ments for Au are up to 3.8 ppb, Pt up to 9 ppb, and Pd up to 8 ppb. There are in creased con tents of Ag up to 5 ppm.
The dis tri bu tion of REE in shelf sed i ments was ana lysed (Fig. 4). There is a strong im pov er ish ment of REE in re la tion to PAAS in all sam ples. Two groups of sed i ments have been iden - ti fied based on the REE con tent re sults. The first group ex ca - vated from the cen tral and west ern coastal zone is char ac ter -
484 Karol Zglinicki and Krzysztof Szama³ek
Fig. 2. Shelf sed i ments: A – sam ple JP10 and B – sam ple JP12, ste reo scopic mi cro scope
ized by a reg u lar dis tri bu tion of REE. The SREE con tent is in the range of 15.12–99.26 ppm, SLREE 6.52–50.27 ppm, and SHREE 8.60–54.03 ppm. A neg a tive anom aly for Ce and pos i - tive for Eu was found. In two sam ples (JP29, JP49) a pos i tive Ce anom aly ap pears. MREE and HREE are char ac ter ized by a reg u lar dis tri bu tion of the con tent with a slight Yb fluc tu a tion.
The sec ond group of sam ples from the east ern part of the coast in di cates the lack of clear ho mog e ni za tion. The SREE con tent is in the range of 1.4–4.53 ppm, SLREE 1.10–3.34 ppm, SHREE 0.30–1.53 ppm. Pos i tive Eu and neg a - tive/pos i tive Ce anom a lies, and neg a tive Pr, Sm and Er anom a - lies are pres ent in the sam ples. De ple tion of HREE is iden ti fied in the sed i ment.
DISCUSSION
THE SOURCE OF CONTEMPORARY MARINE SEDIMENTS
REE dis tri bu tion in shelf sed i ments is an im por tant in di ca tor of ma te rial source (Ta ble 2) and dif fer en ti a tion pro cesses (Kazuhiro et al., 1990; Terry and Charles, 1998; Pramod and Rajamani, 2001; Yang et al., 2002). Terrigenous sed i ments de - pos ited in the coastal en vi ron ment show REE curves sim i lar to their land coun ter parts of par ent rocks (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000; Yan et al., 2010; Piper and Bau, 2013) due to poor frac tion ation dur ing trans port (Yang et al., 2003). Stan -
dard iza tion of the ex tracted sam ples against PAAS (Fig. 4) in di - cates two sources of the orig i nal ma te rial. The group of sed i - ments ex tracted from the west ern and east ern parts of the coast has a very low REE con tent. Low con cen tra tions of MREE and HREE are char ac ter is tic for re sid ual peri dot ites.
The cal cu lated val ues cor re late with the re sults of anal y ses ob - tained by Monnier et al. (1999). Pos i tive and neg a tive anom a - lies of ce rium were re corded in the sed i ments. The pres ence of the anom a lies may in di cate re dox con di tions on the con ti nen tal shelf. Neg a tive anom aly may in di cate a sup ply of “freshly de - pos ited” sed i ment that has not yet been ox i dized. The sec ond group of sed i ments shows a ho mo ge neous de com po si tion of REE with a small Eu anom aly. The ho mo ge neous value cor re - lates with the REE de com po si tion of the Cy clops Moun tains meta mor phic core.
The study of the min eral com po si tion of beach sed i ments al lowed sep a rat ing three subprovinces that dif fer in the char ac - ter of par ent rocks’ source. Shelf sed i ments from the east ern and west ern parts of the coast con tain min er als typ i cal for rocks of the mafic/ultra mafic en vi ron ment – chro mium spi nels, Mg-ol - iv ine, ser pen tine group min er als, and li mo nite frag ments. Re - search on mafic rocks con ducted by the Monnier et al. (1999) and on chro mium spi nels con ducted by Zglinicki (2016) re veals that the min er als in sea bed sed i ments in the east ern and west - ern parts of the coast orig i nate from rocks of the ophiolite se - quence formed un der su pra-subduction en vi ron ment con di - tions. The oc cur rence of am phi bole, epidote and clinochloride Fig. 3. Min eral com po si tion of the shelf sed i ments, sam ple JP12, SEM-BSE im age
min er als in shelf sed i ments in the cen tral part of the coast co in - cides with the re sults of stud ies con ducted by Zwierzycki (1921), Gisolf (1921), Baker (1955, 1956), Monnier et al. (1999) and Zglinicki (2016). The pres ence of the min er als in di cates a meta mor phic na ture of the source area.
