Fore land prov e nance of thick con glom er ates in the early stages
of Carpathian Foredeep de vel op ment: the case of the Sloboda Con glom er ate (Lower Mio cene), west ern Ukraine
Nestor OSZCZYPKO, Al fred UCHMAN and Ihor BUBNIAK
Oszczypko N., Uchman A. and Bubniak I. (2012) – Fore land prov e nance of thick con glom er ates in the early stage of Carpathian Foredeep de vel op ment: the case of the Sloboda Con glom er ate (Lower Mio cene), west ern Ukraine. Geol Quart., 56 (4): 789–802, doi:
10.7306/gq.1055
The up per part of the Lower Mio cene Sloboda Con glom er ate, a 250–1400 m thick unit, was de pos ited mainly on an al lu vial fan and fan delta dur ing the early stages of Carpathian Foredeep de vel op ment. Dur ing of the Old Styrian overthrust move ments of the Carpathian orogen, a forebulge was formed, which sup plied clasts to the con glom er ate. The clasts are dom i nated by Late Pro tero zoic–Early Cam - brian phyllites, while Pa leo zoic car bon ates are com mon, and Me so zoic and other rocks are rare. The source area formed mainly by a pro - lon ga tion of the Małopolska Mas sif that was in volved in the forebulge; this was lo cated close to a palaeovalley cut into Me so zoic and Pa leo zoic rocks, bur ied un der youn ger strata. Ad di tional ma te rial was de rived from the ad vanc ing front of the Carpathian Flysch nappes.
Nestor Oszczypko and Al fred Uchman, In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ences, Jagiellonian Uni ver sity, Oleandry 2a, 30-063 Kraków, Po land, e-mails: nestor.oszczypko@uj.edu.pl, al fred.uchman@uj.edu.pl; Ihor Bubniak, Geo log i cal Fac ulty, Ivan Franko Lviv Na tional Uni ver - sity, Hrushevsky 4, 79005 Lviv, Ukraine, e-mail: ibubniak@ya hoo.com (re ceived: April 23, 2012; ac cepted: June 14, 2012; first pub - lished on line: Oc to ber 4, 2012).
Key words: molasse, forebulge, al lu vial fan, fan delta, Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe, Ukraine.
INTRODUCTION
Dur ing the tran si tion from a rem nant oce anic to a pe riph - eral fore land ba sin, shal low-ma rine and con ti nen tal molasse sed i ments ac cu mu late, both on top of an accretionary wedge (pig gy back ba sin) as well on top of a pre-ex ist ing fore land plat form base ment (foredeep ba sin, see Einsele, 2000). The ma jor ity of fore land bas ins of the Al pine-Carpathian orogens, i.e. the North Al pine Fore land Ba sin (Mat ter et al., 1980;
Stockmal and Beamont, 1987) and the Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin (Picha et al., 2006; Oszczypko et al., 2006) are lo cated on the West Eu ro pean Plat form, and were sup plied both from the orogen and fore land plat form. The fore land-or i gin de pos - its usu ally in clude mudstones, siltstones, sand stones and car - bon ates; how ever, lo cally con glom er ates are pres ent (Fig. 1C), some of which are very thick. Their sed i men tary en vi ron ment and or i gin have been re solved to dif fer ent de - grees and the or i gin of some units re mains poorly un der stood, de spite long study. This is true of the Lower Mio cene Sloboda
Con glom er ate, a 250–1400 m thick unit that is known from sur face ex po sures of the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe and the subsurface suc ces sion of the Sambir (Stebnyk) Nappe across a lim ited area of the East ern Carpathians (Fig. 1). This pa per de scribes and in ter prets of the up per part of the Sloboda Con - glom er ate (up per mem ber sensu Fedushak, 1962) in the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe.
PREVIOUS WORK
The Sloboda Con glom er ate was dis tin guished by Paul and Tietze (1877) as the “con glom er ates from Runhury Sloboda”.
These con glom er ates have been stud ied by many Pol ish and Ukrai nian ge ol o gists work ing on the fore land of the Ukrai nian Carpathians (Zuber, 1888, 1901, 1915; Teisseyre, 1927;
Bujalski, 1930, 1934, 1938; Fedushak, 1962; Vialov, 1965;
Chernov, 1984; and ref er ences therein). In the NW part of the Ukrai nian Carpathians, the Truskavets Con glom er ate is re - garded as an equiv a lent of the Sloboda Con glom er ate
Fig. 1. Lo ca tion maps
A – position of the study area in the Al pine-Carpathian sys tem (af ter Picha, 1996, mod i fied by Oszczypko et al., 2006);
B – tec tonic map of the Ukrai nian Carpathians (af ter Ślączka et al., 2006, sim pli fied); C – geological map of the Delatyn–Lanchyn area (com piled by Jankowski et al., 2007, supplemented)
(Kropaczek, 1919). Its coun ter parts are also known from the Sub-Carpathian Unit in Ro ma nia as the Plesu, Pietricica and Biresti con glom er ates (Micu, 1982).
