The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Gnemistry
P u b l i s h e d b y T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y
AT BA3TON, PA.
Volume XI FEBRUARY 1, 1919 No. 2
Editor: C H A R L E S H. H E R T Y
A ssistan t Editor: Gr a c e Ma cLe o d Advertising M anager: G . W . No t t
A D V I S O R Y B O A R D
H. E . Ba r n a r d H . K . Be n s o n F . K . Ca m e r o n B . C . He s s e A . D . Li t t l e A . V . H . M o r v
P u b lish e d m o n th ly . S u b sc rip tio n p rice to n o n -m em b ers of th e A m erican C h em ica l S o c ie ty , $6.00 y e a rly ; sin g le copy, 60 c e n ts
P ric e p e r single copy to A m erican C hem ical S o ciety m em b ers, SO c en ts. F o re ig n p o stag e , s e v e n ty -6ve c en ts, C a n a d a , C u b a a n d M exico ex cep ted E n te r e d as S econd-class M a tt e r D e ce m b e r 19, 1908, a t th e Post-O ffice a t E a s to n , P a ., u n d e r th e A ct of M a rc h 3, 1879
A c c e p ta n c e fo r m ailin g a t sp ecial ra te of p o stag e p ro v id e d fo r in S ectio n 1103, A c t of O c to b er 3, 1917, a u th o riz e d J u ly 13, 1918.
A ll co m m u n ica tio n s should b e se n t to T he Journal ol Industrial and E n g in eerin g C hem istry.
T eleph on e: V anderbilt 1930 35 East 41st Street, New York City
Su b scrip tions and c la im s lor lo st co p ies sh ou ld be relerred to Charles L. Parsons, B ox 505, W ashington, D. C.
Es c h b n b a c h Fe i n t i n g Co m p a n y, Ea s t o n, Pa.
T A B L E OF
Ed i t o r i a l s :
Safeguards of Chemical Independence... 90
Chlorine Manufacture in Germany...-... 90
Penny Wise and Pound Foolish... 91
The Measure of Our Dependence... 91
Back to the Colleges and Universities... 92
N o te s... 92
Co n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e Ch e m i c a l Wa r f a r e Se r v i c e, U. S. A.: The Research Division, Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. A. George A. Burrell... 93
Manufacture of Methyldichlorarsine. R. H. Uhlinger and R. V . C ook... 105
Manufacture of Arsenic Trichloride. R. C. S m ith .. . . 109
Or i g i n a l Pa p e r s: The Determination of Cadmium by the Hydrogen Sul fide Method. Edward Schramm... n o The Determination of Phosphorus in Vanadium Steels, Ferrovanadium, Non-Vanadium Steels, and Pig Iron. Chas. Morris Johnson... 113
Some Mix-Crystals of Calcium Ferrite and Aluminate. Edward D. Campbell... 116
A Study of the F atty Acids Obtained from Varnish Oils and from Varnishes. W. T. Pearce... 121
The Formation of Ammonia and Amines in Canned Sardines during Storage. F. C. Weber and J. B. Wilson... 121
Fumigation with Formaldehyde— A Substitute for the Permanganate-Formalin Method. David Wilbur Horn... 126
The Presence of Acetylmethylcarbinol in Saccharine Sorghum Silage. W. G. Friedemann and C. T. Dowell... 129
Course of Reaction in Explosions of Dilute C SrA ir Mixtures. G. R, Stewart and John S. Burd... 130
La b o r a t o r y a n d Pl a n t: The Webb Paper Tester— A New Instrument for Test ing Corrugated Fiber Boards. J. D. M alcolmson.. . 133
Lead in Pharmaceutical Zinc Oxide. W. D. Collins and W. F. Clarke... 138
An Efficient Laboratory Funnel for Filtering Neutral Liquids, Especially the Volatile Organic Solvents. T. B. Aldrich... 139
C O N T E N T S A C o n v en ie n t a n d E fficien t D ig estion A p p a ra tu s for th e D eterm in atio n of C ru d e F ib er. H o w ell D . S p e a r s .. 140
Ad d r e s s e s a n d Co n t r i b u t e d Ar t i c l e s: A R e v ie w of th e A m erican P a te n t L ite ra tu r e on A rsp hen am in e (Salvarsan ) a n d O th e r A rsen icals. H . F. L e w is ... 141
R elation sh ip s in C h e m istry. J. W . B e c k m a n ... 145
R eco n stru ctio n in th e Z in c In d u stry . J. A . Sing- m a ste r... 146
Pe r k i n Me d a l Aw a r d: P resen tation A dd ress. C . F . C h a n d le r... 147
A d d ress o f A cce p ta n ce . F re d e rick G . C o t t r e ll 148 A n A p p reciatio n of D r. C o ttre ll. B u c k n e r S p e e d 153 B ib lio g r a p h y ... 154
F o r e i g n I n d u s t r i a l N e w s ... 1 5 4 An In s t i t u t e f o r Co o p e r a t i v e Re s e a r c h a s a n Ai d t o t h e Am e r i c a n Dr u g In d u s t r y... 157
Sc i e n t i f i c So c i e t i e s: A m erican C h em ica l S o c ie ty — A d v is o r y C o m m ittee, M in u te s; T h e G rasselli M e d a l; E le v e n th A n n u al M ee tin g , A m e rican In s titu te of C h em ical En gin eers, C h icago, 111., J a n u a ry 15 -1 8 , 1 9 1 9 ... 161 No t e s a n d Co r r e s p o n d e n c e: .
A . C . S. N e w s S ervice; T h e T ra in in g of th e C h em ist;
A L e tt e r from B elg iu m ; R a m s a y M em orial F u n d in A m e ric a ; Som e A p p licatio n s of P h y sic a l C h e m istry in th e C o a l-T a r In d u s try — C o rre ctio n ; A n A n aero b ic C u ltu re V o lu m eter— C o r re c tio n ...
Wa s h i n g t o n Le t t e r...
In d u s t r i a l No t e s...
Pe r s o n a l No t e s...
Go v e r n m e n t Pu b l i c a t i o n s...
Bo o k Re v i e w s:
A S tu d y o f E n gin eerin g E d u c a tio n ; T h e C h em ical A n a ly sis of Iron ; H ig h E x p lo siv es: A P ra ctica l T re a tise ; T h e M a n u fa ctu re of S u lfa te of A m m on ia a n d C ru d e A m m on ia; T h e Z in c In d u s try ; T h e M a n u fa ctu re of In term e d ia te P ro d u cts for D y e s ; A n n u al C h em ica l D ire c to r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . . . . Ne w Pu b l i c a t i o n s...
Ma r k e t Re p o r t...