Trace el e ments (Th, Sc, Zr, REE) were used to de ter mine the prov e nance of shelf sed i ments. These el e ments are an ex - cel lent tool for de ter min ing the source of par ent rocks due to their low sol u bil ity and mo bil ity dur ing weath er ing, trans port and diagenesis. At the same time, they re tain the fea tures of par ent rocks in the sedimentological re cord. The La/Th vs. Hf ra tio (Floyd and Leveridge, 1987) is an in di ca tor used to de ter mine the source of par ent rocks. The Hf and Th con tents in sed i - ments from the east coast are be low the lower de tec tion limit of the used test method (ICP-MS). The val ues cal cu lated for cen - tral coastal sed i ments in di cate that the source is the rocks formed from an de site magma as so ci ated with is land arcs. The La/Th in dex for West Coast sed i ments is typ i cal for the tholeiitic magma se quence of is lands arcs. The geo chem is try of the
shelf sed i ments may be re lated di rectly to tec tonic pro cesses lead ing to the gen er a tion of par ent rocks. On the La-Th-Sc, Th-Co-Zr/10 and Th-Sc-Zr/10 di a grams (Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Fig. 5) the geotectonic po si tion of par ent rocks has been de ter mined. The ob tained val ues in di cate that the par ent rocks are as so ci ated with the ac tive oce anic is land arc.
INFLUENCE OF MARINE CONDITIONS ON HEAVY MINERAL CONCENTRATIONS
The dy nam ics of de posit-form ing pro cesses, lead ing to the con cen tra tion of heavy min er als in the coastal en vi ron ment, is di ver si fied both be tween in di vid ual bas ins and within a sin gle ba sin. There is no sin gle uni ver sally ac cepted depositional model for off shore de pos its. Me chan i cal and chem i cal weath er - ing pro cesses, hy drau lic sort ing, abra sion and dis so lu tion may lead to sig nif i cant con cen tra tions of heavy min er als in ma rine sed i ments with char ac ter is tic fea tures (Smirnow, 1986;
Depowski et al., 1998; Van Gosen et al., 2014).
486 Karol Zglinicki and Krzysztof Szama³ek
Fig. 4. PAAS-nor mal ized REE di a gram for the coast line sediments
Tec tonic set tings (La/Yb)N (La/Sm)N (Gd/Yb)N Eu/Eu* SREE
Oce anic Is land Arc1 2.9 ±0.9 – – 1.04 ±0.11 58
Pas sive Mar gin2 9.80 3.67 1.40 0.74 106.83
Back Arc Ba sin2 6.50 2.95 1.30 0.79 83.63
Con ti nen tal Arc Ba sin2 7.18 3.19 1.30 0.76 113.49
Ma rine Sed i ments from Jayapura3 0.33 0.57 0.91 0.21 33.56
1 av er age data from Bhatia (1983); 2 av er age data from McLennan et al. (1990); 3 av er age data from this re search T a b l e 2 Com par i son of av er age ra tios and to tal REE con tents in coastal sed i ments from Jayapura-re lated rocks
with av er age REE con tents of mod ern tec tonic en vi ron ments
Tectono-eustatic changes in the late Pleis to cene sea level shaped the con tem po rary coast line of the Jayapura re gion (Verstappen, 1975). The sea level rise is usu ally ac com pa nied by a grad ual mi gra tion of coastal morphodynamic bar ri ers. The mi gra tion of forms en riched in heavy min eral lay ers can lead to a con cen tra tion of eco nom i cally im por tant use ful com po nents. The pres er va tion of struc tures en riched in heavy min er als is pos si ble when the mi gra tory forms are trapped, e.g., in coastal lon gi tu di - nal chan nels (Tixeront, 1978). The land ward trans port of rich lay - ers of heavy min er als is ac com pa nied by a clear de crease in heavy min eral con tent as a func tion of depth and dis tance. It is con firmed by the Aus tra lian shelf model pro posed by Kudrass (1987). A sim i lar de pend ence ex ists in the coastal sed i ments of the north ern coast of New Guinea. The en ergy dis tri bu tion of wave pro cesses along the en tire coast line is het er o ge neous.
This re sults in a vari able wave base sur face be low which the ki - netic en ergy of the waves does not ini ti ate the move ment of the ma te rial to wards the shore. The un even in flu ence of wave pro - cesses sig nif i cantly af fects the re gional dif fer en ti a tion of heavy min eral con tent as a func tion of depth and dis tance from land.
Frac tional sed i men ta tion is caused by coastal cur rents from the east ern part of the Jayapura dis trict. In the case of coastal sed i - ments, a lin ear de crease in heavy min eral con tent with in creas - ing wa ter depth is ev i dent. The vis i ble degression of the heavy frac tion is be low the isobathic level of 27 metres be low the sea-floor (m b.s.f.). The share of heavy min er als in the sed i ment weight is 45.76%, while at the isobath of 30 m b.s.f. – only 5.73%.
