The Chemical Age, Vol. 53, No. 1363

1 il;- ; v K r S At;:,

l^v-.si.ed ti> Ltdoscrwl ansi ¥.flgine>ejr<ag Oïêitnstry - ':,; ; : ,; - ^ ' • ' : : ■ ^ : ~

S A T U R D A Y , A U G U S T n , 19 4 5 6d. p u r Copï

R E G IS TER ED AS A N EW SP A P ER P O S T F R E E 8 0 .

POLfTECHN

“ IÜDCÛ”

LUBRICATED PLUG VALVES

From 16 " bore as illustrated down to § ' bore, all with the renowned Audco system of lubricating and sealing to ensure tight shut-off and ease of operation.

Materials and construction include Cast Iron, Steel,

Stainless Steel, A c id Resisting Bronze, A udcoloy,

Reinforced Ebonite and Glass.

\

Au g u s t x i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL A G E

DRUMS

T hese drum s are w elded th rou ghou t and are manufactured in large q uantities. They can be supplied painted, gal- vanijed o r tinned.

A lso m anufactured In stainless s te el. Capaci­

tie s ranging from 20 to 150 gallons.

' Everything for Safety Everywhere "

G A S M A S K S

- A L L T Y P E S

S ilf 'C o n t iln id Breathing

Apparatus

“ P r o t o , ’*

“ S a lv u s ,”

11 F i r e o x ,” e t c

J h o rt-D lita n c e Breathing Apparatus

A n t ip o y s a n d o t h e r t y p e s

O X Y G E N a n d O X Y G E N + C O ,

Re suscitation Apparatus

“ N o v o x ,* '

" N o v l t a , ” a n d o t h e r t y p e s DUST MASKS and GOGGLES of all patterns ASBESTOS FIREPROOF CLOTHING. ACIDPROOF

GARMENTS, etc.

SIEBE,

GORMAN

&

CO. LTD., LONDON

Telegrams : Telephone :

Siebe. Lamb, London _____ W aterloo 6071

ST E A M Ü W A T E R . F I T T I N G S FORALL P U F A P O S E S

E N S U R E T H E M AX IM U M O F E F F IC IE N C Y T O G E T H E R W IT H LONG L I F E U N D ER

A L L W O R K IN G CONDITIONS Also SA N D CASTING S IN AU. N ON-FERROUS METALS IN C L U D IN G H IG H TENSILE E R O N Z E S & A LU M IN IUM

Trlonlte Ltd., Cllffe Vale, Stoke-on-Trent PHOHI : ITOKI-6N-TBINT 3171-3

CP.8a

Au g u s t i i, 1945 THE CHEMI CAL AGE

RICHARD SIMON & SONS, LTD.

P H ΠN IX W O R K S , B A S F O R D ,

N O T T IN G H A M

H ere is a portion of a very big oil storage install­

ation we recently completed in T rin id a d — the electrically-welded tanks illustrated are 118ft. Oin.

diam eterand 4lft.6in.deep (80,000 barrels capacity).

This is only one of the many im portant jobs under­

taken during the past five years — most of which I I I I N d F T • I F F D Ç I f i w e are still unable to mention. n U I W L L I L L U l / J I V L o n d o n O f f i c e : W in c h e s t e r H o u s e , O ld B r o a d S t r e e t , E.C .2 ’G r a m s : “ O x b r o s , L e e d s *

’P h o n e : L o n d o n W a ll 3731. ’G r a m s : “ A s b e n g p r o , S t o c k , L o n d o n ” 'P h o n e : L e e d s 32521

W e have test p/ants on a commercial scale always available

M U L T I T U B U L A R D R I E R S

R O L L E R F I L M D R I E R S

F L A K E R S A N D C O O L E R S

W e offer accumulated experience of 50 years’ specialization.

O U R W O R K S , the largest in the United K ingdom devoted especi­

ally to D R Y IN G M A C H IN E R Y , are laid ou t and equipped w ith the latest plant for this particular purpose.

M A N Y S T A N D A R D S IZ E S includ­

ing L A B O R A T O R Y M O D E L S .

A

ii THE CHEMICAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5

I N T E R M E D I A T E P R O D U C T S A N I L I N E D Y E S

F A S T B A S E S FOR ICE C O L O U R S

Benzol, Nlcrobenzol, Binltrobenzol, Nltronaphthalene, Blnltronaphthalene, Xylol, N ltroxylol. Blnltroxylol X ylldlne, T oluol, O rtho & Para N lcrotoluol, Blnltrotoluol (All Grades)

Para N ltro O rtho Toluldlne, Meta N ltro Para Toluldine

ORTHO TOLUIDINE PARA TOLUIDINE

Extensive Range of Oil Colours, Acid Colours, Basic Colours, Direct Colours, Pigment Colours, Azoic Colours for W o o l, also Colours suitable for all Trades

META TOLUYLENE DIAMINE META PHENYLENE DIAMINE

J O H N W . L E I T C H & C O ., L T D .

MILNSBRIDGE CHEMICAL W ORKS

T elephone: H I i r ^ n F R ^ F I F I H Telegrams:

189-190 MILNSBRIDGE n U L f ü C l \ J r 1 C L U LEITCH. MILNSBRIDGE

I N D I A S C O T L A N D C A N A D A

Khatau Valabhdas & Co., Kirkpatrick & Lauder Ltd., Prescott & C o., Regd.

Vadgadi .Bombay. 180, H ope S treet, Glasgow, C.2 774, St. Paul St. W est, Montreal

A. J. RILEY & SON, ^{L td}

BATLEY, Y O R K S

ESTABLISHED 188 8 Telegrams: " BOILERS, B A T L E Y T e l e p h o n e : 657’BATLEY (3 lines)

M akers of

M IL D ST E E L R IV E T E D A N D W E L D E D V E S SE L S J A C K E T E D P A N S C O M P L E T E

W IT H A G IT A T O R S S H E E T L E A D O R H O M O G E N E O U S

L IN E D V E S SE L S T A R , B E N Z O L E & O IL S T ILL S C O N D E N S E R S , E V A P O R A T O R S

A N D D IS T IL L IN G P L A N T S M IL D ST E E L PIPES

A L L P R E S S U R E S L A N C A S H IR E , C O R N IS H E C O N O M I C & W .T . B O IL E R S

¿ S & .

T H O M A S T Y H E K & C O . Ł T » - s t r a t f o r d ■ l o n d o n • e

Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL AGE

W » b » ' ' V

k

fod&eft, . soYjC.c\«.-

lot"- U tf ¿ ^ Tfee4%si4

THE CHEMICAL A G E Aug u s t i i, 1945

FL U O R SPAR

o

o

H IG H G R AD E 97 ^* 98 ^%

Ca F2 C O N T E N T

is now available

from

^—

O

o

G L E B E M I N E S L I M I T E D

EYAM • DERBYSHIRE

T e le p ho ne : Eyam 241

fiOWSONUMASOi M ANCHESTER 19

G A S P L A N T C O . L T D . T el. N o . : H e a to n M o o r 2261

DOWSOŃ CAS PLAN T CCitti)

M AN CH ESTER:

DOWSON S> MASON CAS PLANT CO-LTD M AN CH ESTER DOWSON » MASON

CAS. PLANT Ć O ¿TO M AN CH ESTER

■Ą . POWSON « ON

: CAS PLAN T CO LTD MANCHESTER

T A N K S . C Y L I N D R I C A L A N D R E C T A N G U L A R

P U M P S A N D F L O W METERS, ETC.

Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL AGE

READS OF LIVERPOOL

FOR BETTER TINS i, PROMS

‘A product is no b etter than its con tain er’ is a sound and w ell-tried business axiom . Poor sales alw ays resu lt w here goods— how ever high their q u ality—

are. packed in inferior containers. If you r p rod uct is sold in m etal b oxes, tin s or drum s, con su lt R E A D S of L IV E R P O O L , w hose exp erience ex ten ­ d ing over three-quarters of a centu y enables th e m to offer e x a c tly th e right ty p e of container for every p roduct. T yp ica l ou tstan d in g ‘ F irsts ’ secured b y R E A D S w ere ‘ Seam ed-C orner’ tin b oxes, double-seam ed k egs and drum s.

R E A D S w ere also th e first in th e B ritish Isles to in stall p rin ting presses capable of handling h ea v y gau ge sh eet m e ta l. W ith few excep tion s, if a pack age can be m ade from sh eet m etal, R E A D S can su p p ly it.

R20I-CÍ

R EA D S L IM IT E D , 2 1 B R ID G E W A T E R S T R E E T , L IV E R PO O L 1. R o y al 18 3 0 A n d a t L ondon, G lasgow , B e lfa st, L eice ste r a n d C ork

vi THE CHEMICAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5

ESTABLISHED 1840

DANKS OF NETHERTON LTD

CHEMICAL PLANT PRESSURE VESSELS JACKETTED PANS MIXERS RECEIVERS

ALL T Y PE S O F W E L D E D A N D R IV E T E D STEEL

FA B R IC A T IO N S

N E T H E R T O N , D U D LE Y , W O R C S .

LONDON OFFICE—

329, HIGH HO LBORN, L O N D O N , W .C . I

ALUM INO FERRIC

REGD. TRADE M ARK Ml THE CHEAPEST FO RM OF SULPHATE OF A L U M IN A

Sole Manufacturers .. .

PETER SPENCE & SONS LTD.

NA 1 :cy.A.L PUHDINCS • ST. MARY’S PAP.iOSACE

M A N C H E S T E R , 3

LONDON OFFICE: 778/780 SALISBURY HOUSE ECZ ) G 18

There’s money V in the air

W h erev er so lv en ts a re u sed m o n ey l \ w h e th er a n activ e c a rb o n recovery p lan t literally tak e s to th e a ir as th e re su lt M w o u ld b e a w o rth -w h ile p ro p o sitio n , o u r

o f e v a p o ra tio n a n d in m an y in d u stria l ad v iso ry d e p a rtm e n t c a n c le ar th e a ir by p lan ts th is w astag e c a n be very serio u s. W su p p ly in g y o u w ith th e n ecessary details.

T h ere isn’t th e sp ac e h ere to list all

the in d u strie s w hich c an benefit fro m

SUTCLIFFE, SPEAKMAN

AND COMPANY LTD • LEIGH, LANCASHIRE so lv en t recovery b u t, if y o u use sol- V \ \ London Office : 82K in g W illiam S tree t, E .C .4 .

\ \ \ T el. : M A N s io n H ouse 1285/6. ven ts a t all, a n d a re in a n y d o u b t

M e lb o u r n e A g e n t s — M e ss r s . H . R. H ill & S o n , P ty , L td ., 350 K ing S t r e e t .

Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL AGE

m a ù

for Jf total

mechanisation

W h a te v e r kind of box o r enclosure In metal you require there’s a M O O N machine which will help you to say to enquiries “ Yes, we can.” Y o u can get the finish, you can perform intricate operations and turn ou t the quantity on a M O O N machine. W e make a wide range and will gladly co-operate in finding o r designing one to suit you. If you have a problem, you can safely pass it to us.

MOON BROS, LTD,)

M akers o f Tin Box and Drum ¡Making Machinery,

BEAUFORT RD., BIRKENH EAD

in tin box making

dm 1242

v i i i THE CHEMI CAL AGE _Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5

THIS ' APPARATUS M A K E S

P O T E N T I O M E T R I C T I T R A T I O N EASIER

TH A N TITRATION BY COLOUR INDICATOR

W ith th is , th e M illia rd E le ctro m e tric T itr a tio n A p p a ratu s T y p e E .920, a ro b u st ' m agic-eye ’ tu n in g in d ic a to r replaces th e u su al fragile g alv an o m eter. N o ex tern al b a tte ry is n e ed e d . D rift, a fre q u e n t b u g ­ b e a r w ith su c h a p p a ra tu s , has b e en e n tirely overcom e — b y a n in g en io u s n ew c ircu it. T h e a p p a ra tu s is u n a ffe cted by changes in th e s u p p ly -m ain ’s v oltage, a n d is eq u ally su itab le fo r research lab o ra to ry o r facto ry . B eing ex trem ely sim ple to u se, o p erativ e s w ith n o special tra in in g can use it. T h e p rice is £3 3.10.0. F o r f u rth e r p a rticu la rs w rite to th e M illia rd W ireless Service C o m p an y L td ., M e a su rin g A p p a ra tu s S e c tio n , C e n tu ry H o u s e , S h a ftes b u ry A v e n u e, L o n d o n , W .C .2.

MUIiLARD

M E A S U R IN G A PPA R A TU S

B A K E L A Q U E

Synthetic Resin Laminated Boards, Tubes, Rods, and

Mouldings

B A K E L A Q U E

Resins, Varnishes and Moulding Powders

MICA and M IC A N IT E

in all form s

Vulcanised Fibre and Leatheroid

Varnished Cloth, Tape and Tubing

Presspahn, Fullerboard Ebonite and all Insulating Material for

Electrical Engineers

ATTWATER Ł SONS LTP

P R E S T O N ESTABLISHED 1868

Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMICAL AGE

T'. D AVIES LIMITED, Steel Drum and Keg Manufacturers, W i d n e s I r o n W o r k s , W I D N E S .

Grams : " DAVEE ” ' Phone : Widnes 2463

B

X THE CHEMICAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5

rshould be used in analytical and research w ork.

It Is also essential th at th e user should definitely know th e maxim um am ounts of im purities which th e reagent is liable to contain.

All Towers Tested Analytical Reagents are th erefo re supplied w ith a specification o f. the m aximum .limits o f im purities, w hich- Is «leacly

•stared on th e label o f every bottle.

mfpersulphate Alt

Price List on Application

J. W. TOWERS & CO., LTD. H e a d &

Works . - w i d n e s

B A R B I T O N E

BARBITON E SOLUBLE ALLOBARBITO N E

CYCLOBARBITONE

F IN E S T Q U A LIT Y .

A C T U A L L Y M A N U F A C T U R E D A T B A R N E T

= = = = = = = by - • — — •

PIERSON, MORRELL & CO ., LTD.

(T H E O R IG IN A L B R IT IS H A S P IR IN M A K E R S )

Q U E E N ’S R O A D - BA R N ET - HERTS

Phone : Barnet 0723 G ram s : Pierson, M orrell, Barnet

Modern methods demand

the purest chemicals . . ..

Au g u s t i t; 1945 THE CHEMI CAL AGE

Carbon is em ployed fo r a great variety o f specialised purposes in mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering, often in applications where no other m aterial has the requisite properties.

For meeting these requirements ice have developed methods whereby it can be shaped into practically any form . The combined properties o f carbon are unique. It is self-lubricating and

has a high thermal and electrical con­

du ctivity compared with other non- metallic substances : it resists thermal shock, m aintains its strength well at high temperatures, is chemically inert and has a loic coefficient o f expansion.

In yo u r own industry there m ay be something needed which would be the better fo r being made o f carbon, or cannot be made ivithout it.

The collaboration o f our engineers is at yo u r disposal.