164 168 169 172 173
175 178 180
go T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol . n , No. 2
EDITORIALS
S A F E G U A R D S O F C H E M I C A L I N D E P E N D E N C E A g rea t stru ctu re , th e A m e rican ch e m ical in d u stry , filled w ith all po ssible p o te n tia litie s of go od to th is c o u n try , h as been b ro u g h t n ear to co m p letio n d u rin g th e p a st fo u r y e a rs. S h all it now be jeo p ard ized ? T h e answ er lies la rg e ly w ith th e C o n gress of th e U n ite d S ta tes.
C h em ists h a v e done th e ir p a rt b y th e n atio n d u rin g th is period of stress an d trial. T h is s ta te m e n t is m ade in no sp irit o f id le b o astin g . A b u n d a n t te s ti
m o n y to its correctn ess is fo u n d c o n s ta n tly in th e colu m ns of th e d a ily press; th e su b je c t h as b eco m e a m a tte r of h ousehold ta lk ; th e o u tw a rd evid e n ce s of th e service perfo rm ed are fo u n d a n n u a lly d isp la ye d a t th e N a tio n a l E x p o sitio n of C h e m ica l In d u stries.
D u rin g th e period in w hich th e w ar w as confin ed to E u ro p ea n cou n tries an econ om ic m iracle w as p e r
fo rm ed in A m e rica. F ro m h ith e rto w a ste d m a terial, a n d w ith incred ible speed, an in d u s try of co a l-ta r ch em icals (d yestu ffs and m ed icináis) sp ra n g into existen ce a lm o st as if b y m agic. F a c to rie s th re a te n e d w ith th e n e ce ssity of clo sing th e ir doors co n tin u e d to o p erate u n in te rru p te d ly , w a ge earn ers re ce ive d co n s ta n t e m p lo ym e n t, and th e sick w ere su p p lied w ith m edicináis.
W h en we en tered th e w ar th e sk ill a cq u ire d in s u p p ly in g th ese p eace needs c o n s titu te d th e lo g ica l and am ple eq u ip m en t fo r th e g re a t ta s k of fu rn ish in g our ow n arm ies w ith a d e q u a te h igh e x p lo sives. T h is w as a sm all p a rt, h o w ever, of th e service th e ch em ist w as c alle d upon to perform . G as w a rfa re , in tro d u ce d b y th e en em y, h a d to be m et b o th as to offense and defense. T h a t our soldiers, e v e r y m an of th e m , w ere p ro v id e d w ith th e b e st m asks k n o w n , an d th a t th e o u tp u t of our poison gas p la n ts exceed e d th e co m b in ed o u tp u t of all of th e A llies, th e se are am ple p roofs th a t a n o th er critic a l situ a tio n has- b een fu lly m et. O p tica l glass of h igh est q u a lity h as b een d e v e lo p e d and su p p lied in q u a n tity for th e field in stru m e n ts o f b o th A r m y and N a v y . In co u n tless w a y s th e sk ill o f th e ch em ist has been evid en ced th ro u g h o u t th e v a s t and v a rie d p rep ara tio n s for w ar.
A t th e p rese n t m om en t w e are u po n th e e v e of im p o rta n t econ om ic ch an ges, fo r th e p e ace t r e a t y w ill soon be signed, em b arg o es w ill be lifte d , an d n orm al in te rn a tio n a l tra d in g w ill be resum ed. A re w e p re p ared fo r th is new period?
F u lly co gn izan t of th e im p o rta n ce of th e g re a t p rob lem s now en ga gin g th e a tte n tio n o f th e C on gress, it n eve rth eless seem s reaso n ab le to express th e hop e th a t certain m a tters o f leg isla tio n serio u sly a ffe ctin g th e ch em ical in d u stries m a y en list fa v o ra b le co n sid eratio n an d e n a ctm e n t b efore ad jo u rn m en t.
First: U p o n th e jo in t req u e st of consum ers and prod u cers, and fo r th e a v o w e d p u rp o se o f cre atin g a c o a l-ta r d y e stu ff and m ed icin al in d u s try in th is c o u n try , th e re w as ad ded a sectio n to th e R e v e n u e A c t of 1916 . T h is legislatio n , fram ed in u tte r la c k of
such an in d u s try , has n ow b een c a re fu lly ex a m in e d b y th e T a riff C om m issio n fo llo w in g a co m p le te s u r v e y of th e n e w ly d e v e lo p e d in d u stry . I t h as fo u n d u n even n e ss and in a d e q u a c y in certain fe a tu re s of th a t leg isla tio n , sh o rtco m in gs w h ich w ill p ro v e c o m fo rtin g and h elp fu l to th o se w ith w h om we h a v e been a t w ar.
T h e C o m m ission h as m ade d efin ite su g gestio n s w h ich are in te n d e d to in su re th e co n tin u a n ce of th e d o m e stic in d u s try and to p ro te ct th e reve n u e s o f th e G o v e r n m en t fro m losses b y su b te rfu g e an d ev asio n . H e a r ings are n o t needed on such leg isla tio n , p o litic a l d iffer
ences find no p lace in its con sid eration . P ro m p t a ctio n w ill sa fe g u ard th e fu tu re.
Second: F o r a n um ber of y e a rs e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s h a v e been g iv e n u n d er con gression al a u th o r ity th e p rivileg e of im p o rtin g, d u ty -fre e , a p p a ra tu s and ch em icals for use in in s tru c tio n . T h is is an in d irect su b sid y to e d u ca tio n . I t h as p ro v e d a curse in d isguise, for it resu lted in a serious d istu rb a n c e of u n iv e r s ity affairs w h en th ro u g h th e b lo ck a d e of G erm an p o rts fo rm er sources of su p p lie s b ecam e u n av aila b le . C o n d itio n s fu lly p a ralleled th o se in th e te x tile in d u s try , h ith e rto d ep en d e n t on fo re ig n d y es.
N a t u r a lly m a n u fa ctu re of such a rticle s h a d n o t p ro v e d a ttr a c tiv e to c a p ita l in th is co u n try , n or can w e h o p e fo r its d ev elo p m e n t so lo n g as th is la w exists.
B u t th e g re a te st e v il resu ltin g fro m th is le g is la tio n is its p sych o lo g ica l effe ct u po n th e s tu d e n ts w ho are b ein g tra in e d to fu rn ish A m e ric a ’s in d u stria l needs.
It b lig h ts th e sp irit o f A m e rica n self-relian ce.