The great est amount of heavy min er als is re corded at a depth of 23 to 27 m b.s.f. The het er o ge ne ity of the sed i ments is also vis i - ble in re la tion to the dis tance from land. The lin ear de gen er a tion of heavy min er als takes place at a dis tance of ~260 m from the coast. The av er age heavy min eral con tent drops from 48.33 to 0.21 wt.% at point 460 m from the land bor der. The great est share of the heavy frac tion in sea bed sed i ments oc curs at dis - tances be tween 200 and 300 m. The con cen tra tion of heavy min - er als also de pends on the sea-bot tom slope an gle. This an gle has not been stud ied.
MINERAL DEPOSIT POTENTIAL OF SHELF SEDIMENTS
Poorly con sol i dated, mod er ately graded me dium to fine sands en riched with heavy min er als can be a use ful min eral.
The ac cu mu la tion of the heavy frac tion has a polymineral char - ac ter, lat er ally dif fer en ti ated. The dom i nant grain class of the heavy frac tion is grains with a par ti cle size of 0.1–0.25 mm. The spec trum of high-den sity min er als con sists of am phi boles, bi o - tite, chro mium spinel, epidote, he ma tite, clinochlore, Mg-olivines, ser pen tine group min er als, py rox enes, rutile, cop - per and iron sulphides, ti tan ite, and li mo nite frag ments. The grains of heavy min er als form char ac ter is tic paragenesis of var - i ous fea tures, e.g. from sub sti tu tion, mix ing, in the form of ir reg - u lar veins. The shape of the tex tures di rectly in flu ences the tech nol ogy and costs of min eral pro cess ing. The frac tion of heavy min er als un der went mag netic sep a ra tion (Fig. 6), ob tain - ing a con cen trate of mag netic and weakly mag netic min er als.
The frac tion of strongly mag netic min er als is com posed mostly of mag ne tite. Less mag netic min er als are com posed of ol iv ine (with paragenesis of mag ne tite and chro mium spinel), chro - mium spinel (with paragenesis of mag ne tite), he ma tite and am - phi bole with il men ite. The non-mag netic group con sists of the other com po nents in the sed i ment (plagioclase, micas, epidotes).
A pro spec tive min eral for the heavy frac tion in the sea bed sed i ment is chro mium spinel. The per cent age of the min eral in the en tire coast line is vari able. In the east ern part of the coast at the sam pling sites, ho mo ge neous chro mite grains are on av er - age 7.36% of the heavy frac tion, and in paragenesis with ol iv ine and mag ne tite: 1.44 and 2.70%, re spec tively. In the cen tral part, which is an ex ten sion of the east ern subprovince, the con - tent of ho mo ge neous chro mium spinel grains is on av er age of 4.98%, co-ex ist ing with mag ne tite 1.22% and ol iv ine 0.02%.
The west ern min eral subprovince is char ac ter ized by an av er - age chro mium spinel grain con tent of 2.71%, with mag ne tite 0.93% and ol iv ine 0.79%.
Fig. 5. Dis crim i na tion plots La-Th-Sc and Th-Sc-Zr/10 for tec tonic set tings (af ter Bathia and Crook, 1986)
488 Karol Zglinicki and Krzysztof Szama³ek
MINERALOGICAL-GEOCHEMICAL SUBPROVINCES
The spa tial di ver sity of sea bed sed i ments from the Jayapura coast is the re sult of the het er o ge neous geo log i cal struc ture of the re gion. The het er o ge neous min eral com po si - tion of the terrigenous sed i ments along the whole coast line de - ter mines the pres ence of three min er al og i cal subprovinces with a vari able char ac ter of the source area.
The east ern and west ern subprovinces are char ac ter ized by min er als from mafic and ultra mafic rocks: Mg-olivines, py - rox enes, ser pen tine group min er als, and li mo nite frag ments.
Ore min er als are rep re sented by chro mite, mag ne tite and small amounts of he ma tite.
The cen tral subprovince is char ac ter ized by the pres ence of min er als from the meta mor phic en vi ron ment. The phase com - po si tion of the flat-bot tomed sed i ments of the north ern coast of New Guinea cor re sponds to the min er al ogy of the rocks of the Jayapura re gion. The group of heavy min er als in cludes am phi - boles, bi o tite, epidote, clinochlore, py rox enes and ti tan ite. The use ful min er als are rep re sented by mag ne tite, il men ite, he ma - tite, rutile, and cop per and iron sulphides.
The min er al ogy of the sea bed sur face sed i ments of the Jayapura coast cor re lates with the phases de scribed on shore by Zwierzycki (1921), Gisolf (1921), Baker (1955, 1956) and Monnier et al. (1999).