The or i gin of the Sloboda and Truskavets con glom er ates has been re ferred to an an cient Ce no zoic ridge that was up - lifted at the north ern mar gin of the Carpathian Flysch bas ins (Szajnocha, 1883). The ridge was con sid ered as a moun tain ridge spread ing along the ba sin mar gin from the Holy Cross Mts. in Cen tral Po land to Dobrogea in east ern Ro ma nia (Zuber, 1901).
The most de tailed de scrip tions of the con glom er ates are given by Fedushak (1962) and Chernov (1984). The Sloboda Con glom er ate has been sub di vided into three mem bers (Bujalski, 1930; Fedushak, 1962; see also Chernov, 1984): a lower mem ber 15–20 m thick, lo cally ex posed; a mid dle mem - ber wide spread, 100–110 m thick, comprising, sand stones and clays (grey, dark grey clays and sand stones with lenses of salt and gyp sum); and an up per mem ber, com pris ing up to 250 m of coarse con glom er ates with boul ders.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
In the East ern Carpathians (Fig. 1A, B) both pig gy back and fore land molasse (foredeep) bas ins are pres ent. The for mer in clude the Early Mio cene folded molasse de pos its of the Boryslav–Pokuttya and Sambir (Stebnyk) nappes in the front of the Ukrai nian Outer Carpathians (Oszczypko et al., 2006) and the Mar ginal Fold and Sub-Carpathian Unit in Ro ma nia.
The foredeep ba sin is filled by the Mid dle–Late Mio cene autochthonous molasse de pos its de vel oped on the East Eu ro - pean Plat form in the so-called Bilche–Volytsia De pres sion in Ukraine and the Focsani De pres sion in Ro ma nia (Micu, 1982).
BORYSLAV–POKUTTYA NAPPE
The Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe forms the fron tal overthrust of the Ukrai nian Carpathians (Fig. 1B). This unit ex tends into Ro ma nia where it is known as the Mar ginal Fold Unit. The Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe is up to 5 km across and is sandwiched be tween the Skiba (Skyba, Skole) and Sambir nappes. It is com posed of flysch and molasse suc ces sions (see Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2008; Koltun et al., 2005) and is sub di vided (Fig.1B) into the Delatyn (higher, more in ter - nal) and the Runhury Sloboda (lower, more ex ter nal) sub-nappes (Kulchytsky et al., 1997).
The Delatyn Sub-Nappe is com posed of Cre ta ceous –Lower Mio cene flysch anal o gous to that of the Skyba Nappe, which is over lain by the Early Mio cene Polanytsia and Vorotyshcha for ma tions (Fig. 2). The Polanytsia For ma tion, 700 m thick, is com posed of grey argillites with in ter ca la tions of coarse-grained sand stone as well as clasts and blocks of ha - lite and anhydrite; it passes up wards into the Vorotyshcha For - ma tion (NN3–?NN4 Zone; see Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 2008). Lo cally, the up per part of the Vorotyshcha For ma tion is re placed by the Sloboda Con glom er ate. The Runhury Sloboda Sub-Nappe is com posed of the Sloboda Con glom er ate and the
Dobrotiv and Stebnyk for ma tions. Bore holes show that the Sloboda Con glom er ate is un der lain by the Vorotyshcha For - ma tion. Ac cord ing to pub lished bore hole data, the con glom er - ates are 450–500 m thick in the Starunia and Nadvirna ar eas, and 900–1400 m thick in the Runhury Sloboda area, re spec - tively. Fur ther to the SE, their thick ness de creases to 100–250 m. Other thick ness, based on de tailed mea sure ments in six sec tions lo cated be tween the Bystrytsia Solotvynska val - ley (NW) and the Luchka Stream (SE) have been pro vided by Fedushak (1962, fig. 4). Ac cord ing to this au thor, the con glom - er ates are about 20 m thick in the Bystrytsia Solotvynska sec - tion, up to 300 m thick in the Bystrytsia Nadvirnanska and Oslava sec tions, and up to 380–450 m in the Runhury Sloboda, Nyzhny Bereziv and Luchka sec tions. The Sloboda Con glom - er ate passes up wards into the Ottnangian Dobrotiv For ma tion, which is up to 700 m thick (Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2008). The Dobrotiv For ma tion is fol lowed by var ie - gated marls and sand stones of the Stebnyk For ma tion.
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic scheme of the Boryslav–Pokuttyaan and Sambir (Stebnik) nappes (af ter Oszczypko et al., 2006,
sup ple mented)
The Dobrotiv and Stebnyk for ma tions are fa mous for their tetrapod foot prints (birds, ga zelles, Hippidae) and rain drop marks in the Delatyn sec tion (Vialov, 1966).