F r a n k ly , w e do n o t e x p e c t t h a t th e p riv ile g e w ill a n y lo n ger p ro v e of fin a n cia l b en e fit to th e e d u ca tio n a l in s titu tio n s . G e rm a n y w ill h a v e to m a k e th e fu lle s t p o ssible use of all e x p o rt tra d e to p a y w a r in d e m n ities, h igh er prices w ill th e re fo re be ch arge d , an d w e b e lie ve it is safe fo r A m e rican m a n u fa ctu re rs to go ah ead . O ur con fid en ce in th a t co n v ictio n is, h o w e v e r, r u d e ly sh ak en w h en w e a sk o u rselves th e q u estio n : “ W o u ld y o u be w illin g to p u t y o u r ow n fu n d s in to su ch u n d e r
ta k in g s ? ”
T h e C o u n cil of th e Am e r i c a n Ch e m i c a l So c i e t y
h as r e c e n tly exp ressed its c o n v ictio n in no u n ce rta in te rm s in fa v o r o f rescin d in g th is leg isla tio n . I f C o n gress w ill a c t fa v o r a b ly upon th is reco m m e n d a tio n , A m e ric a n en terp rise and sk ill w ill b rin g us a n o th er step n earer to econ om ic ind epen d en ce.
C H L O R IN E M A N U F A C T U R E IN G E R M A N Y
" If any one dares to touch the west bank of the Rhine or Danzig (Baltic port of Prussian Poland), Germany will rise as one man and make war again, even if we had no weapon left except poison gas.”
T h u s sp o k e T h e o d o re W olff, ed ito r o f th e B erlin Tageblatt, on D ecem b er 21, 1918 , in an in te rv ie w in th e P o lilik e n o f C o p e n h a g en . S tra n g e w o rd s fro m a c itiz e n of a d e fe a te d c o u n try w h ich h as a cc e p te d th e m ost strin g e n t a rm istice te rm s k n o w n in m ilita r y h is to ry ! T h o s e te rm s in clu d e d su rrend er of b a t t le
F e b . , 1919 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 91 sh ip s, su b m arin es, aeroplanes, a rtille ry , ra ilw a y cars,
a n d lo co m o tiv es; in d eed a ll k ind s of in stru m e n ts of w ar e x c e p t th a t m ost fe a rfu l of m odern d evelop m en ts, p o ison gas, w h ich th e e n e m y in tro d u ced . In th e te rm s of n eith er th e o rigin al a rm istice n or o f th e several ex
tension s h as th e re b een n o ted a n y req u irem e n t of cessa tio n o f p ro d u ctio n of poison gas.
T h e m eans of co n tro llin g its p ro d u ctio n are v e r y sim ple. P ro h ib it th e m a n u fa ctu re of chlorin e in G erm an y . T h is w o u ld p ro v e im m e d ia te ly e ffe ctive, fo r ch lorin e en ters in to all of th e su b sta n ces used on a la rg e scale in th is m eth od of fig h tin g — m u stard gas, ph osgen e, ch lo rp icrin , etc.
D o u b tless fu rth e r exten sio n s of th e a rm istice w ill be req u ired . If so, chlorin e m a n u fa ctu re in G e rm an y sh o u ld receive th e serious consid eration of th o se fo rm u la tin g th e te rm s o f th e extensio n. T h is is th e ta c tic a l a sp e ct of chlorin e m a n u factu re.
T h ere is, h o w e ver, an econ om ic asp e ct w hich is fu ll w o r th y of co n sid e ra tio n b y th e P ea ce Com m issioners.
T h ro u gh th e necessities of poison g a s w a rfa re , w orld p ro d u ctio n of chlorin e h as been la rg e ly o v er-stim u la te d . In th e p erio d of econ om ic re a d ju stm e n t, w ho is to scrap a p p a r a tu s an d m a ch in ery fo r chlorine p ro d u ctio n — th e G erm an s w ho in a u g u ra te d gas w a rfa re or th e A m e rican m a n u fa ctu re r w ho resp o n d ed to th e call of his G o v e rn m e n t for th e m axim u m o u tp u t of chlorin e to m eet th e G erm an m enace?
P E N N Y W I S E A N D P O U N D F O O L I S H
Ign o ran ce is n o t a lw a y s bliss. N o te th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n s fro m an a rticle co n trib u te d to th e Journal
•of the United States A rtillery b y th e late D r. W illia m L e R o y B ro u n , su p erin ten d en t of th e C o n fed erate A rm o ries in R ich m o n d , V a ., d u rin g th e C iv il W ar, an d la te r th e su cce ssfu l p io n eer in te ch n ica l e d u ca tio n in th e S o u th .
"Steel guns were not made. We had 110 facilities for making steel.”
Y e t th e tro o p s for w h ich th e se gu n s w ere n eeded
■were com p o sed in p a r t of m en fro m th e B irm in g h am , A la ., d istrict w h ere a g re a t steel in d u s try n o w flourishes!
"Near the close of the war the supply of mercury became ex
hausted. Here was a most serious difficulty. We had not and could not obtain the mercury, an essential material with which to manufacture fulminate of mercury, and without caps the arm y could not fight, and must be disbanded. This was an extremely serious situation, and no mercury could be obtained dn the limits of the Confederacy.”
A n d th e m ost b e a u tifu l sp ecim en of cin n ab ar w e h a v e ever seen cam e fro m a T e x a s m ine!
“ The Confederacy had neither lead nor sulfur to spare.”
T h o u g h th e su lfu r of L o u isia n a and T e x a s h as been th e sole relian ce o f th e U n ited S ta te s in a w ar of such
■colossal requ irem en ts as t h a t ju s t en d ed !
T h e a g ricu ltu ra l S o u th o f C iv il W a r d a y s is now becom ing a m a n u fa ctu rin g sectio n . In th e d e v e lo p m en t of la tte r -d a y k n o w le d g e o f th e n a tu ra l resources o f th e sou th ern s ta te s „the railro ad s h a v e p la y e d a con sp icu o u s p a rt. W h ile m u ch of th e in d u stria l de
v e lo p m e n t b y th e se o rga n iza tio n s w as fo r a perio d lo g ic a lly confined to im m igratio n an d a gricu ltu re , th e tre n d h ad ch an ged in recen t y e a rs w h en th ro u g h th e stim u la tio n of th e N a tio n a l E x p o sitio n o f C h em ical
In d u stries a new era seem ed a b o u t to d aw n . R a ilro a d s th ro u g h o u t th e S o u th w ere seek in g a d d itio n a l ch em ists, n o t for ro u tin e te stin g of e v e r y d a y su p plies, b u t for th e p rep ara tio n of th o ro u g h su rv e ys o f n a tu ra l resources w h ich , v ie w e d th ro u g h th e c h e m ist’s eyes, le a d to th e e stab lish m en t o f n ew ind u stries w hose o u tp u t of m a n u fa ctu re d p ro d u cts c o n trib u te s to th e n a tio n ’s w e a lth an d se c u rity .