A M M W G A N

product

T H E M O RG AN CRUCIBLE C O M PA N Y, L T D ., L O N D O N , S .W . l l

Intricate Shapes

THE CHEMI CAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5

W hite nnd Grey, Plain, C r in k le d , E m b o ssed .

POSTLIP”

(N o . 6 3 3 M i l l )

ENGLISH

FILTER P A P E R S

HoeiiKil]

A l l s S q u a r e s , Circles and Folded Filter Rolls m ade to order

P u re F ilte r in g s f o r L a b o r a t o r y W o r k , a n d in q u a n titie s fo r a ll In d u stria l

p urposes.

See report of TESTS m ade by the National Ph ysical Laboratory, a copy o f w hich w ill be sen t on application together w ith ^ free sam ples if required.

Postlip Filterings are stocked t>u all the leading Wholesale Laboratory Dealers

EVANS ADLARD & Co., L td .

POSTLIP MiLLS

W IN C H C O M B E , C H E L T E N H A M , EN G LA N D

L © w m © ¡ R

W i . ® U © O T D l ^ ® i

So

re </ £ i m S

.... . x

u s -tA e c / u u t f r e s t /

L o w m o o r Iro n is p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r H o o k s, S l i n g s a n d S a f e t y G o a r f o r S te e lw o r k s , C o ll ie r i e s , R a ilw a y s , e t c . It w i t h s t a n d s s u d d e n s t r e s s & s t r a i n a n d r e s i s t s a t m o s p h e r i c c o r r o s io n .

L O W M O O R B E S T Y O R K S H IR E IR O N I j o . IR O N W O R K S , L O W M O O R .

ACTIVATED

ALUMINA

A D S O R B E N T A ND C ATALYS T S Al Tl SH

MANUFACTURE

W R IT E FOR PA R TIC U LA R S

PETER SPENCE & SONS LTD.

M r< O N A l BUILDINGS ■ ST. MARY'S PARSONAGE

M A N C H E S T E R , 3

LONDON OFFICE: 778/760 SALISBURY HOUSE EC2 A 6

M L A R G E U S E R S OF W A T E R

Berkefeld LARGE SUPPLY Filters are reliable . . . endurable . . . sim ple to o p era te. In pattern T th e Im purities, trapped by th e cylinders, can be cleaned away In a few m in u tes— w ith o u t having to open o r take th e filters apart. Just im agine h ow this can be of service to you w ith all

to-d ay’s l a b o u r difficulties. And, f u r t h e r m o r e , th e s e filters guar­

a n te e a constant supply, w ith an hourly o u tp u t of 250 gallons to 550 gallons according to th e size of th e filter.

For full Informa­

tion o n s i z e s , c a p a c i t i e s and prices, w rite to

B E R K E F E L D F I L T E R S

BERKEFELD FILTERS LTD. (D e p t. 61), Sardinia H ouse, K ingsway, London.

Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL AGE x i i i

The Research Chemist

The interest aroused in the public mind by the achievements o f the Research Chemist is based primarily on the practical value o f his discoveries, but the lay mind has little understanding of the difficul­

ties and the problems encountered before laboratory synthesis can be translated into factory production.

After the dramatic discovery comes the generally far m ore difficult task of meeting the demand occasioned by it, and such problems have been accentuated during the last few years by the worry o f wartime scarcities. Patience, resource and unremitting effort are just as necessary in research and develop­

ment work as the occasional flash of inspiration, and these qualities have helped the chemist to deal successfully with the many trouble­

some situations which the war has brought

The research workers of May &

Baker have had their share o f war­

time difficulties to overcome.

W ithout their efforts many o f our customers would have been less satisfied with the service we have been able to give them. Perhaps the problems which face you fall within the scope of their experience?

If so, we should be pleased to attempt to solve them. T elephone:

Ilford 3060. Extensions 71 o r 72.

I V L a y & B a k c r L t d

D A G E N H A M

M & B Industrial Chemicals S tries ( N o , 2 a ),

C H E M I C A L S F O R I N D U S T R Y

methyl ethyl ketone

T h is versatile base solvent is rapidly extending its field o f usefulness in a wide variety o f industries. In the com ­ pounding o f decorative lacquers, high­

speed printing inks and finishes for

“ dipped ” articles, in the formulation o f pharmaceutical preparations, in the manufacture and reclaiming o f rubber, and in the synthesis o f perfumes and flavours, m e t h y l e t h y l k e t o n e points the way to a better product and often a saving o f production cost.

m e t h y l e t h y lk e t o n eis characterised by high solvent power for nitro-cellulose and resins, a high dilution ratio, and a fast evaporation rate. It is exception­

ally stable and cannot hydrolyse to form acids.

t p m e t h y l e t h y l k e t o n e is marked by its exceptionally high standard of chemical purity and a precise uni­

formity between one delivery and another.

t p Technical Service will be glad to discuss the many advantages o f m e t h y l

e t h y l k e t o n e with any firm engaged

;n the processes m entioned above, or to send a detailed list o f its specifications

ind physical properties.

TE C H N ICA L P R O D U C T S L T D

H E L E N ’S C O U R T , G R E A T S T HK1 L O N D O N . E .C .3

IE L E P H O N F . A V E N U E 432)

XIV T H E C H E M I C A L A G E AUGUST I I , 1 9 4 5

1 P u l s o m e t e r 1

I Pump? I

Rotary o r Reciprocating for

Factory or Laboratory Vacua o b ta in a b le : ' S ingle S ta g e —-u p to “Ç05 m /m ; D up lex — up to

•00001 m /m off p e r fe c t, All Size* * T ypes

for V y- HiSh Vacua Displacement Dessication Distillation

1 Hoist Air Circuits

Pulsometer engineering C VI..

Hint 61ms Ironworks. R ead ing

A L L D U T IE S For Food and Chemical Industries

and Processes

L I S T N o . 3086

PATERSON DRY CHEMICAL FEEDER

Extensively used f o r the application of

POWDERED REAGENTS

for W ater Treatment purposes and f o r measur­

ing and proportioning powdered or Granular

■ Substances.

T echnical details fr o m

PATERSON ENGINEERING CO.,

L i m i t e d

83, K I N G S W A Y , L O N D O N

VORTEX ' MIXER

The Chemical Age

A W e e k ly J o u r n a l D e v o te d to I n d u s t r ia l a n d E n g in e e r in g C h e m is tr y

B O U V E R I E H O U S E , 154 F L E E T S T R E E T , L O N D O N , E .G .4 T e le g ra m s: A LLA N G A S F L E E T LO N D O N

G LA SG O W : 1 1 6 H ope S tre e t (C entral 3970)

T e le p h o n e : C E N T R A L 3 2 12 (10 lines;

B IR M IN G H A M : D aim ler H ouse, P a rad ise S tr e e t (M idland 0784-5 ) T H E C H E M IC A L A G E offices are closed on S a tu rd a y s in ac co rd an ce w ith th e a d o p tio n 01 by

B cnn B ro th e rs L im ited

V OL. L I I I

N o . 13 6 3 .