SAMBIR NAPPE
The Sambir Nappe (Fig. 1B, C), known in Ro ma nia as the Sub-Carpathian Unit, and in Po land as the Stebnik Nappe, is com posed of folded Lower–Mid dle Mio cene strata that are overthrust onto Sarmatian and Badenian de pos its of the Bilche–Volytsia Zone of the Carpathian Foredeep (Oszczypko et al., 2006). The Sambir Nappe, up to 24 km wide (Fig. 1B), oc cu pies a large tec tonic de pres sion at the front of the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe and is ar ranged in sev eral thrust sheets. The lithostratigraphy of the basal part of the Sambir Nappe is still a mat ter of de bate. Most au thors (see Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 2008 and ref er ences therein) re - gard the Vorotyshcha For ma tion as the old est unit, as in di cated by bore hole ev i dence (e.g., Gvizd 1 near of Nadvirna, and Uroz 6 NE of Boryslav), where the Vorotyshcha For ma tion was pen - e trated be neath the Sloboda Con glom er ate and the Dobrotiv For ma tion, re spec tively (Koltun et al., 2005). Here, the Sloboda Con glom er ate is up to 1000 m thick. Up wards, it passes into brack ish or fresh-wa ter sand stones and mudstones of the ?Ottnangian Dobrotiv For ma tion, which is up to 700 m thick (Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2008). This for ma - tion is fol lowed by var ie gated marls and sand stones of the Stebnyk For ma tion (Late Karpatian and Early Langhian; NN4 and NN5 zones; Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2008).
The Stebnyk For ma tion (Fig. 2) passes up into green ish and grey clays, mudstones and poorly ce mented sand stones of the Balych For ma tion, re garded by Bujalski (1930) as the north ern fa cies of the up per part of the Stebnyk For ma tion (see also Vialov, 1965).
In the Kalush area, the Stebnyk and Balych for ma tions are un di vided and pass up wards into the Bohorodchany For ma tion (100–250 m thick), which is com posed of grey marly clays and sand stones con tain ing a rich as sem blage of Badenian plank - tonic foraminifera and cal car e ous nannoplankton of the NN5 Zone (Andreyeva-Grigorovich and Kulchytsky, 1985; Andre - yeva-Grigorovich et al., 2003). In the south ern sec tor of the Kalush area, the Bohorodchany For ma tion (Fig. 2) passes up into the evaporitic salt de pos its of the Kalush For ma tion, or gyp sum and salts of the Tyras For ma tion, be long ing to the NN5 and NN6 zones, re spec tively (Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 2003). The youn gest de pos its, be long ing to the Kosiv (Up - per Badenian) and Dashawa (Sarmatian) for ma tions, oc cur near Dobromil close to the Pol ish-Ukrai nian bor der (Vashchenko and Hnylko, 2003). This se ries of de pos its is ter - mi nated by the Radych Con glom er ate. These de pos its be long to the NN6–NN 9 zones (Andreyeva- Grigorovich et al., 2008).
SECTIONS STUDIED
Out crops of the Sloboda Con glom er ate be gin in the Bystrytsia Solotvynska Val ley near the vil lages of Dzvinyach and Starunia, and then in the Nadvirna area. The con glom er ate also builds the core of the Runhury Sloboda Anticline, which is
3–4 km across. They are also known from the Pokut - tya–Bukovyna Carpathians in the area SE of the Prut River, over a dis tance of about 20 km.
The fol low ing sec tions of the Sloboda Con glom er ate in the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe have been stud ied (Fig. 1C):
– sec tion 1: cliffs along the left bank of the Bystrytsia Nadvirnanska River at Nadvirna (GPS co-or di nates:
N48°32’17.4”; E24°41’0.7”). These very long ex po - sures rep re sent the mid dle and up per part of the Sloboda Con glom er ate and its tran si tion to the Dobrotiv For ma - tion (Fig. 3);
– sec tion 2: a trib u tary gorge to the Oslava Stream to the Prut River at Dobrotiv (GPS co-or di nates:
N48°32’21.0”, E24°41’11.6”). This sec tion dis plays a tran si tion of the up per most part of the Sloboda con - glom er ates to the Dobrotiv For ma tion (Fig. 3);
– sec tions 3 and 4: ex po sures along the Oslava Stream at vil lage of Oslava (sec tion 3, GPS co-or di nates:
N48°30’04.2”; E24°42’34.0”), which in clude a tran si - tion to the Dobrotiv For ma tion, and a ~20 m high cliff at Sloboda (sec tion 4: GPS co-or di nates: N48°30’14.6”;
E24°43’18.0”), which is built of fine con glom er ate with out sized blocks of De vo nian dolomites.