F o u n d atio n s o f th e se s u rv e y s w ere b eing la id on b ro ad lines, w ell-eq u ip p e d lab o rato rie s w ere in process of e stab lish m en t, and d eeper grew th e co n v ictio n th a t th e n e x t g re a t step in d e v e lo p m e n t w as w ell under w a y , w hen— bang— cam e th e order fro m th e R a ilro a d A d m in is tra tio n to sto p all su ch a ctiv itie s . P ro te sts fro m th e press fell on d ea f ears; requ ests fo r co n tin u a n ce of th is service fro m a grou p o f tw e n ty U n ited S ta te s sen ators w ere denied.
W h a t w as th e esu lt? rL a b o ra to rie s w ere closed, th e te ch n ica l staffs so u g h t p o sition s elsew here, and it is feared th a t in som e cases, a t le a st, v a lu a b le record s of w o rk p a r tly accom p lish ed h a v e b een lo st. T h e new D ire cto r o f R a ilro a d s has ju s t an n ou n ced t h a t he w ill con tin u e th e policies o f his predecessor.
T h e d a rk d a y s are on us still. W ell, a t a n y rate , th e people of th e co u n try seem to be p r e t ty cle a rly co n vin ced th a t th e railro ad s shall soon retu rn to p r iv a te ow nership and m an agem en t. T h e d ark n ess w ill n o t be etern al.
T H E M E A S U R E O F O U R D E P E N D E N C E
I t is a glo riou s sen sation to w itn ess th e m a te ria liz a tio n of a visio n . T h a t experience w as ours a fe w n ig h ts ago. T h e re before us w as th e m a n u scrip t o f th e census of our ch em ical im p o rts (ex clu sive o f finished d yes) in th e fiscal y e a r ju s t p reced in g th e w ar.
I t w as a h u ge d o cu m en t, c a re fu lly and th o ro u g h ly co m p iled fro m th e official record s of th e T r e a s u ry D e p a rtm e n t b y th e sp ecial staff o f th e B u re a u o f F o reig n and D o m estic C om m erce. 6500 item s w ere listed . T h a t is th e m easure of our ch em ical d ep en dence! O ur d u ty to th is c o u n try is to red u ce th e n u m ber of th e item s on th a t list as ra p id ly as possible.
B u t h o w are w e to k n o w w h a t progress is b ein g m ade? M a c h in e ry is to -d a y r a p id ly b eing b u ilt to g iv e reasonable an d p ro m p t in fo rm a tio n . T h e B u re au of F o reign and D o m estic C o m m erce in ten d s to in crease la rg e ly th e d etails of sta tis tic s of im p o rts an d ex p o rts of chem icals. M r. G . B . R o o rb a ch of th a t B u re a u is p rep arin g a classified list w h ich w ill c o n s titu te th e fo rm an d e x te n t of th is in fo rm a tio n in th e fu tu re . T h a t list is b ein g m ailed to a n u m b er o f m an u fa ctu re rs. I t w ill be p u b lish ed in fu ll in th e M a rch issue of Th i s Jo u r n a l. M r. R o o rb a ch in v ite s su g ges
tion s fro m a ll as to om issions. T h e w o rk w ill be closed a b o u t th e m id d le of M a rch .
N o w is th e tim e to in su re y o u r g e ttin g th e in fo rm a tio n y o u desire for y o u r b u siness. W h en th is list reach es y o u , w h eth er b y le tte r or th ro u g h our M a rch issue, it w ill p a y to go o v e r it p r o m p tly and c a re fu lly in order to see if y o u r n eeds are in clu d ed . If n o t, w rite p ro m p tly to M r. R o o rb a ch .
9 2 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol. n , No. 2 BACK TO THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
T h ese are tro u b lo u s d a y s for m a n y .chem ists. A su d d en release of a large pe rcen ta ge of ch em ists b y th e W ar D e p a rtm e n t h as occu rred ju s t w h en th e ch em i
cal in d u stry is p r a c tic a lly a t a sta n d s till. T h e resu lt is th a t m a n y of th e m en w ho h a v e been lo y a lly servin g th e G o v e rn m e n t in te ch n ica l ca p a citie s find th e m selve s w ith o u t a ch em ical jo b and in m a n y cases w ith b u t little p ro sp ects o f e a r ly relief. O n J a n u a ry 10, 19x9, o n e-tw e lfth o f th e A . E . F . h a d b een d e
m obilized an d a p p ro x im a te ly on e-n in th of th e en tire a rm y , b u t th a t on e-n in th in clu d ed 80 per cen t of th e ch em ists in un ifo rm . T h e e x te n t o f d e m o b ilizatio n o f ch em ists a lre a d y eq u als th a t w h ich is e x p ected of th e a rm y -a t-la rg e n ex t Ju ne.
T h e s ig h t 'o f th e co n stan t strea m of y o u n g m en in u n ifo rm p o u rin g in to th e office of th e B u re a u o f E m p lo y m e n t o f th e C h e m ists’ C lu b led us to m ake a s tu d y of th e e x te n t of th e tra in in g th o se m en h a d re ce ive d and to en d ea vo r to a sce rtain th e ir p o in t o f v ie w ; in o th er w ords, to g a th e r su fficien t fa c ts from w h ich som e k in d of g e n e ra lizatio n co u ld b e d raw n . T h ro u g h th e co u rteo u s and s y m p a th e tic co o p era tio n of th e ex e cu tiv e se cre ta ry , th e fo llo w in g fa c ts w ere com piled:
Total recent registrants 576
A s to train in g , th ese w ere d istrib u te d as fo llo w s:
29 have taken the doctor’s degree 50 have taken the master’s degree
70 have had post-graduate work but received no higher degree
232 have the bachelor’s or chemical engineer’s degree 129 are undergraduates
53 have completed technical courses in P ratt Institute, Cooper Union, College of Pharmacy, International Corre
spondence School, etc.
13 have completed only a high school course A s to th e p o in t of v ie w :
1— Few care to consider analytical work but desire research, plant work, or business openings. Practically none desire to teach.
2— For financial reasons many claim that they are unable to return to their colleges or universities to finish their courses.
3— Men from a distance who have been temporarily located in the neighborhood of New York, Pittsburgh, and Wash
ington desire to remain in this section for a while.
4— No one could be found south of Washington, and at present without employment, who would consider a position for less than $1500 per year.
T h e s e are th e fa cts. W e h e s ita te to d iscu ss th e m for it is dangero u s gro u n d ; b u t th a t is a p a r t o f our jo b , so here goes.
I t is e v id e n t t h a t th e re is to o g re a t a co n g estio n of ch em ists in th e E a st. T h is c o n d itio n is th e re su lt of v o lu n ta ry decision, fo r d em ob ilized m en are g iv e n th e ir tr a v e lin g expenses to th e ir hom es. I t w ill e v e n tu a lly re m e d y itse lf, for m an m u st liv e u p o n b re ad even if he c a n ’t liv e u po n it alone. A n d to th in k of th e m a n y p ro b lem s th ro u g h o u t th is b ro a d la n d of ours t h a t a w a it th e ch e m ist’s h and !