A u g u s t 1 1 , 1 9 4 5

N ational R esearch ⁷ L

^{O R D} L E V E R H U L M E , f r o m h is

v a s t e x p e r ie n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h a n d o f th e a p p li c a t io n o f r e s e a r c h to i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s , g a v e th e S o c ie ty of C h e m ic a l I n d u s t r y s o m e w is e c o m m e n ts a n d a d v ic e u p o n th e o r g a n is a t i o n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f r e s e a r c h , in th e c o u r s e o f h is d e li v e r y o f th e M e d a l l i s t ’s L e c tu r e . A g r e a t d e a l o f p l a n n i n g is t a k i n g p la c e a ll o v e r th e c o u n t r y ; a n d it is o f te n d iffic u lt to d i s t in g u i s h b e tw e e n p l a n n i n g a n d r e g im e n t a ti o n . T h e s e e m in g e ffic ie n c y o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n S t a te s e e m s to h a v e d e lu d e d th e c iv ilis e d w o r ld in to b e li e v in g t h a t t h a t is th e w a y in w h ic h m a n k in d s h o u ld o r g a n is e its e lf. G o v e r n m e n t c o n tr o l s , G o v e r n ­ m e n t o r d e r s , th e s la v is h s e a r c h fo r e ffic ie n c y a t th e e x p e n s e o f h u m a n f r e e ­ d o m , a r e a ll d i s t u r b in g e le m e n ts in o u r p r e s e n t c iv ilis a tio n .

W e t r u s t t h a t th is p h a s e w ill p a s s , fo r if it d o e s n o t, i n d i ­ v i d u a l l i b e r t y w ill p a s s . A s w e h e a r d L o r d L e v e r h u lm e s p e a k in g o n th e o r g a n is a t i o n o f r e ­ s e a r c h , o u r m in d w e n t to th e s c h o l a r ­ s h ip o f u n iv e r s itie s , to th e s c h o l a r s h ip o f q u ie t m in d s , w h o , lik e N e w to n

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h o p e o f g a in , h a v e , b y g i v in g t h o u g h t, a d d e d m a n y c u b its o f s t a tu r e to th e h u m a n ra c e . T h e r e a l is a t i o n of h o w m u c h w o u ld b e lo s t if th e p l a n n e r s w e re to h a v e t h e i r w a y u n ­ c h e c k e d f e ll u p o n o u r c o n s c io u s n e s s lik e a h a m m e r- b lo w . P l a n n i n g is n e c e s s a r y a s a to o l to w a r d s e ffic ie n c y , b u t it m u s t b e k e p t in its p r o p e r p la c e a s a to o l a n d m u s t n e v e r b e a llo w e d to b e c o m e o u r m a s te r .

L o r d L e v e r h u lm e w a s e m p h a t ic t h a t w e d o n o t w a n t a n a ti o n a l r e s e a r c h b l u e p r i n t , t h a t w e m u s t n o t r e g im e n t o u r s c ie n tif ic w o r k e r s . H e a g r e e d w ith th e v ie w t h a t if r e s e a r c h is to b e s u c c e s s f u l i t m u s t b e w e ll m a n a g e d , b u t g o o d m a n a g e m e n t is n o t to b e c o n f u s e d ' w ith r e g im e n t a ti o n . S o m e tim e s it is

g o o d m a n a g e m e n t o f a s p i r i te d h o r s e to le t h im h a v e h is

h e a d . S o is it a ls o g o o d m a n a g e m e n t o f a r e s e a r c h w o r k e r to l e t h im p u r s u e w h a t ­ e v e r c o u r s e se e m s g o o d to h im e v e n if i t m e a n s p u t t i n g o t h e r s to w o r k o n

th e p r o b le m in w h ic h h e w a s i n i t i a l l y e n ­ g a g e d . T h e s u c c e s s e s o f u n p l a n n e d r e s e a r c h h a v e b e e n m a n y a n d g r e a t . W h e n B e c q u e r e l d is c o v e r e d t h e p e n e t r a t i n g p o w e r o f X - r a y s h e d id n o t f o r e s e e th e u s e s to w h ic h th e y w o u ld b e p u t , n o r w a s h e 117

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s e c u r i n g th o s e o b je c tiv e s w h ic h w e c a n n o w r e a c h t h r o u g h X - r a y s . F l e m i n g ’s d is c o v e r y o f p e n ic i ll i n w a s e q u a l l y a n u n p l a n n e d r e s u l t o f r e s e a c h l e a d i n g to u n s u s p e c te d r e s u lts . S o a ls o h a v e b e e n m a n y o th e r s o f o u r g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts in th e r e a l m o f d is c o v e r y .

W e h a v e o f t e n u n t h i n k i n g l y a s s u m e d th e L a w o f S u p p l y a n d D e m a n d , t h a t th e w o r d s “ s u p p l y ” a n d “ d e m a n d ” a r c s u p p o s e d to f o llo w o n e a n o th e r a s a n a t u i a l c o n s e q u e n c e . S o th e y d o , b u t n o t in th e w a y in w h ic h m o s t p e o p le th in k . W e h a v e b e e n a c c u s to m e d to s u p p l y i n g a d e m a n d . M e r c h a n ts w ill s a y t h a t t h e i r s to c k s r e m a in u n s o ld b e ­ c a u s e t h e r e is n o d e m a n d a n d th e r e f o r e th e y th e m s e lv e s r e f r a i n f r o m b u y in g fro m th e m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h u s , in th e w o r k in g o f th e la w o f s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d , th e “ d e m a n d ” h a s a lw a y s b e e n a s s u m e d to g o v e r n th e “ s u p p l y . ” L o r d L e v e r h u lm e h a s p o in te d o u t t h a t i n i n d u s t r i a l s c ie n c e th e r e v e r s e is m o re u s u a l , a n d t h a t in m a n y in s ta n c e s d e ­ m a n d h a s n o t a r is e n u n t i l it h a s b e e n c r e a te d b y th e e x is te n c e o f s u p p ly . T h u s th e p u b lic h a d n o d e s ir e f o r th e g r a m o p h o n e , f o r w ir e le s s s e ts , fo r th e c in e m a , f o r te l e v is io n , fo r a h o s t o f o t h e r t h in g s , u n t il s c ie n c e h a d d is ­ c o v e r e d h o w th e s e t h in g s w e re to b e m a d e a n d th e r e b y c r e a te d th e d e m a n d . I n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h m u s t c le a r l y b e d ir e c te d l a r g e l y to d i s c o v e r i n g u s e s to w h ic h s c ie n tific d is c o v e r y c a n b e p u t in o r d e r to c r e a te a d e m a n d .

T h is p r i n c i p l e is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e f u t u r e o f th is c o u n tr y . O u r s t a p le lin e s o f m a n u f a c t u r e w ill n o t b e r e q u ir e d a b r o a d to a n y t h i n g lik e th e e x te n t t h a t

’ th e y o n c e w e re . O th e r n a tio n s a r e s e t ti n g u p t h e i r o w n ir o n a n d s te e l w o r k s , t h e i r o w n t e x t i le m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d so f o r th . W e s h a l l b e d r i v e n to s u p p ly t h e w o r ld w ith n e w t h in g s t h a t it c a n n o t m a n u f a c t u r e f o r its e lf . T h e la w of s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d w ill g o v e r n o u r e x ­ p o r t s in th e f u t u r e a s i t h a s d o n e in th e p a s t. I t is f o r u s to c r e a te th e d e m a n d .

T h e w a r h a s s h o w n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r e s e a r c h te a m s a n d o f h o w g r e a t p r o b le m s c a n b e s o lv e d b y in te n s iv e r e s e a r c h in w h ic h m a n y i n d iv i d u a l s ta k e p a r t. T h is ty p e o f r e s e a r c h is s u ite d to so m e m in d s , b u t it is n o t th e b e s t w a y o f u s i n g a l l r e s e a r c h p e r s o n n e l. I t is b y n o m e a n s c e r t a i n t h a t a r e s e a r c h te a m

in th e a c c e p te d s e n s e o f th e t e r m s h o u ld b e b u i lt u p b y a d v e r t is e m e n t a n d a p ­ p o in tm e n t. T h e i d e a l te a m w o u ld b e a b o d y o f e n th u s i a s t s g a t h e r e d v o l u n t a r i l y (w h ic h d o e s n o t m e a n u n p a id ) a r o u n d a n o u t s t a n d i n g f ig u r e w h o w o u ld a c t a s t h e i r d ir e c to r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u c h o u t­

s t a n d i n g f ig u re s a r e n o t n u m e r o u s , b u t w e b e lie v e t h a t th is c o u n tr y w ill a lw a y s p r o d u c e th e m in s u ffic ie n t q u a n ti t y a n d o f s u ffic ie n t q u a li t y w h e n th e n e e d is g e n e r a ll y u n d e r s to o d .