LITHOLOGY OF CLASTS
Ac cord ing to Fedushak (1962), the lower mem ber of the Sloboda Con glom er ate, 15–20 m thick, which crops out in the Luchka val ley at Luchka, con tains eight lay ers com posed of peb ble and gravel con glom er ates and boul der con glom er ates at the base of the mem ber. Their clasts are com posed mainly of frag ments of meta mor phic green schist, the con tent of which in creases up wards from 20% at the base to 40%. More over, quartz ite (3–15%) and lime stone (7–16%) clasts are pres ent with a max i mum in the mid dle part of this mem ber. Other clasts are com posed of do lo mite (1.5–3%; only at the base), black phyllite (4–18%; with a max i mum con tent in the lower part of the mem ber), sand stone (5–11%), clastic rocks from the Carpathian Flysch (34% in the lower part and up to 25% in the up per part of the mem ber; Fedushak, 1962, ta ble 2).
Con glom er ates of the up per mem ber (200–250 m thick) con sist of al ter na tions of boul der-peb ble and gravel lay ers pass ing up wards into sand stones, with 14 rhyth mic units dis tin - guished, each of them com posed of 3, 5 or 7 lay ers (Fedushak, 1962, ta ble 2). The lower part of this mem ber con sists of the coars est and less sorted ma te rial with clasts rang ing from 1 mm to 5 m, where boul ders and peb bles pre vail. The com po si tion of clasts in this mem ber is more di verse than in the lower one.
They are built of meta mor phic green schist (10–90%), quartz ite (0–6%), lime stone (0–35%), do lo mite (0–40%), grey and black phyllite (0–80%), red phyllite (0–15%), sand stone (0–18%) and Carpathian flysch and other rocks (17%) (Fedushak, 1962).
A brief sur vey of the li thol ogy of the clasts in the ex po sures stud ied in di cates that they are dom i nated by green ish, rarely red dish anchimetamorphic schists, the par ent rocks of which are mostly mudstones and siltstones, some with fine-grained sand stone in ter ca la tions. They are most sim i lar to the Up per Pro tero zoic–?Lower Cam brian rocks of this type from the
Małopolska Mas sif in SE Po land (Pożaryski, 1977) and from Dobrogea in Ro ma nia (Micu, 1982).
There are fre quent clasts of whit ish, partly recrystallized lime stone, some of which are dolomitised, and/or con tain echinoderm frag ments, and of sandy lime stone com monly with glauconite grains (Fig. 4D, E). More rare are sandy lime - stones, dolomitic in some clasts (Fig. 4G) that con tain clasts of micritic lime stone, frag ments of si li ceous rocks, meta mor - phic rocks with bi o tite, glauconite, quartz, ooids, sponge spiculesor echinoderm frag ments. They are very sim i lar to the Lower Pa leo zoic lime stones (Si lu rian, ?De vo nian) of the Podolia Carpathian fore land. Rare clasts of red quartzites prob a bly de rive from the same prov e nance (Old Red Sand -
stone?). Strongly com pacted quartz sand stones (Fig. 4F) are also Pa leo zoic in age.
The age of other, rare clasts is less ob vi ous, es pe cially those com posed of light micritic lime stone, fine-grained clayey-cal - car e ous sand stone of quartz, mica, zir con and tour ma line, and in ter ca lated with mudstone. Some micritic or fine calcarenitic lime stone clasts, some sandy, rarely con tain crushed tests of plank tonic foraminifers (Fig. 4A) and pos si ble Me so zoic cal - car e ous dinoflagellates (Fig. 4B, C). A strik ing fea ture is the ab sence of Carpathian flysch lithologies (though these have been re ported by Fedushak, 1962).
Fig. 3. Stud ied sec tions of the up per part of the Sloboda Con glom er ate in the Nadvirna and Zarichye sec tions DbF – Dobrotiv For ma tion
Fig. 4. Li thol ogy of clasts and ma trix in the Sloboda Con glom er ate
A–C – micritic lime stone with laminae of quartz sand with mica, chlorite, glauconite and bioclasts of plank tonic foraminifers (fm in A) and cal car e ous dinoflagellates (B, C), Ju ras sic or Cre ta ceous (Sz/wp 801a); D – calcarenite with grains of glauconite, quartz and si li ceous rock, Lower Pa leo zoic (Nadw 510); E – recrystallized micritic lime stone with frag ments of echinoderm, Lower Pa leo zoic (Sz/wp67a); F – fine-grained quartz sand stone with mus co vite, bi o tite, frag ments of si li ceous rock, si li ceous or lo cally si li ceous-clayey ce ment, ?Lower Pa leo zoic (Sz/wp840/8); G – recrystallized dolomitic lime stone with ?cri noids and un iden ti fied bioclasts (Sz/wp840/6); H – ma trix com posed of very coarse sand-sized grains of bioclastic lime stone (?Lower Pa leo zoic), meta mor phosed mudstone and claystone (Up per Pro tero zoic–?Lower Cam brian), quartz ite (?Lower Pa leo zoic) and quartz; cal car e ous and cal car e ous clayey ce ment (Sz/wp816); I – ma trix com posed of very coarse sand-sized grains of calcarenite, glauconitic sand stone, quartz, meta mor phosed mudstone and phyllite, granitoid and gneiss; cal car e ous and cal car e ous clayey ce ment (Sz/wp831)
TEXTURAL AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE CONGLOMERATES The con glom er ates show five ma trix-sup ported tex tural types (types MS1–MS5) and three clast-sup ported tex tural types (types CS1–CS3; Figs. 5 and 6). The for mer can be as - cribed mainly to the fa cies Gmm of Miall (1996), ex cept for the fa cies MS2, which can be as cribed ei ther to fa cies Gmg or Gci.