T h a t none desire to u n d e rta k e te a c h in g is a serious m a tte r, and one d em an d in g m ost earn est co n sid e ra tio n , for th is is th e fo u n d atio n w o rk o f c h e m istry .
F in a n cia l in a b ility to co m p lete u n fin ish ed courses
is a m a tte r of op inion , n o t o f fa c t. W e k n o w t h a t e x cep tio n w ill be ta k e n to this la s t sen te n ce, b u t w e s tic k to it. T h e m easure of a b ility to co m p le te a n e d u ca tio n to - d a y is th e in te n s ity o f th e desire to do so . S acrifices can be m ade, fu n d s can b e b o rro w e d , se lf- help in college or u n iv e r s ity can be reso rted to if the- d e te rm in a tio n is su fficie n tly g re a t, an d th is brin gs u&
to th e m ain p o in t w e w ish to s ta te . T o e v e r y m a n w ho is w ith o u t e m p lo ym e n t to -d a y an d w h ose c o u rs e is unfin ish ed , we w o u ld u rge: Complete your train
ing, no matter how great the burden or the sacrifice may be. D o n o t b e satisfied sim p ly w ith th e b a c h e lo r’s degree. L o o k fo rw a rd to th e en d of th e n e x t tw e n ty - y e a r period. F ig u re o u t in d o llars an d cen ts th e in com e o f a th o ro u g h ly tra in e d ch em ist as c o m p a re d w ith th e in c o m p le te ly train e d . W e h a v e m ad e an a ctu a l s tu d y of th is k in d , co ve rin g o n ly a te n - y e a r p eriod , o f th e y o u n g m en w e h a v e ta u g h t, co m p a rin g th e r e la tiv e a d v a n c e of th e b ach elo rs and th e doctors,, an d if we cou ld sp eak here in p e rso n a lities th e r e s u lts o f th a t s tu d y w o u ld be c o n c lu s iv e ly c o n v in c in g . P ic tu re to y o u rse lf th e jo y of a life w ith u n lim ite d p o ssibilities ah ead , and on th e o th e r h a n d , th e d ea d en in g effe ct of a fu tu re w ith d efin ite lim ita tio n s. T h e 29 d o cto rs liste d a b o v e are c h iefly th o se w ho are see k in g ch an g e fro m one field o f ch em ical w o rk to an o th er b e tte r su ite d to th e ir ta s te s as t h e y n ow k n o w th e m . T ru e , th e h o ld in g of a d o c to r ’s d egree does, n o t n ecessa rily in su re a su cce ssfu l fu tu re , for p e r
s o n a lity en ters in to th e p ro b lem , b u t one th in g is.
ce rta in — if, d u rin g th e n e x t fiv e y e a rs , th e re issu e s fro m our u n iv e rsitie s a la rg e ly in crea sed n u m b er of d o cto rs, th o ro u g h ly tra in e d in th e m e th o d s o f r e search , th e fu tu re of ch e m istry is assu red in A m e ric a .
B a c k to th e colleges and u n iv ersities!
NOTES
“ The fertilizer industry has suffered extremely during the war through hearty cooperation with the Federal authorities."—
Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, January 6, 1919.
T h a t ’ s go in g som e!
T h e G o v e rn m e n t has a lre a d y d u m p ed ch em ists ga lo re upo n th e m a rk e t. P le ase c a ll a h a lt u p o n a sim ilar m eth o d of dispo sing of th e a p p a ra tu s, ch em icals, a n d p la n ts on h an d . S o m eb o d y is e n title d to a liv in g .
W h y d o esn ’t som eone g e t in to th e s y n th e tic c a m p h o r ga m e,, u sin g sp irits of tu rp e n tin e as ra w m aterial.
U n su ccessfu l effo rts in th is d ire ctio n w ere m ade a t a.
tim e w hen sp irits of tu rp e n tin e w as sellin g a t 50 to 60 cen ts a g a llo n an d cam p h o r a t 42 cen ts a po u n d . I t ’s a v e r y d ifferen t p ro p o sitio n w ith tu rp e n tin e a t the;
sam e p rice an d cam p h o r a t $2.50 a p o u nd .
T h e A d v is o r y C o m m itte e h eld a p r o tr a c te d m eetin g' a t th e resid en ce of P re s id e n t N ich o ls on J a n u a ry 11,.
1919 . T h e m inu tes o f th e m eetin g, c o n ta in in g the;
c o m m itte e a p p o in tm e n ts, re q u e ste d b y th e Council',, w ill b e fo u n d on p a g e 161 of th is issue. U p o n th e th o r ou gh ness o f th e w o rk p erfo rm ed b y th ese c o m m itte e s b e tw e e n n ow an d th e S p rin g M e e tin g w ill d ep en d the;
c h a ra cte r o f th e co n trib u tio n of th e Am e r i c a n Ch e m i c a l So c i e t y to th e re co n stru ctio n p eriod .
F e b . , 1919 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A $ & E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 93
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE
CHEM ICAL WARFARE SERVICE, U. 5 . A.
THE RESEARCH DIVISION, CHEM ICAL WARFARE SERVICE, U. S. A.
B y GuorgB A. Bu r rBU,, C olonel, C . W . S ., C hief, R ese arch D ivision R eceiv ed D e ce m b e r 21, 1918
I t is possible at this time to describe, in more detail than could h e done heretofore, the work of the Research Division, Chemical Warfare Service, beginning with its inception by Mr. Van H.
Manning, Director of the Bureau of Mines, before war was de
clared by this country, and covering the development of the Division— including its personnel, location of various parts
•of the work, and some of the problems which were attacked and solved. Details of the latter will be published by members of the staff who did the work. The Director of the Chemical Warfare Service has ordered that the research work of an in
dustrial application or of scientific interest, not too highly
•confidential, shall be published.
The chemical fraternity of this country is probably interested in knowing something about the workings of a research organiza
tion containing a maximum staff of 1900 people, consisting of 1200 technical men and 700 service assistants. The latter in-
•cluded stenographers, clerks, accountants, purchasing agents, macliinists, instrument makers, etc.
It was possible to do a large amount of experimental work in a short space of time only because of the large number of research men on the staff and their plentiful supply of assistants.
The chemists, chemical engineers, chemical industries, and universities have responded whole-heartedly to the last ounce
•of their efforts in furthering the chemical warfare program of the
•country, and this article may be considered as an accounting to them through the pages of their Journal of some of the work accomplished in the Research Division.
The amount of money expended from June 1, 19x7, to June 1, 19x8, was $2,500,000; the appropriation for the fiscal year be
ginning July i, 1918, was about $5,000,000. Of course, much
•of the latter sum was unexpended, due to the cessation of hostilities.