T h e G o v e r n m e n t, in L o r d L e v e r - h u l m e ’s v ie w , s h o u ld n o t p l a n r e s e a r c h . T h e p r e s e n t in s is te n c e o n a v o id a n c e o f o v e r l a p p i n g is n o t, in h is v ie w , w e ll fo u n d e d . T h a t o n e m a n o r o n e te a m o f m e n is w o r k in g o n a p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t is n o • r e a s o n w h y a n o th e r m a n o r, in d e e d , m a n y o t h e r m e n , s h o u ld n o t b e w o r k in g o n th e s a m e s u b je c t. O n e m a n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily d is c o v e r a l l t h a t th e r e is to b e k n o w n a b o u t th e s u b je c t o n w h ic h h e is w o r k i n g a n d , s in c e th e h u m a n m in d is c a p a b le o f m a n y s h a d e s o f t h o u g h t, it is b e tt e r t h a t s e v e r a l m e n s h o u ld w o r k in d e p e n d e n t l y o n a p r o b ­ le m w h ic h o n e o f th e m w o u ld u l ti m a t e ly s o lv e th a n t h a t th e p r o b le m s h o u ld p o s s ib ly r e m a in u n s o lv e d t h r o u g h f e a r o f o v e r la p p in g . T h e G o v e r n m e n t s h o u ld a im a t e n c o u r a g in g r e s e a r c h , it s h o u ld a im a t s t i m u l a t i n g r e s e a r c h , a n d it s h o u ld g iv e a s s is ta n c e to r e s e a r c h , b u t it s h o u ld n o t p r e s u m e to d i c t a te w h a t r e s e a r c h s h a l l b e c a r r i e d o u t n o r b y w h o m . A m o n g th e m e th o d s o f s t i m u ­ l a tio n o f r e s e a r c h n o t th e le a s t is r e li e f fro m t a x a tio n . T h e G o v e r n m e n t m u s t u n d e r ta k e c e r t a i n r e s e a r c h w o rk d i r e c tl y , e .g . , r e s e a r c h i n to d e fe n c e m e th o d s , r e s e a r c h in to h e a l t h , a n d s u c h re s e a l c h in to th e u t il i s a ti o n o f o u r n a ti o n a l r e s o u r c e s a s is n o t s u ite d to b e c a r r i e d o u t b y i n d u s tr y . T h e r e s h o u ld a ls o b e , in L o r d L e v e r h u lm e ’s v ie w , m o r e c lo s e ly o r g a n is e d c o n ta c t b e tw e e n u n i v e r s it i e s a n d i n d u s t r y s in c e e a c h c a n g a in a g o o d d e a l f r o m th e o th e r . I n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h a s v is u a lis e d b y h im fo llo w s th e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s la id d o w n b y S ir H a r o l d H a r t l e y in h is n o w w e ll- k n o w n p a m p h l e t “ A re Y o u R e s e a r c h M in d e d ?” W e t h in k n o t h i n g m o re n e e d b e a d d e d ! o n t h a t sc o re .

O n e fin a l w o r d , h o w e v e r , r e f e r s to th e p la c e o f th e r e s e a r c h m a n in th e h i g h e r c o u n c ils o f i n d u s tr y . P r o f e s s o r R id e a l

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f a c to r ie s w e re a t f irs t o w n e d b y p r a c t ic a l c h e m is ts , th e h i g h e r d ir e c tio n h e r e h a s n o w b e c o m e d iv o r c e d f r o m th e p r a c t is ­ i n g c h e m i s t ; w h e r e a s in th e U .S .A . a n d in G e r m a n y th e p r a c t i s i n g c h e m is t r a n k s h ig h o n th e i n d u s t r i a l d i r e c to r a t e . I n h is v ie w th e a b s e n c e o f th e c h e m is t fro m th e b o a r d in a n y i n d u s t r y s p e l ls th e d e a t h o f t h a t in d u s t r y . L o r d L e v e r - h u l m e w a s e m p h a t ic in s t a t i n g t h a t th e h e a d o f th e r e s e a r c h d e p a r t m e n t s h o u ld a lw a y s b e o n th e b o a r d o f h is c o n c e r n . F r a n k l y , w e h a v e b e e n d is tu r b e d by

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T O M I C e n e r g y h a s a t l a s t b e e n r e le a s e d o n a l a r g e s c a le . U n ­ h a p p il y , it is a s a d e s t r u c t i v e w e a p o n t h a t t h is p o w e r h a s b e e n u s e d in th e first p l a c e ; b u t a s t h e w e a p o n is tu r n e d a g a i n s t t h e l a s t o f th e w i l f u ll y d e s t r u c ­ tiv e w a r m o n g e r s , w e m a y s u r e l y h o p e b e f o re lo n g to see th is u n l im i te d p o w e r d i v e r t e d in to c o n s t r u c t i v e c h a n n e l s : s u c h a p r o s p e c t h a s , in d e e d , b e e n f o r e ­ c a s t. I t is e a r l y y e t to g iv e d e ta ile d e d it o r i a l c o n s id e r a tio n to t h is t r e m e n d ­ o u s p o t e n t i a l i ty f o r g o o d o r e v il t h a t s c ie n c e h a s p u t in to h u m a n h a n d s : b u t w e c a n t r a c e th e r o m a n t i c h i s t o r y o f its d e v e lo p m e n t f r o m th e th e o r e tic to th e p r a c t ic a l s ta g e . M u c h , in d e e d , h a s h a p p e n e d s in c e v a g u e d i s q u i e t i n g r u m o u r s w e re c i r c u l a t i n g in th e p o p u l a r P r e s s in 1940 c o n c e r n in g th e a to m - s p l i t t i n g p o w e r s o f “ u r a n i u m 235 ” — th e u r a n i u m is o to p e w ith a to m ic w e ig h t 2 3 5^. I t w a s th e n s t a te d , p r o b a b ly w ith t r u t h , t h a t G e r m a n s c ie n tis ts h a d r e ­ c e iv e d o r d e r s to g o “ a ll o u t ” o n r e s e a r c h in to th is m a t e r i a l. H a p p i l y , o u r o w n s c ie n tis ts , w ith th o s e o f th e U .S .A . a n d C a n a d a , w e re a b le to o u t­

s t r i p th e m (a s u s u a l ) ; a n d i t is in to th e h a n d s o f th e p r o t e c to r s o f th e r i g h t s o f m a n t h a t th e w e a p o n h a s f a ll e n . A c tiv e re s e a r c h o n th e p r o j e c t w a s i n it i a t e d a s e a r l y a s 19 3 9, a n d b y 19 4 1 s u b s ta n t ia l p r o g r e s s h a d b e e n m a d e . T h e r e is n o s p a c e h e r e to fill in a ll th e d e t a i l ; b u t so m e o f th e s a l ie n t s te p s in th e s to r y m u s t b e r e c o r d e d . A te a m o f w o r k e r s , u n d e r- t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f S ir G e o rg e T h o m s o n , w o r k i n g in u n i v e r s it y l a b o r a ­ to r ie s , a t th e D . S . I . R . , a n d in i n d u s t r ia l

s o m e o f th e te n d e n c ie s t h a t w e h a v e o b s e r v e d . T h e r e a r e s t i ll f a r to o m a n y i n s t a n c e s o f m e n b e in g p u t o n th e b o a r d f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r th a n th e v a lu e o f th e k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h th e y c a n b r i n g to th e a f fa ir s o f t h e c o m p a n y . I t m a y b e t h a t a r e v is io n o f o u r p r a c tic e o f m a k i n g a p p o in t m e n t s to b o a r d s o f d ir e c to r s , p e r m i t t i n g a l a r g e r r e p r e s e n ­ ta tio n o f s c ie n tif ic a n d te c h n ic a l k n o w ­ l e d g e , w ill p r o v e to b e th e g r e a t e s t s i n g l e c o n tr ib u tio n to i n d u s t r i a l effici­

e n c y a n d p r o g r e s s t h a t c o u ld b e m a d e in t h is c o u n tr y .