The con cen tra tions of el e ments in bot tom sed i ments are par tic u larly cor re lated with the oc cur rence of min eral subpro - vinces. The cen tral part of the source area, com posed of meta - mor phic rocks, is a zone of ac cu mu la tion of el e ments char ac - ter is tic for min er als pres ent in these rocks. This zone shows in - creased val ues of the lo cal geo chem i cal back ground for Cu, K, Mn, Sr, Ti, Zr, REE, and V. In the east ern and west ern parts of the coast, in creased con tents of Co, Cr, Fe, Ni and Zn were found. The ac cu mu la tion of el e ments is char ac ter is tic for mafic and ultra mafic rocks, which are a source for the sed i ments of the east ern and west ern coasts of Jayapura.
PRELIMINARY GEOLOGICAL AND MINERAL DEPOSIT PROSPECTS
The sed i ments ana lysed in the study con tain chro mium and tung sten. At the cur rent pre lim i nary rec og ni tion level (58 sam ples from the sea bed sur face) it is im pos si ble to de ter mine the cri te ria of min i mum abun dances and av er age con tents of use ful com po nents. Based on the min eral de posit fore casts (Fig. 7), it can be as sumed that the sed i ment en riched with chro mium and tung sten oc curs in two blocks (A and B) cov er - ing 29.7 and 15.2 km2, re spec tively. Due to lack of data, the ex plor atory works should be car ried out in two subprovinces (west ern and ex tended east ern) ex clud ing the cen tral non-pro spec tive zone. Based on the con tem po rary ex plo ra - tion re sults the re sources were de ter mined as in ferred (based on JORC Code). For more de tailed rec og ni tion it is nec es sary to per form sed i ment prob ing on the sea bed of the des ig nated area in the fu ture. The op er a tions should cover the area of the nar row con ti nen tal shelf. The prob ing stage should be pre - ceded by a sur vey of the ba sin sea bed sur face. An ir reg u lar sea bed sur face of the shelf is ex pected, with nu mer ous nar row chan nels fac ing the New Guinea Trench.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The min er al og i cal-geo chem i cal stud ies of shelf sed i - ments have shown that the con tem po rary shal low-wa ter sed i - ments of the Jayapura coast are de rived from rocks of the ophiolite se quence and meta mor phic core of the Cy clops Moun tains. The val ues of func tion dis crim i na tion in di cate that the Cy clops Moun tains Mas sif was formed un der the con di tions of oce anic is lands arc. This is con firmed by re search con ducted by Monnier et al. (1999) and Zglinicki (2016).
2. De pend ing on the sam pling site, the sed i ment shows sig - nif i cant dif fer ences in col our, grain size and pres ence of or ganic com po nents. The vari abil ity is the re sult of re gional dif fer en ti a tion Fig. 6. Grains ob tained from mag netic sep a ra tion
(A) sam ple JP8 and (B) sam ple JP41; ste reo scopic mi cro scope; mag ni fi ca tion ´2
in the coast line mor phol ogy, coast line pro cesses, and the source of the ma te rial. The de tri tal sed i ment (af ter car bon ate re moval) is rep re sented by coarse-, me dium- and fine-grained sands.
3. The heavy frac tion ac cu mu lated in the sed i ment has a polymineral char ac ter (am phi boles, chro mium spinel, epidote, he ma tite, il men ite, clinochlore, mag ne tite, ser pen tine group min er als, ol iv ine, py rox enes, rutile, cop per and iron sulphides, ti tan ite). Heavy min er als in the sea bed sed i ment show lat eral dif fer en ti a tion along the en tire coast line.
4. The spa tial anal y sis of the min eral com po si tion of the sed i ments al lowed de ter min ing three subprovinces with dif fer - ent source ar eas. The east ern and west ern subprovinces are char ac ter ized by a mafic and ultra mafic source of ma te rial or i - gin. The cen tral zone is rep re sented by sed i ments of meta mor - phic or i gin. The geo chem i cal di ver sity cor re lates with the min - eral com po si tion.
5. The oc cur rence of in di vid ual el e ments co in cides with the min eral subprovinces iden ti fied. In the cen tral zone there is en - rich ment with Ba, Cu, V, Zr, Sr, REE and Ti. The east ern and west ern zones are char ac ter ized by the Cr-Ni-Co-W geo chem i - cal as so ci a tion.
6. Poorly con sol i dated, mod er ately sorted, me dium- and fine-grained sands en riched in heavy min er als (heavy min eral con tent from 0.10 to 54.77 wt.%) may be a po ten tial use ful min - eral de posit. Chro mium spi nels are of sig nif i cant im por tance for the de posit. The av er age con tent of heavy min er als in the sea - bed sur face sed i ments is 11.5%.
Ac knowl edge ments. The au thors would like to thank the re view ers of the manu script: K. Galos and P. Lis for their valu - able sug ges tions. Prof. R. Kotliñski is ac knowl edged for in spir - ing con sul ta tions.
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