The outstanding results of the Chemical Warfare Service, of which the Research Division is a part, are: (1) Every American soldier had an American-made gas mask; (2) gas masks were the first American-made equipment for the American soldier to arrive in France; (3) more American toxic gas was being made at the time of the signing of the armistice than French or English gas; and (4) no War Department bureau met its obligations and program better than the Chemical Warfare Service.
The Bureau of Mines, for its work on mining problems, had maintained, since its beginning in 1908, a staff of investigators -studying poisonous and explosive gases, the use of rescue ap
paratus and masks of various kinds for entering and exploring noxious atmospheres in mines, methods of treatment of gassed men, and other similar matters pertaining to mining problems.
It was the writer’s privilege to be intimately concerned with this work from 1908 to 1916, at which time he left the Bureau of Mines to engage in commercial work. In February of 1917, war between the United States and Germany seemed inevitable, so the Director of the Bureau of Mines, Mr. Van H. Manning,
•called the attention of the War Department to the already
■existing technical organization in the Bureau for the study of poisonous gases in mines, and offered the facilities of the Bureau to the War Department for work on poisonous gases in warfare.
A meeting was arranged between representatives of the Bureau and the War College, the latter organization being represented
■by Brigadier General Kuhn and M ajor L. P. Williamson. A t
this conference the War Department enthusiastically accepted the offer of the Bureau of Mines and agreed to support the work in every w ay possible.
The writer was summoned to Washington in April by Mr.
Manning, and placed in charge of the work, which was carried on with the funds of the Bureau of Mines until July 1, 1917.
The first work was done on the development of gas masks.
A t the first meeting called by Mr. Manning for the technical solution of some of the problems, there were present:
M r. V an H . M an n in g , D ire c to r, B u re a u of M ines M r. Geo. S. R ice, C hief M in in g E n g in ee r, B u re au of M ines M r. J . W . P a u l, M in in g E n g in ee r, B u re a u of M in es
M r. A . C. F ie ld n e r, C h ief C h em ist, P itts b u r g h S ta tio n , B u re a u of M in es
D r. Y a n d ell H en d erso n , C o n su ltin g P h y sio lo g ist, B u re au of M in es P ro f. W . E . G ib b s, M ech an ical E n g in ee r, B u re a u of M ines M a jo r L . P . W illiam so n , W a r C ollege
M r. G eo. A . B u rre ll.
It was appreciated by all those present that the task ahead was of no small proportions,- although no one felt that the work would grow to the size which it eventually did.
I want to pay a special tribute to Mr. Manning, the man who started the work. It has been my privilege to work under his general direction for almost ten years. I know him as a man exceedingly sympathetic toward research work, and never too busy to take a hand in straightening out a tangle. He took the keenest interest in the development of the Research Division.
Without his valuable counsel and guiding hand, the work would not have started as early and auspiciously as it did. Several or many months’ time was undoubtedly gained on the whole chemical warfare program because of his initiative. Research men, who came from all over the country at his call, liked him, and he liked them. His able work in starting and carrying on the problems is one of the most important of his many con
tributions toward winning the war.
EARLY TECHNICAL WORK
The first tangible work done consisted in rounding up various reports on the subject of gas warfare which had come over from France and England to the War and N avy Departments. Some of these reports were in the hands of Major L. P. Williamson of the War College, who was gathering them together and studying them; some were in the Ordnance Department of the Army; some in the hands of the M ilitary Intelligence Corps;
and some in various bureaus of the N avy Department. Some work was being done at Picatinny Arsenal on the subject of gas masks, and some thought was being given to the development of smoke screens. This work was not coordinated, however.
The great importance of gas warfare was not fully appreciated in the United States.
In April, the following committee on gases used in warfare was formed by the National Research Council for the purpose of cooperating with the Bureau of M ines:
M r. V an H . M an n in g , C h airm a n , D ire c to r, XJ. S. B u re au of M in es C olonel E . B. B a b b itt, Officer of O rd n an ce, U . S. A.
M a jo r L . P . W iiliam son, M ed ical D e p a rtm e n t, U . S. A.
L ie u te n a n t T . S . W ilk in so n , B u re au of O rd n an ce, U . S. N . M ed ical D irec to r, J . D . G a tew o o d , M ed ical D e p a r tm e n t, XJ. S. N . D r. M . T . B o g ert, P ro fesso r of O rg an ic C h em istry , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rsity D r. C a rl L . A lsberg, C hief, B u re a u of C h em istry , U . S. D e p a rtm e n t of A g ric u ltu re
A few months later the committee was re-formed, owing to the reassignment of certain army and navy officers, as follows:
M r. V an H . M an n in g , C h a irm a n , D ire c to r, U . S. B u re a u of M in es D r. G eo. E . H a le, Ex-O fficio, D ire c to r, M t. W ilson S o lar O b se rv a to ry
T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol . n , No. 2
M a jo r E. A. M illik au , ex-officio, S cience a n d R ese arch D ivision, N a tio n a l R ese arch C o u n cil
D r. C a rl L . A lsberg, C hief, B u re au of C h em istry , U . S. D e p a r tm e n t of A g ric u ltu re
M a jo r E . J . A tk in so n , C o rp s of E n g in ee rs, U . S. A.
D r. M . T . B o g ert, N a tio n a l R ese arch C ouncil
M a jo r B ra d le y D ew ey, G as D efense Service, S urgeon G e n e ra l’s Office L ie u te n a n t C o m m a n d er A. H . M a rk s, U . S. N .
L ie u te n a n t J o se p h R . P h e lp s, P . A . S u rg eo n , B u re a u of M ed icin e and S u rg ery , U . S. N .
C a p ta in E a rl J . W . R ag sd a le , B u re au of O rd n an ce, U . S. A.
L ie u te n a n t T . S . W ilkinson, B u re au of O rd n a n c e, U . S. N .
After the literature 011 gas warfare received in this country from France and England had been digested, definite lines of research were mapped out. It was felt that the most important work had to do with the development of gas masks for the army. This meant work 011 charcoal, soda-lime, and various mechanical parts of the mask, such as the facepiece, elastics, eyepieces, mouthpieces, noseclip, hose, cans, valves, etc.
PERSONNEL
There was necessary, of course, an immediate increase in the personnel of the organization. One of the first men approached was Mr. Bradley Dewey, then research chemist for the American Tin Plate Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. Although his connection with the new organization would mean giving up important work in Pittsburgh for an indefinite position, the opportunity of being of real service in the crisis appealed very strongly to him, and it did not take him long to decide. Accordingly, from that day, the energy and vitality of Bradley Dewey have been an important factor in the chemical warfare work.
Mr. Dewey had long been a great admirer of Dr. W. K . Lewis, Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and it was on his recommendation that Dr. Lewis joined the staff. It was simply a question of meeting Lewis to be convinced that he was a man to occupy an im
portant post in the work. Lewis’ indomitable energy and technical ability have been in evidence in the organization ever since he joined it.