The clast-sup ported con glom er ates be long to fa cies Gh or Gcm of Miall (1996). The grain size of clasts ranges from gran ules to coarse boul ders or even to blocks, which reach about 5 m across. The clasts are mostly subangular and subrounded, rarely an gu lar or rounded. The clasts of meta mor phic rocks are mostly elon gated. Their shape is con trolled by the part ing sur - faces of the rock. The white do lo mite clasts are more equidimensional and more rounded.
The clasts are unoriented (Fig. 6A, C) or ori ented (Fig. 6B, E) in the ma trix-sup ported and clast-sup ported con glom er ates.
Some of the ori ented clasts dis play in dis tinct imbrication (Fig. 6E). In some lay ers, the con glom er ates con tain over sized boul ders built fore most of De vo nian lime stone (Fig. 6D), the lon ger axes of which are ori ented (Fig. 6F) ex cept for in fa cies MS3, in which boul ders are unoriented. The clasts are mostly polymodal, but in some beds poor sort ing can be ob served.
The con glom er ates are gen er ally grey, ex cept for a few lay - ers that are red (Fig. 7B). The ma trix is com posed mostly of poorly sorted coarse and very coarse sand-sized, mostly an gu - lar and subangular grains (Fig. 4H, I) with a tran si tion to fine-grained con glom er ate. The grains are of meta mor phosed mudstone and claystone, phyllite (Up per Pro tero zoic–?Lower Cam brian), bioclastic calcarenite (?Lower Pa leo zoic), glauco - nitic sand stone, quartz ite (?Lower Pa leo zoic), quartz, and lo - cally of granitoid and gneiss. The ce ment is cal car e ous and cal - car e ous clayey. In some ma trix-sup ported fine con glom er ates, the ma trix is dom i nated by finer sand, silt and mud.
The con glom er ates are mostly mas sive. In some parts they are or ga nized in lay ers (Fig. 7A) com posed of dif fer ent tex tural types, usu ally with gra da tion be tween them. Com monly, coars - en ing up trends can be ob served in pack ages that are 0.8–1.5 m thick. Rarely, con glom er ates are ar ranged in beds (Fig. 7B), which are 0.5–1 m thick and sep a rated by weakly ex pressed, non-ero sive dis con ti nu ities. The lay ers and beds are tab u lar on the scale of the ex po sure, i.e. over a dis tance of 10–20 m in the larg est ex po sures.
SANDSTONE, SILTSTONE AND MUDSTONE INTERCALATIONS
Sand stone in ter ca la tions are rare in the lower part of the sec tion stud ied (sec tion A of the Nadvirna sec tion; Fig. 3). The sand stones are 0.2–2 m thick, poorly sorted, from fine- to very coarse-grained, mas sive or rarely par al lel lam i nated, usu ally with a tran si tion to con glom er atic sand stone and to fine-grained con glom er ate (Fig. 8B).
In the up per part of the Sloboda Con glom er ate (sec tions B and C of the Nadvirna sec tion; Fig. 3), the sand stone in ter ca la - tions are more com mon and the first in ter ca la tions of mudstone oc cur. The sand stones here are grey, poorly sorted, from fine- to coarse-grained, but up sec tion their sort ing is better and grain-size de creases. They are mas sive or dis play par al lel or rip ple lam i na tion, be ing more and more sim i lar to the sand - stones of the over ly ing Dobrotiv For ma tion.
In the tran si tion to the Dobrotiv For ma tion at Zarichye (Figs. 3 and 4), me dium beds are pres ent. They are built of fine con glom er ate in the lower part that passes into poorly sorted, coarse- to me dium-grained sand stone in the up per part (Fig. 8C). They dis play cross-lam i na tion, as well as lenses of fine con glom er ate be tween the sand beds (Fig. 8D). Most of the sand stone beds are tab u lar on the scale of the ex po sure, how - ever, one bed dis play a wedge-slaped cross sec tion (Fig. 8A).
The in ter ca lated siltstones and mudstones are grey and com monly par al lel lam i nated, as in the Dobrotiv For ma tion. In one ho ri zon, poorly pre served rain-prints have been ob served.