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e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , la id th e f o u n d a tio n s . S ir J o h n A n d e r s o n w a s f in a lly r e s p o n ­ s ib le f o r th e c o - o r d in a tio n o f th e w o r k o f a ll th e te c h n ic a l c o m m itte e s c o n ­ c e r n e d ; a n d so w e ll d id h e d o th e w o rk t h a t h e w a s s p e c ia ll y a s k e d to c o n tin u e e v e n a f t e r h e b e c a m e C h a n c e ll o r o f th e E x c h e q u e r .

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E A N W H I L E , th e b u s in e s s w a s b e ­ c o m in g to o b i g f o r o u r s m a ll a n d v u l n e r a b le i s l a n d . T h r o u g h o u t w e h a d k e p t th e U n i t e d S t a te s a u th o r i t ie s a d ­ v is e d o f w h a t w a s g o i n g o n , a n d fro m 19 4 1 B r itis h a n d A m e r ic a n e ffo r ts w e re c o n jo in e d a n d a n u m b e r o'f B r i ti s h s c ie n tis ts p r o c e e d to th e U .S .A . U n d e r th e d i r e c ti o n o f M r. W . A. A k e r s , o f I . C . I . , a s p e c ia l d iv is io n w ith in th e D . S . I . R . h a d b e e n s e t u p , k n o w n , f o r

“ h u s h - h u s h ” r e a s o n s , a s th e D i r e c t o r a t e o f T u b e A l l o y s ,” a s w e ll a s a te c h n ic a l c o m m itte e ( a ls o u n d e r M r. A k e rs ) c o m ­ p o s e d o f S ir J a m e s C h a d w ic k , P r o f e s s o r P e i e r l s , a n d D r s . v a n H a l b a n , S im o n , a n d S la d e , jo in e d l a t e r b y S ir C h a r le s D a r w i n a n d P r o f e s s o r s C o c k c r o f t, O l i p h a n t , a n d ' F e a t h e r . I t is w o r th n o t in g t h a t P e i e r l s a n d S im o n w e r e J e w is h s a v a n ts w h o h a d b e e n d r iv e n fr o m G e r m a n y a s “ n o t r e q u i r e d . ” M e a n w h ile , t h e G e r m a n s w e r e c a r r y i n g o n w ith s i m il a r r e s e a r c h ; a n d to c h e c k ­ m a te th e m tw o c o m m a n d o r a id s w e re m a d e o n th e N o r s k H y d r o w o r k s a t V e m o r k , th e s o le s o u r c e , i n G e r m a n y , o f h e a v y w a t e r , a n e s s e n t ia l m a t e r i a l f o r o n e o f th e m e th o d s o f r e l e a s i n g a to m ic e n e r g y . T h e s e c o n d o f th e s e r a id s w a s c o m p l e te ly s u c c e s s f u l. J u s t

1 1 8 THE CHEMI CAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 to g iv e o u r s e lv e s a d d e d c o n fid e n c e ,

P r o f e s s o r N ie ls B o h r , th e w o r ld - f a m o u s p h y s ic is t, w a s “ k id n a p p e d ” fro m C o p e n h a g e n , a n d , t h r o u g h th e g o o d h e lp o f S w e d e n , w a s p r e s e r v e d fro m G e r m a n i n te r f e r e n c e . F r o m th e f a r n o r th o f C a n a d a th e E l d o r a d o M in in g a n d R e f in in g C o m p a n y a t G r e a t B e a r L a k e p r o v id e d u r a n i u m o re s f o r th e w o r k in g o f th e p r o c e s s , a n d s p e c ia l a r r a n g e m e n t s w e re m a d e to e n s u r e t h a t a ll s u p p l i e s o f u r a n iu m w e re e a r m a r k e d fo r th e e x c lu s iv e u s e o f th e C ro w n . P a t e n t c o n tr o l h a s b e e n s e c u re d in th e U .S .A ., U .K ., a n d C a n a d a , to m a k e c e r ­ t a in t h a t th e w e a p o n c a n n o t f a l l in to th e h a n d s o f th e e n e m y . A m o s t e ffe c tiv e te s t w a s c a r r i e d o u t in th e w ild s o f N e w M e x ic o l a s t m o n th , a n d o n M o n d a y o f th is w e e k , a b o m b , m o r e p o w e r f u l th a n 20,000 to n s o f T N T , w a s d r o p p e d o n th e J a p a n e s e b a s e o f H ir o s h im a . A t th e tim e o f w r i t i n g , im p e n e tr a b le c lo u d s o f d u s t ' s till v e il th e e ffe c ts o f th is d e v a s ­ t a t i n g w e a p o n .

S u c c e s s a t P o t s d a m

T

^{H E o fficial 6}o o o -w o rd d o c u m e n t, is s u e d a f t e r th e T r i p a r t i t e C o n f e r ­ e n c e o f P o ts d a m — th e firs t i n te r n a t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s ig n e d b y th e n e w P r im e M in is te r — is a n a d m i r a b l e c a t a l o g u e of p r i n c i p l e s , m o r a l , p o l it i c a l , a n d e c o n o m ic , w h ic h , if c a r r ie d o u t, m a y p u t a n e n d to th e s c o u r g e o f r e c u r r e n t G e r m a n a g g r e s s io n . S t e r n r e tr i b u t iv e m e a s u r e s a r e to b e ta k e n a g a i n s t G e r ­ m a n y a n d a g a i n s t th e G e r m a n p e o p le , b u t th e r e is a c o m m e n d a b le a b s e n c e , in th e d o c u m e n t, o f a n y d r a m a t i c v a v i c t i s a tt i tu d e . T h e d a n g e r t h a t G e r m a n y w o u ld b e s p l i t in to d if f e r e n tly a d m i n i s ­ te r e d z o n e s , i n v i t i n g a h o s t o f u n p l e a s a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s , h a s h a p p i l y b e e n a v o id e d , a s u n i f o r m i t y o f t r e a t m e n t h a s b e e n d e c id e d t h r o u g h o u t G e r m a n y , w h e re m il i ta r i s m a n d N a z is m w ill b e e x ti r p a t e d . S o m e w h a t l a t e in th e d a y , th e d e c is io n h a s n o w a ls o b e e n m a d e to r e m o v e m e m b e rs o f th e N a z i p a r t y f r o m p u b lic , s e m i- p u b lic , a n d i m p o r t a n t p r i v a t e p o s ts . O n e o f th e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t d e c is io n s is t h a t th e p o l it i c a l s t r u c t u r e w i l l b e d e ­ c e n t r a l i s e d a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f lo c a l r e s p o n s i b i li t y , m a i n l y in th e f o r m of fo c a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t — in w h ic h G e r ­ m a n y h a s h a d m ig h t y l i t t l e e x p e r ie n c e

—p r o m o te d .