These two men, more than anyone else, mapped out the early course to pursue in the research work. Sufficient laboratories and facilities to carry on the rapidly growing work were not available in Washington, nor in any other one place, so branch laboratories were installed, or taken advantage of, in different parts of the East and Middle West. Lewis went in one direc
tion and Dewey in another, and between them they started work at the National Carbon Company, Cleveland, Ohio; The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis.; the University of Chicago; the Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.; the Research Laboratory of the American Tin Plate Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.; the Bureau of Chemistry Laboratory, Washington, D. C .;
the Yale Laboratory at New Haven, Conn.; the Massachusetts 'Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.; the Mellon Institute;
and other places.
A t some of these places, particularly at the National Carbon Company’s laboratories in Cleveland, the University of Chicago, the Forest Products Laboratory, and the Bureau of Chemistry in Washington, there were men who were experts on matters pertaining to charcoal. These men gladly seized the opportunity to be of service, and gave unsparingly of their time and equip
ment day and night in the preparation of an absorbent charcoal for use in gas masks. In Cleveland, at the National Carbon Company’s laboratories, there were H. D. Batchelor and N. K . Chaney, and at the National Electric Lamp Works, F . M.
Dorsey— -three men prominently identified with charcoal work up to the present time, and largely responsible for the high quality of the material eventually made. These men and their assistants have done a tremendous amount of good work on chemical warfare problems. Chaney and Batchelor everlastingly hammered away at laboratory studies of charcoal. Dorsey worked up their results 011 a larger scale. Later he commanded
Feb. , 1919 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 95 the Development Division of the Chemical Warfare Service 011
offense and defense problems.
Credit must also be given to Dr. C. H. Hudson, of the Bureau of Chemistry, for the preparation of charcoal. Charcoal studies were preeminently in his line, and for weeks he raced neck and neck with the Cleveland contingent on the charcoal problem.
The mention of Doctor Hudson brings to mind his highly- esteemed chief, Dr. Carl Alsberg, a member of the original Gas Warfare Committee, and a man who threw his laboratories wide open and gave freely of his facilities and his men, as well as of his sound advice.
TH E ADVISORY BOARD
The research work, as well as the work of other divisions of the gas warfare program, was of nation-wide interest. Some of the best men in the country came from universities, colleges, and the industries. The work finally assumed such magnitude that Secretary Lane appointed a board of advisory chemists to assist in the research work. Tlié board was composed of:
D r. W m . H . N ichols, C hairm an D r. H . P . T a lb o t
D r. E . C. F r a n k lin D r. F . P . V enable
D r. C. L . P a rso n s D r. T . P.. R ic h ard s
M r. W m . H o sk in s D r. I r a R em sen
This board met occasionally to inspect the work, discuss the results, and advise concerning future progress. They also gave much assistance individually.
Dr. C. H. Herty, Editor of the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, has kept in touch with the work by frequent conferences with members of the staff and occasional visits to the station. Enthusiasm, optimism, and good-will radiate from him to such a great extent that he influences for good everybody with whom he comes in contact.
CHARCOAI,
M any different substances were carbonized, and the resulting charcoal tried as a gas mask absorbent. Different kinds of wood were tried, and nut shells— including coconut shells—
lampblack, carbon black, blood, seaweed, ivory nuts, etc. The first coconut charcoal came from Dr. H. B. Lemon of the Uni
versity of Chicago. Coconut shells later formed the basis of most of the charcoal used in gas masks. A tremendous amount of experimentation has been done on the preparation of char
coal. The main idea has been to thoroughly clean the pores of the charcoal of hydrocarbons, because any hydrocarbon residue seriously poisons the absorptive power. A simple way to get this hydrocarbon residue out is to burn it out. B y letting the charcoal cool in the presence of air and absorb as much oxygen as possible, and then reheating to a comparatively low temperature, it is possible to cleanse the charcoal of its hydro
carbon film and leave the surface active. Oxidizing by means of steam has certain advantages. The latest method of pre
paring charcoal consists in heating nuts to about 9000 C. in a closed retort at atmospheric pressure for about 12 hrs. The charcoal produced is ground to about 8-14 mesh and steam- treated. The latter process is carried out at 9500 C. for 7 hrs. Three types of charcoal deserve favorable mention.
One, Dorsite, made from coconut shells; another, Bachite, made from anthracite coal; and a synthetic charcoal called Carbonite, made from ground anthracite, pitch, and sulfur.
In Pittsburgh, in the meantime, Mr. A. C. Fieldner, of the Bureau of Mines, was exceedingly busy, having virtually turned over his entire staff to the work. He created a large organiza
tion and improvised outdoor laboratories for testing the different charcoals and soda-limes, and for filling experimental canisters, etc. Fieldner worked out most of the methods for analyzing war gases and testing canisters. His section also developed impregnated dugout blankets for protection of dugouts against poison gases, and gas detectors for the quick detection of gases on the battlefield. Not the least important part of his staff was a test
ing squad for testing gas masks under all sorts of practical condi
tions. His "man test” chamber was never very popular. In this place the subjects wore gas masks in lethal atmospheres to the breakdown point. When the first trace of gas came through, causing coughing or sneezing, the test was ended.
Fieldner gave all of his customary energy and good judgment to the task and has been a "wheel horse” in the organization.
The writer can think of no tribute fitting enough to repay him for his services in connection with gas warfare work. He is always in good humor, and has a ready smile and surpass
ing tact. It is no wonder that he is so much appreciated by his friends.
One good man brought others into the organization. This was true in the case of Dr. R. E. Wilson, one of the assistant professors of chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. W. K . Lewis early corralled Wilson and persuaded him to join the staff. Wilson has been interested in so much of the work of the Research Division and has developed so many good things, that it is difficult to pick out one achievement which stands preeminent above the others. Possibly this is true of the soda-lime absorbent in gas masks. He followed the process from the laboratory to the preparation of the material on a large scale, in ton lots, and improved every step of it; a versatile, able, and enthusiastic investigator is R. E. Wilson. The Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh offered space
P a n o r a m i c Vib w o f t i i b H o m e o p t u b R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n . C. W . S - U. S . A.
for work on war gases, and Wilson, with a small staff, started work at that place, continuing the rest of the summer, until September 15, when he brought his work to Washington. In addition to working on soda-lime, Wilson turned his attention to incendiary materials and smoke screens, and later to oint
ments for protection against mustard gas, and to protective clothing, impregnated charcoals, etc.
SODA-UM Ë
The soda-lime finally developed and used in masks contained lime, cement, kieselguhr, caustic soda, sodium permanganate, and water. Each ingredient performed a definite function.