Fig. 5. Tex tural fa cies types of the con glom er ates stud ied and in ter pre ta tion of their mech a nism of de po si tion
Fig. 6. Dif fer ent types of con glom er ates stud ied in the Nadvirna (A, C, E–F) and Zarichye (B, D) sec tions
A – ma trix-sup ported gran ule-peb ble con glom er ate with unoriented clasts (fa cies MS1); B – ma trix-sup ported gran ule-peb ble con glom er ate with some elon gated ori ented clasts (fa cies MS4); C – clast-sup ported peb ble-cob ble con glom er ate with out ori ented clasts (fa cies CS2); D – ma trix-sup ported gran - ule-peb ble con glom er ate with over sized boul ders (fa cies MS5); E – clast-sup ported peb ble-cob ble con glom er ate with ori ented clasts (fa cies CS1); F – to the left and mid dle, al ter na tions of clast-sup ported peb ble-cob ble con glom er ate with out sized boul ders (clasts are partly ori ented; fa cies CS3) and clast-sup ported peb ble-cob ble con glom er ate with out ori ented clasts (fa cies CS2), on the right, ma trix-sup ported gran ule-peb ble con glom er ate with unoriented clasts (fa cies MS1)
PALAEOENVIRONMENT
The larger part of the con glom er ates, es pe cially in the lower part of the sec tion (Fig. 3), has been de pos ited by de bris flows of un sorted or partly sorted ma te rial. This re fers par tic - u larly to the ma trix-sup ported, poorly sorted con glom er ates (Shultz, 1984; DeCells et al., 1991). Sed i men ta tion of de bris flows and of crudely bed ded con glom er ates with in verse grad ing is pos si ble in subaquaeous con di tions (Nemec, 1990b) but better or ga ni za tion of beds and more sandy and muddy in ter ca la tions, in part cross-bed ded, would be ex -
pected in such a case (e.g., Postma, 1984). The low ma tu rity and round ness of the clasts sug gests de po si tion close to the source area. This is typ i cal of the prox i mal and mid dle parts of al lu vial fans (e.g., Miall, 1996), where de bris flows cover a large part of the fan. In verse grad ing and con cen tra tion of out - sized clasts in the up per part of beds is in ter preted as move - ment out of basal shear zone within the flow (Hubert and Filipov, 1989; Wagreich and Strauss, 2005).
Fa cies CS1 and CS3 have been de pos ited by strong flows (e.g., Jo et al., 1997), prob a bly by hyperconcentrated (see Benvenuti, 2003) caused by heavy rain. How ever, mas sive,
Fig. 7. Dif fer ent fa cies of the al lu vial fan con glom er ates in the Nadvirna sec tion A – al ter na tion of fa cies. Note gradational tran si tions be tween them and mostly coars en ing up trends;
B – poorly ex pressed bed ding in grey and red con glom er ates. Sand stone in ter ca la tion (sdst) to the left.
Note coars en ing up trend in the mid dle-right part of the pho to graph
poorly sorted, clast-sup ported, cob ble-boul der con glom er ates can also be in ter preted as de bris flows (DeCells et al., 1991), in clud ing peb ble-cob ble con glom er ates which are in - versely-to-nor mal and in versely graded, with larger clasts
“float ing” at the tops of beds (Rohais et al., 2008). Such a mech a nism can ex plain the gen eral ab sence of scour ing and chan nel ling. How ever, this fea ture can also be ex plained by de - po si tion as gravel sheets from sheet floods or as flat bars in shal low chan nels rather than in chan nel trenches. The dom i - nant tab u lar ge om e try is com monly re ferred to sheet floods (Benvenuti, 2003). Ac cu mu la tion of poorly sorted, dis or ga - nized con glom er ates is pos si ble by aggradation on lon gi tu di nal bars dur ing floods (Hwang et al., 1995). Also, mas sive to crudely strat i fied gravel deposits are as cribed to de po si tion in braided streams by mi gra tion of lon gi tu di nal bars (Chwang and Chough, 1990).
Par tial sort ing may be caused by the sieve ef fect or by win - now ing of finer grains by in fil trat ing wa ters. De po si tion of better sorted con glom er ates can take place as bars and gravel sheets. In some lev els, the boul ders are ax i ally ori ented rel a tive
to smaller clasts. This ex cludes ori en ta tion of roll ing boul ders (Benvenuti, 2003) caused by trac tion. Thus, the blocks have been trans ported in a larger mass of smaller clasts.
The up per part of the sec tion, where sand stone and mudstone in ter ca la tions are pres ent (Fig. 3), dis plays fea tures of a fan delta, which can be as cribed to the gently slop ing,
“mouth bar-type” lack ing cross-sets (Nemec, 1990a) or to the Hjulström-type with a shoal-wa ter pro file, sup plied from an al - lu vial cone; the lat ter is char ac ter ized by “un con fined, ephem - eral streams in volv ing mass flows” and formed “along ba - sin-mar gin fault scarps and fjord mar gins” (Postma, 1990).