G e r m a n E c o n o m ic E c lip s e

G

E R M A N e c o n o m y is to b e d e c e n ­ t r a l i s e d so a s to e li m in a t e th e p r e s e n t e x c e s s iv e c o n c e n tr a t io n o f e c o n o m ic p o w e r in c a r t e l s , s y n d ic a te s , t r u s t s a n d o t h e r m o n o p o lis tic a r r a n g e ­ m e n ts . I t m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t in th e d r a f t i n g o f th is c la u s e , U .S . e x p e r ie n c e in a n t i - t r u s t l e g i s l a ti o n h a s s to o d in g o o d s te a d . G e r m a n y is to b e c o m ­ p l e t e ly d is a r m e d a n d d e m i l it a r i s e d , a n d a l l i n d u s t r y t h a t c o u ld b e u s e d fo r m il i ta r y p r o d u c tio n w ill b e e li m in a t e d o r c o n tr o lle d . T h e im p o r t a n c e o f th e c h e m ic a l i n d u s t r y f o r g o o d o r e v il h a s b e e n r e c o g n is e d , a n d c h e m ic a ls a r e , in f a c t, m e n tio n e d tw ic e in th e te x t. in o r d e r to e li m in a t e G e r m a n y ’s w a r p o t e n ­ ti a l , a r m a m e n t s p r o d u c tio n w ill n o t m e r e ly b e p r o h i b it e d , b u t a ls o its r e v iv a l w ill b e p r e v e n te d . P r o d u c tio n o f m e ta ls , c h e m ic a ls , m a c h in e r y , a n d o t h e r ite m s e s s e n tia l to a w a r e c o n o m y w i l l b e r i g o r o u s l y c o n tr o l l e d a n d r e s t r ic te d to a p p r o v e d p e a c e tim e n e e d s . E x c e s s iv e p r o d u c tiv e c a p a c i t y w ill e it h e r b e r e ­ m o v e d u n d e r th e r e p a r a ti o n s p l a n , o r e ls e d e s tr o y e d . H o w e v e r , a g r i c u l t u r e a n d p e a c e f u l i n d u s t r ie s ( it is h o p e d a m o re p r e c is e d e f in itio n w ill b e fo u n d s o o n ), a r e to b e e n c o u r a g e d .

R e p a r a t io n s

T

H I S tim e th e r e is g o i n g to b e no r e p e t it i o n o f th e u n w o r k a b le r e p a r a ­ tio n s s c h e m e o f V e r s a ille s . T h e s im p le p r i n c i p l e h a s n o w b e e n a c c e p te d t h a t r e p a r a ti o n c la im s o f th e U . S . S . R ., th e U . S ., a n d th e L L K ., w ill b e s a tis fie d fro m t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e o c c u p a tio n z o n e s , R u s s ia w i l l r e c e iv e 15 p e r c e n t, o f i n d u s ­ t r i a l c a p i t a l e q u ip m e n t s itu a te d in th e W e s te r n z o n e , d e r iv e d , in th e f irs t p la c e , f ro m th e m e t a l l u r g i c a l , c h e m ic a l, a n d m a c h in e r y in d u s t r ie s . I n e x c h a n g e , th e U . S .S .R . w ill s u p p l y a n e q u iv a l e n t v a lu e o f fo o d a n d o f r a w m a t e r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g o il a n d m e ta ls . A f u r t h e r 10 p e r c e n t, o f i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s h a l l s i m il a r ly b e t r a n s f e r r e d w ith o u t a n y r e t u r n in k in d . T h i s t r a n s f e r , to b e c o m p le te d w ith in tw o y e a r s , is a m a j o r d e v e lo p m e n t a n d is b o u n d to l e a d to s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e s in w o r ld e c o n o m y . I t s p e l ls th e e n d o f G e r m a n y a s a l e a d i n g i n d u s t r i a l p o w e r a n d h e r a l d s a - l a r g e - s c a l e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s o f E a s t e r n a n d S o u t h - E a s te r n E u r o p e .

Au g u s t i x, 1 9 4 5 THE CHEMI CAL AGE 1 1 9

The M ixing of Solid Particles*

The A pplication of Theory to Practice

b y P . M . C . L A C E Y , B . S c ., A .C .G .I . . D . I .C .

T

H E m ixing of solid m ate ria ls in th e dry s ta te is a p urely m echanical operation, hut it is of g re at im p o rtan ce in a large n u m b er of chem ical engineering processes.

T h ere a re th ree m ain reasons for re quiring a very in tim a te m ix tu re of solids. F irs tly , th e m ate ria ls being m ixed m ay sub seq u en tly be req u ired to react chem ically w ith one an o th er— e.g ., in dry explosives. Secondly, the m echanical properties of th e final p ro ­ duct m ay depend on th e sp a tia l configuration of th e v arious p a rticle s, as in th e case of ag g reg ates for concrete. T h ird ly , it may he desired to ta k e from th e m ix tu re sam ples w hich can be relied upon to co n tain a fixed proportion of each .c o n s titu e n t; an or {stan d ­ ing exam ple of th is is th e production of pills an d m edicinal pow ders.

Such processes have been carried o u t since th e e arliest tim es and a good deal of w ork has been done on th em , b u t in all of it there seems to have been a com plete avoidance of a n y th in g a t all fu n d am en tal. T h e large am ount of lite ra tu re 011 th e su b ject confines itself alm o st exclusively to th e p a te n tin g of designs for m ixing m achines, b u t n o th in g q u a n tita tiv e is said ab o u t the perform ance of th ese m achines. I t m ay well be th a t m an u factu rers h av e done fu n d am en tal w ork, b u t have decided n ot to publish th e resu lts.

On the o th er h a n d , the avoidance of fu n d a ­ m en tals is ra th e r to be expected, for two r e a s o n s : (i) m ixing depends in practice to a very g re at e x te n t on local conditions and m a te ria ls ; and ( i i) , alth o u g h th e superficial th eo retical problem s th a t arise a re of a very elem en tary and obvious n a tu re , as soon as fu n d a m e n ta ls are co n sid ered th e s u b je c t at once becomes complex an d elusive in n a tu re . If, how ever, co-ordination of w ork and sim plification of problem s in m ixing are to be b ro u g h t a b o u t, th e fu n d a m e n ta l n a tu re of th e o p e ratio n m u st be clearly u n d e rs to o d ; and a t present th ere is in existence n o t even an acceptable definition of degree of m ixture.

D e f in itio n o f a M i x t u r e

T h e only discoverable definition of any sort is for a perfect m ix tu re . I t is due to P rofessor IJre a n d m ay be w ritte n as fo llo w s:

“ I f a given m ix tu re of m ate ria ls is such th a t th e com positions of all sam ples tak en from i t, how ever sm all, are id en tical, then the m ate ria ls are perfectly m ix e d .” B u t even th is obviously can n o t ap p ly to solids since, to tak e th e m a tte r to e x trem es, th e

* P a p e r d eliv ered to th e G ra d u a te s ' S ectio n , I n s ti-

‘ tu tio n of C hem ical E n g in eers. F e b r u a r y 26. 1946.

O w in s to th e a u t h o r 's sev ere illness, fro m w h ich lie h as - h a p p ily reco v e red , th e c o m p le tio n o f th e MS fo r p ress,

lias b ee n d e la y ed .

com position can n o t possibly be rig h t w hen one g ets down to a sam ple so sm all th a t it c o n tain s only one particle.