The lime furnished the main part of the absorption for acid gases, which it neutralizes, generally with the formation of calcium chloride. The cement is used to make the granules sufficiently hard and yet not decrease the porosity, which is fatal to good absorption. Several other binders give equally good hardness, but all destroy the porosity. The kieselguhr is used to increase the porosity of the granule and thus permit the gas to have access to the interior and utilize the full absorptive capacity of the granule. The caustic soda activates the rate of absorption of most gases, and, in addition, makes the control of the drying process more simple and tends to maintain the proper water content in the finished granule. The sodium permanganate is used primarily to oxidize certain oxidizable gases, which are difficult to absorb in gas masks. The water is
g6 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol . i x , No . 2 necessary in making up a satisfactory mixture, and, after drying,
a fairly definite moisture content is needed to get the best re
sults in the absorption of gases.
It has been found that these materials must be selected with special care and kept under closest control. Careful selection of the best materials has in fact practically doubled the ab
sorptive capacity of the granules without any change in com
position since the early days of soda-lime manufacture.
TH E FIRST TW ENTY THOUSAND
About the first of M ay 1917, Major L. P. Williamson, acting as liaison officer between the Bureau of Mines and the War Department, put the last ounce of "pep” into the organization by asking us to build 20,000 gas masks for shipment overseas.
20,000 masks did not seem like a very large order. We did not fully appreciate all the conditions which a war gas mask had to encounter, so we readily and willingly accepted the order.
Then began a struggle with can manufacturers, buckle makers, manufacturers of straps, rubber facepieces, eyepieces, knap
sacks, etc. The country was canvassed from' the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River for manufacturers who could turn out the different parts acceptably and in a hurry.
Charcoal was made from red cedar at a coking plant in Pennsylvania; soda-lime permanganate was manufactured by the General Chemical Company; knapsacks by the Simmons Hardware Company in St. Louis; facepieces by the Goodrich and Goodyear Rubber Companies at Akron; canisters by the American Can Company; and the assembly made at one of the plants of the American Can Company in Long Island City.
The writer cannot recall all the doubts, fears, optimism, and enthusiasm felt in turn by different members of the organiza
tion during the fabrication of those first 20,000 masks. We were performing an important task for the War Department.
Night became day. Dewey, Lewis, Henderson, Gibbs, and others stepped from one train to another, and we used the tele
phone between Washington and St. Louis or Boston as freely as we used the local Washington telephone.
We thought we could improve on the English box respirator on various points. We made the canister larger, and have been glad ever since that we did. We thought the English mouth
piece was too flexible and too small, and made ours stiff and larger, and were sorry we made the change. W e tested the fillings against chlorine, phosgene, prussic acid, etc., and had a canister that was all that was desired for absorbing these gases.
But, alas, we did not know that chlorpicrin was destined to be one of the most important war gases used by the various bellig
erents. Further, it was not fully appreciated that the rub
berized cloth used in making the facepiece had to be highly impermeable against gases, that hardness as much as anything else was desired in the make-up of the soda-lime granules in order to .withstand rough jolting so that the fines would not clog the canister, and raise the resistance to breathing to a pro
hibitive figure. Neither was it pppreciated at that time by any of the allies, that the gas mask really should be a fighting instrument, one that men could work hard in, run in, and wear for hours, without too serious discomfort.
The first 20,000 masks sent over to England were completed by the Research Division in record time. As compared with the French masks, they were far superior, giving greater protection against chlorine, phosgene, super-palite, prussic acid, xylyl bromide, etc. The French mask was of the cloth type, con
forming to the face, and consisting of twenty layers of cheese
cloth impregnated with sodium phenate and hexamethylene tetramine. Chlorpicrin went through this like a shot. Just before the masks were sent abroad, we received disturbing rumors of the contemplated use of large quantities of chlor
picrin. The French, apparently, had no intention of changing the design of their mask, and did not do so for months to come.
We therefore released the masks, they were sent abroad, and an anxious research group on this side of the water waited ex
pectantly for the verdict. It came. A brief cablegram told us what our English cousins thought of us. It was a subject they had been wrestling with for two years and a half. They had had battlefield experience; they had gone through the grief of de
veloping poor masks into better ones, knew the story better than we did, and after a thorough test "hammered” the American design unmercifully.
This experience put the Research Division on its mettle.
Our first attempt had given us the necessary preliminary ex
perience; cablegrams and reports traveled back and forth; an expert or two eventually came to this country from England in response to previous appeals for assistance, and we turned with adequate information to the development of a real mask.
GAS MASK DESIGN
A casual and inexperienced observer can pick up a gas mask and see three or four things: the canister, the facepiece, and the general contour of the assembled device, but he is hopelessly unaware of the minor details of the mask which need the most careful attention in its assemblage. The best is not too good for each and every part of it; the best products the rubber companies can produce are necessary. The latter had problems put up to them to work out in co6peration with the Research Division which were entirely new to them in spite of their years of experience in the rubber industry. Every joint must be absolutely tight, and the sewing first class. The can companies did the best work of their lives. A skilled organization had to be developed out of raw material for the assemblage of the various parts. Almost every other employee in a gas mask factory is an inspector, and there must be inspectors who inspect in
spectors.
The latest gas mask which was developed is a triumph in gas mask design. It is as great an improvement over the first mask produced as the modern automobile is over the old one-cylinder vehicle.
The Goodrich and Goodyear companies at Akron, Ohio, were the first people appealed to for assistance on gas mask design.
They were an exceedingly important factor in the work. Gas mask work was given preference in their huge organization.
Dr. W. C. Geer, second vice president of the Goodrich Com
pany, never relaxed his efforts and interest in the work.
INCREASE IN ORGANIZATION
While the work on gas masks was being vigorously prosecuted, the organization was being rapidly enlarged. B y July 1, 1917, it had reached a total of 50 people. The War Department in general was beginning to appreciate the importance of gas warfare and the fact that the Bureau of Mines organization was far ahead of any other group in studying the problems connected with gas warfare.
Up to July first the Bureau of Mines had paid the bills. On that date the War Department made available, by transfer from funds of the Bureau of Ordnancc and the Surgeon General’s Office, $125,000. The N avy was also getting interested, and, with its usual foresight, wanted to be considered. For work on chemical warfare problems, they made an appropriation of
$50,000, divided between the Bureau of Construction and Repair and the Ordnance Bureau. The Bureau of Ordnance of the N avy desired work done on protective smoke screens for ships, signal lights, combination toxic and explosive armor-piercing shell, submarine signals, submarine ventilation, gas masks for ship personnel, etc. Lieut. Commander T . S. Wilkinson, progressive assistant and right-hand man to Admiral Earle, Chief of Ordnance for the N avy, kept closely in touch with problems pertaining to his department. He has always had the authority to say "Y e s” or "N o .” He appreciates the difficulties which beset one in prosecuting research, and has the