Large foresets typ i cal of Gilbert-type fan del tas (e.g., Rohais et al., 2008) are ab sent. This fits the con glom er ates be ing over lain by sand stones and mudstones of the Dobrotiv For ma tion, the shal low wa ter or i gin of which is in di cated by sev eral ho ri zons of emersion with rain drop im prints, des ic ca tion cracks and tetrapod foot prints (Vialov, 1966). A fan delta en vi ron ment has been pos tu lated for two seg ments of the Nadvirna sec tion (sec - tions B and C; Fig. 3), which are about 15 and 10 m thick, re - spec tively. The con glom er ates pres ent in these seg ments dis -
Fig. 8. Dif fer ent fa cies of fan delta de pos its in the Nadvirna (A, B) and the Zarichye (C, D) sec tions in the Oslava River gorge (sec tion 2) A – con glom er ates al ter nat ing with sand stone beds; the sand stone bed from the right is wedge-shaped; B – sand stones (to the left) cov ered by con glom er - ates of fluc tu at ing clast size and ma trix con tent; C – con glom er ate-sand stone beds, mudstones in the up per part; the mid dle sand stone bed is cross-bed ded;
in cli na tion of laminae points to trans port to the north-east (red ar row); D – cross-bed ded sand stones, siltstones and mudstones and a lens of fine-grained con glom er ate (cgl); in cli na tion of laminae points to trans port to the north-east (red ar row); in A and B, bed ding subvertical, top from the right
play fea tures of de bris flow de pos its. The sand stones, which dis play par al lel or rip ple lami na tions, were de pos ited by up per and lower flow re gime cur rents. Rain-prints sug gest an ex - posed mud plain. Cross-bed ded con glom er ate-sand stone beds (Fig. 8C) are ev i dence of uni di rec tional mi gra tion of a bar, in which sed i ments are sorted. Such sed i ments are re ferred to as floor bar de pos its (Benvenuti, 2003). De po si tion of lam i nated mudstone beds was pos si ble un der cover of wa ter.
The thick ness of the sec tion seg ments in ter preted as fan delta de pos its is thin in com par i son to the to tal thick ness of the con glom er ate and lim ited to its top part. There fore, the main body of the up per unit sensu Fedushak (1962) can be in ter preted as an al lu vial fan, ir re spec tive of the controversal dis tinc tion be tween a subaerial fan delta and an al lu vial fan (Postma, 1990; Benvenuti, 2003). The al lu vial fan of the Sloboda Con glom er ate falls into the cat e gory of piedmont fans (Shukla, 2009) formed com monly in foredeep bas ins.
The large thick ness in com par i son to the size of the lithosome and the ab sence of ero sional in ci sions (at least on the scale of ex po sures) point to an aggradational mode of de - po si tion, which is usu ally con trolled by strong sub si dence (García- García et al., 2006). This cor re sponds well to the early stage of sub si dence in the Carpathian Foredeep caused by nappe load ing (Kováč et al., 1998; Oszczypko, 1998;
Oszczypko et al., 2006).
DISCUSSION
The Early to Late Mio cene Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin de vel oped dur ing trans for ma tion of a re sid ual flysch ba - sin into a pe riph eral fore land ba sin re lated to the ad vanc ing Carpathian front (see Oszczypko et al., 2006; and ref er ences therein). The fi nal flysch de po si tion (Polanytsia For ma tion) took place in the late Early Burdigalian (Ottnangian) in the north ern most part of the Outer Carpathian bas ins (rep re sented by the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe in Ukraine, and the Mar ginal Folds unit in Ro ma nia). Transition to the evaporitic Vorotyshcha For ma tion in Ukraine (Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2008) and the Salt For ma tion in Ro ma nia (Micu, 1982) re cords a change to molasse sed i men ta tion that took place prob a bly both on the Carpathian ac cre tionary wedge as well as on the plat form base ment. The Vorotyshcha For ma tion con tains both blocks of Jurassic–Early Cre ta ceous plat - form-de rived lime stone and flysch-de rived olistoliths (see Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 2008; Olszewska et al., 2011).
SE of the Prut Val ley, in the Luchka, Nyzhny Bereziv and Runhury Sloboda sec tions, the lower part of the Sloboda Con - glom er ate interfingers with the Vorotyshcha For ma tion, while NW of the Bystrytsia Solotvynska River, the Sloboda Con - glom er ate as well as the over ly ing Dobrotiv For ma tion are fully re placed by the up per part of the Vorotyshcha For ma tion (Fedushak, 1962, fig. 4). This fur ther in di cates the synorogenic na ture of this for ma tion.
The Early Mio cene evaporitic sed i men ta tion was fol lowed (Fig. 2) by the Intra Burdigalian (Old Styrian) phase of com - pres sion, when the Outer Carpathian bas ins were folded and up lifted. This was ac com pa nied by out ward overthrusting and for ma tion of the sub sid ing flex ural fore land (foredeep) ba sin at
the mov ing orogenic front, and partly as the piggy back bas ins on top of the orogenic wedge (see Kováč et al., 1996, 1998).