T h ere a re, indeed, tw o im p o rtan t differ­

ences betw een th e m ixing of fluids (in w hich v irtu a lly perfect m ix tu re is a tta in a b le ) and th e m ixing of solids. I n th e first place th e particles in a Huid are of m olecular size, so th a t th e sm allest sam ples th a t can be tak e n in practice still co n tain m an y m illions of th em —m an y m ore particles th a n would be p resen t in a sim ilar sam ple of th e m ost finely ground solid m a te ria l. T h e effect of th is on th e constancy of sam ple com position is fairly obvious a n d w ill be d em onstrated m ath em atically la te r on. T h e second differ­

ence lies in th e in trin sic m o b ility of the m olecular particles in fluids, w hich, if given th e chance, will ev en tu ally m ix them selves w ith o u t an y e x te rn al a id , w hile a little s t i r ­ ring will com plete th e process in a rela tiv ely sh o rt tim e ; w hereas solid particle s not only have 110 m obility of th e ir own, b u t e x ert considerable frictio n al forces on each o th er w hich re ta rd th e ir being m ixed by an e x te rn al agency. T h e fact th a t th e particles in sam ples from a m ix tu re of solids a re so m uch la rg e r and few er m akes it necessary to consider such m ix tu res from th e point of view of individual particles.

V a r i a t i o n o f C o m p o s i ti o n

In any m ix tu re of discrete solid particles it will be found th a t th e com positions of sam ples tak en from it arc n o t c o n stan t, but vary rou n d a m ean value. T h is v ariatio n occurs over a fairly confined range for sam ples of any given size, an d if sm aller sam ples are considered, a lth o u g h th e v a ria ­ tion becomes in trin sically less, it becomes prop o rtio n ally m ore im p o rta n t. T h is applies even to a very good m ix tu re , b u t th e range of th e v a ria tio n s is n ot larg e enough for them to be observed except in fa irly sm all s a m p le s ; in a bad m ix tu re th e range is m uch w ider, and th e v a ria tio n s become a p p are n t in com paratively larg e sam ples.

A lthough in a m ix tu re of solids it is th e re ­ fore im possible to elim in ate v a ria tio n s in sam ple com position, th ere m u st be some best o b tain a b le m ix tu re —conveniently des­

cribed as th e “ ideal m ix tu re ” —in which th ere *will be th e m inim um v a ria tio n in com position a t an y given sam ple size.

Before proceeding fu rth e r w ith th e v a ria ­ tion in com position it will be as well to get a c le arer p ictu re of th a t com position itself, and p erh ap s th is is suggested by the word “ dispersal in a good m ix tu re th e p article s of one m aterial a re eveniv dispersed am ong those of a n o th e r m ate ria l, and we.

1 2 0 THE CHEMI CAL AGE Au g u s t i i, 1 9 4 5 m ay ten ta tiv ely define “ degree of m ix tu re

of solids ” by th e p h rase ■“ degree of dis­

persal of like particles th ro u g h o u t th e m ix ­ t u r e .”

I t is essen tial to look a t th e m a tte r from th is p o in t of view ra th e r th a n to th in k of m ate ria ls ; b ein g m ixed w ith each o th er, o therw ise anom alies arise w hen considering m ix tu res of m ore th a n tw o com ponents.

Consider, for in stan ce, a good m ix tu re of m aterials A a n d B , and a good m ix tu re of A a n d C, each m ix tu re c o n tain in g th e sam e proportion of A ; if these tw o m ix tu res are very rou g h ly b len d e d , th e A -p a rtic le s will still be evenly dispersed everyw here, b ut both th e B- and th e C -partieleg w ill be badly dispersed : hence it can no longer he said th a t th e A ’s and th e B 's a re well m ixed, n o r th e A ’s a n d th e C ’s, a lth o u g h th ey w ere so before, and a lth o u g h th e d istrib u tio n of th e A ’s still corresponds to th a t in a very good m ix tu re. E ac h com ponent should!

therefore be considered sep a ra tely . I t is, how ever, alw ay s perm issible to ignore one com ponent, since its d istrib u tio n is know n if those of all th e o th er com ponents are know n.

T h e ” ideal m ix tu re ” m ay now be con­

sidered in m ore detail. I t m ay be visualised as a very evenly dispersed system of one kin d of p a rticle, w ith th e o th e r kin d or kin d s filling up th e in terv en in g spaces. One can easily im agine exam ples of such a system : in F ig . l a a m ix tu re is illu strated

F i g . I-

con sistin g of black a n d w h ite p article s in equal p ro p o rtio n s ; in F ig . l b th e proportion is one in fo u r; in F ig . lc one in e ig h t; in F ig . I d one in 27, an d so on.

H ow , any such m ix tu re is a complex arra n g e m e n t w hich would h av e to be b u ilt

up carefully, and it would lose its form as soon as one s ta r te d to s tir it. B u t stirrin g is th e very essence of m ixing o p e ra tio n s ; it c re a te s d iso rd e r, allow ing chanco to d e te r ­ m ine th e positions of th e particles. W hen sta rtin g to m ix from zero, one has th e p a r­

ticles a rran g ed in a definite o rder— a heap of each, say— and ' th en th e m achine does c ertain fairly definite th in g s w ith th em . B u t each tim e th e m achine actg 011 a p article a c ertain am o u n t of chance is in tro d u c ed , an d , as m ixing proceeds, the chance effects con tin u a lly accu m u late u n til th e y com pletely outw eigh a n y direct effect of the m achine itself. E v en tu ally an equilibrium s ta te is produced, iu w hich disorderliness is a t a m ore o r less stab le m axim um . ( I t is to be noted th a t th e phenom enon som etim es encountered in w hich the pa rticles ten d to become resegregated w hen th ey h av e been m ixed for a w hile is a se p a ra te effect 'due to differences in size, w eight or shape of th e p article s.)

T h e M a n u f a c t u r e r ’s I d e a l T h is equilibrium s ta te is th e m axim um e x te n t of m ixing o b tain ab le from a m ixing m achine, and is th e ideal for w hich th e m an u factu rer of th e m ix tu re striv e s. On th e o th er hand th e ideal m ix tu re for th e m an who is going to . use it is obviously th e one th a t conform s to th e condition of tru e m axim um dispersal illu stra te d in F ig . 1.

B u t w hat so rt of a m ix tu re is it th a t one dare not d istu rb because it will unm ix itseTf if one does ? C learly, only th e dis­

o rderly one need he considered, and it m ay be defined a s fo llo w s: In an ideal m ix tu re of solids th e degree of dispersal of th e com- ponehts is th e one m ost likely to ex ist in a m ixing m achine a fte r equilibrium h as been established.

I n such a m ix tu re th e precise arran g em en t of particles will v ary w ith every tu rn of th e m ixing m a c h in e; hut a g reat m ajo rity of these a rra n g e m e n ts w ill give sim ilar re su lts w hen " th e m ix tu re is a nalysed hv sam pling. I t m ust be em phasised th a t it is still possible for a rra n g e m e n ts to occur, p urely by chance, w hich give re su lts different from th e above on an aly sis, and in an ex trem e case, for in stan ce, it is possible for a condition of tru e m axim um dispersal (e.g .. as in F ig . 1) to exist m om entarily in a m ixing m achine, though it is h ighly im probable. T h is equ ilib riu m is m uch m ore like th e u sual k in d of vapour-liquid eq uili­

b riu m th a n m ig h t a t first a p p ea r. I n th e la tte r case th e re m u st a t som e m om ents he m ore m olecules leaving th e surface of th e liquid th an are e n te rin g it. an d a t o th ers th e re v erse ; b ut th e most frequent o r most p robable condition, in w hich equal num bers a rc leaving an d e n te rin g , is th e only one th a t need norm ally be considered.

Suppose th e particles in a m ixing m achine, of w hich, say , h a lf a re black and h a lf w h ite,