The lat ter mainly re fer to the Boryslav–Pokuttya–Sambir Ba sin. The flex ural downwrapping of the fore land plat form re - sulted in for ma tion of a forebulge el e va tion, which sup plied coarse clastic sed i ment to the al lu vial fan and fandelta of the Sloboda Con glom er ate.
Clasts of the Sloboda Con glom er ate are dom i nated by Pre - cam brian–Lower Cam brian, green, black, and red phyllites, fol - lowed by Pa leo zoic, mainly De vo nian dolomites and lime stones, and to the lesser ex tent by Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous lime - stones. The Sloboda Con glom er ate con tains also flysch-de rived, mainly Oligocene, olistoliths and olistoplaques. Such a com po si - tion of the clasts sug gests an ad di tional sup ply from the Carpathian orogenic wedge. The same prov e nance of clasts char ac ter izes the Truskavets Con glom er ate, which is dis trib uted along the NW mar gin of the Ukrai nian Carpathians, 80 km away from the near est out crops of the Sloboda Con glom er ate (Chernov, 1984). While the der i va tion of the Truskavets Con - glom er ate from the SE pro lon ga tion of the Małopolska Mas sif (Fig. 9) is no doubt, the source area for the Sloboda Con glom er - ate re mains prob lem atic, mainly be cause the pres ent-day geo - graphic po si tion of the Pro tero zoic phyllites ex posed dur ing the Early Mio cene is less well-known in prox im ity to that con glom - er ate (Fig. 9). How ever, Buła and Habryn (2011) sug gested pro - lon ga tion of the Małopolska Mas sif to the area south of Ivano-Frankivs’k. In our opin ion, the forebulge with the core made of Pro tero zoic–Lower Cam brian phyllites of the Małopolska Mas sif (its pro lon ga tion to wards South Dobrogea in Ro ma nia; Micu, 1982) as well as Pa leo zoic shales and car bon - ates, could have been lo cated at last 30–40 km NW from pres - ent-day po si tion of the Sloboda Con glom er ate (Fig. 9).
Tak ing into ac count the pres ent day width of the Boryslav–Pokuttya and Sambir nappes, the width of the Boryslav–Sambir Ba sin may be es ti mated at least 50 km. In this sit u a tion, the Early Burdigalian (~20 Myr) front of the Outer Carpathians would has been lo cated at least 90 km SW from the pres ent-day po si tion of the front of the Ukrai nian Flysch Carpathians (Fig. 9). The Boryslav–Pokuttya–Sambir Ba sin were sup plied mainly with clasts de rived from the up lifted forebulge and oc ca sion ally by slumps and grav ity flows from the orogenic front. The south wards palaeotransport in the Nadvirna sec tion has been doc u mented by mea sure ments of imbrication.
A potential source area of the Me so zoic and older car bon ate clasts may be as so ci ated with a zone de void of Me so zoic rocks that has been iden ti fied by bore holes SE of the Bystrytsia Nadvirnanska River. In this area, both in the Carpathian front as well as be neath the Carpathians, a deep, up to 30 km wide palaeovalley was dis cov ered by means of bore holes and seis - mic sur veys. To ward the east, the val ley sep a rates into two trib - u tar ies, one to the right (Korshiv-Ispas) and one to the left ex - tend ing south to wards Kolomya (see Popadyuk in Oszczypko et al., 2006). This palaeovalley runs to the south and was eroded dur ing the Paleogene–Early Mio cene. Prob a bly, the depositional sys tem was fed from the pro lon ga tion of the Małopolska Mas sif ad ja cent to the palaeovalley in the north-west. The lower part of the Sloboda Con glom er ate was also sup plied from the Carpathian Flysch front.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Early to Mid dle Mio cene de pos its (Polanytsia For ma - tion, Vorotyshcha For ma tion) in the Boryslav–Pokuttya Nappe re cord syntectonic trans for ma tion of the re sid ual flysch ba sin into the Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin.
2. The over ly ing Sloboda Con glom er ate was de pos ited mainly on an al lu vial fan (with a high con tri bu tion of high-den - sity gravity flows) fol lowed by a fan delta.
3. Clasts of the Sloboda Con glom er ate were de rived from the plat form forebulge that was formed as a con se quence of the Old Styrian thrust move ments. The ma te rial was trans ported from the source area lo cated in a prox im ity to a palaeovalley
run ning SE of Bystrytsia Nadvirnanska now be neath Mio cene cover.
4. The source area may be struc tur ally a pro lon ga tion of the Małopolska Mas sif in volved in the forebulge.
Ac knowl edg ments. N. Oszczypko and A. Uchman have been sup ported by the Jagiellonian Uni ver sity (DS funds).
D. Salata (Kraków) helped in petrographic de ter mi na tions of the clasts. D. Reháková (Bratislava) pro vided her opin ion on some microfossils. This pa per ben e fit ted from use ful re views by M. Kovač (Bratislava) and Y. Koltun (Lviv). T. Peryt (Warszawa) pro vided fur ther ed i to rial com ments.
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