Coal Age : devoted to the operating, technical and business problems of the coal-mining industry, Vol. 26, No. 14

McGr a w- Hi l l Co m p a n y, In c.

Devoted to the Operatmg, Technical and Business

Ja m e s H . McGr a w, President , . „ .. , R. Da w s o n Ha l l

E . J . Me h r e n, Vice-President

Problems

the Coal-Minmg Industry

Yolume 26 N E W Y O R K , OCTOBER 2, 1924 Number 14

Paying fo r His Keep

A

The success th a t has attended his efforts shows th a t there is m uch to be done in im p ro v in g conditions at nearly every coal m ine. T his m a n ’s greatest improve- ments were in re alizin g savings in operating costs.

Needless to say he found h im se lf often in a position where he had to change old m ethods fo r new, and conseąuently h ad to overcome the in e rtia of th a t kind o f people who are satisfied to do th in g s as g ran d fath e r always did them.

One m ig h t be surprised to know th a t th is m an was not w o rk in g fo r a backward, inefficiently operated com­

pany. O n the con trary he was employed by a relatively progressive firm , yet he is one o f few in th a t com pany who w an t short cuts. H e says th a t it is an easy m atte r to effect savings in these days when m any new and m ore efficient m ethods are being introduced to the m in in g field.

O p po rtu n itie s fo r im provem ents exist at all mines and the day is rapid ly com ing when m ine officials w ill realize th a t more engineers of th is type w ill be the profit m akers o f the fu tu rę . “ One new saving every m o n th ” w ould be a good m otto fo r every m in in g engineer.

Square Company Shooting

C

tra c t rates.

I t would seem th a t a d ifferential as h ig h as 30 per cent is excessive and the fix ing of it on the theory th a t it is m erely to compensate the com pany fo r its share o f the expense o f m in in g is deceptive. I f it was ad m itte d freely th a t the level o f wages was b ein g re- duced in th e process an d both p arties clearly under- stood this, then the differe ntial should not be ques- tioned. B u t re d ucing contract m in in g rates nearly if not entirely one-third on any other basis is likely to engender bitterness between em ployer and employee.

Such bittnerness is not productive o f good fo r any- body directly or indirectly concerned— except the U nited M ine W orkers of A m erica. T hat org an izatio n would be pleased indeed i f m ost of the operators of U tah, fo r instance, were to stir up feelings o f great discontent am ong th e ir men. I t w ould then be a m ost desirable state w ith in w hich to conduct a vigorous organization cam paign and everybody knows the U n ited M ine W orkers needs a few more fe rtile states in w hich to p la n t the seed of organization. The losses o f ter- rito ry already have been heavy enough fo r M r. Lew is and his associates.

So we feel like cau tio n in g U ta h operators w ho tell th e ir men th a t contract rates m ust be reduced one-third in order th a t the com pany be barely compensated fo r fu r n is h in g powder, se ttin g shots and firin g them . Few farseeing operators there or anywhere else w ould adopt such a course. M ost of them are too honest w ith th e ir men fo r that. There are a great m an y advantages to com pany shooting and we hope more W estern m in in g companies adopt the practice— b u t they should play sąuare w ith th e ir men.

Coking by Steam

T

C h ie f of these difficulties has been the excellent insulat- in g ąualities of the m a te riał treated.

I t is probable th a t the resistance to heat tra n s fe r possessed by m any substances such as asbestos, mag- nesia, feathers, felt, fu r , wool, wood and the like results from the large num ber of sm ali a ir spaces th a t the m ate riał contains. These m ay be either cellular or in te rs titia l— th a t is, a ir m ay be entrapped w ith in the cells of the m a te riał its e lf or it m ay exist only between the fibers or granules o f the in s u la tin g substance. In the first instance the a ir m ig h t be considered as fo r m ­ in g an in te g ra l and inseparable p a rt of the m a te r ia ł;

in the second it m erely fills the voids between particles.

Air-filled voids in the oven charges have so delayed heat transference th a t various a g ita tin g devices have been employed. F ew have proved themselves commer- cially im p o rta n t.

W ith in the past few years a m e d iu m has been under- g o in g development th a t in the fu tu r ę m ay play an im p o rta n t role in the low-temperature d is tilla tio n o f coal. T his is h ig h ly superheated steam. Today steam is b eing superheated to tem peratures w h ich only a few years ago were considered both im possible and dangerous. N o p a rtic u la r difficulty is encountered in im p a rtin g to w a te r vapor a te m pe ratu re of, say, 1,000 to 1,200 deg. F .

F o rc in g steam o f th is te m perature th ro u g h a m ass of 4fi1

462 C O A L A G E Vol.

26,

finely crushed coal in a coke oven displaces the inter- stitia l a ir and ąuickly bring s the mass to a coking tem perature. E x p erim e nts perform ed on coke ovens of th is k in d show th a t coke can be made by th is means in approxim ately 2 ł hours whereas a m uch longer period is reąuired fo r coking by the usual m ethod of h e atin g the side walls. Gas and other byproducts given off fro m coal coked by steam are readily sep- arable fr o m it by condensation and scrubbing.

A s an in d u stry the m a n u fa c tu re of high-quality smokeless fuels fro m low-quality smoky coals is yet in its infan cy . There is little doubt, however, th a t it is destined to assume an increasing com m ercial impor- tance as the years go by. U sin g a superheated vapor to carry the heat necessary fo r coking to practically all portions o f the charge o f coal in the oven w ould seem to open a w ide rangę o f possibilities in th is direction.

M ining Engineer Architects

O

Such a generał u tility m an as the m in in g engineer can never hope to be a n architect, and the com pany in the Cam pine, o f B e lgium , w hich decided to employ special- ized design in g tale n t is to be congratulated on its de- cision. The tow n, illu stra tio n s of w hich appeared in these pages recently, bears w itness to the advantage o f le ttin g the w ork be done by those w ho have devoted th e ir lives to th a t study.

O perators o f coal m ines should be as ready to seek arch ite ctural design and supervision as railro a d com- panies are to em ploy chefs to prescribe the m enus on th e ir d in in g cars an d to supervise the service. Even i f a m in in g engineer shows a flair fo r architecture, his employers are so d o u b tfu l of his a b ility in th a t direc­

tion th a t he finds h im se lf unsupported and is driven to follow old-fashioned and un sig htly designs. The architect o f experience w ould find his ju d g m e n t less ąuestioned and would be able accordingly to construct a presentable village. A fte r all, m in in g tow ns are for h u m an h a b ita tio n , and m en dem and som ething besides mere u tilita r ia n com forts. They are appreciative of beauty or can acquire th a t appreciation.

Indictments

O

W e w onder w hether the rad iato rs m ig h t not d u r in g the extreme heat deliver a ge nial coolness to our habita- tio n s and m ake life bearable. W h y should the ra d ia to r be restricted to d e live rin g heat when it m ig h t be filled w ith cold a ir an d th u s continue to be a source o f com- f o r t? The ja n ito r , w ho in sum m er m onths is relatively idle, could have w ork the year round instead o f h a lf the year. I n su b urb an regions he spends his tim e g a rd e n in g b u t in th e city he is dism issed unless he has a g ro up o f ap artm en ts to keep swept and garnished.

O u r fo re fath e rs shivered in the w intei^s cold. I t

seemed perfectly n a tu ra l to them. W e swelter in the summ er. I t seems q u ite the re g u la r order to us. B u t need it be so? W h y not have com fort the year round?

The ice in d u s try it is true has aided in m a k in g life endurable, but, like the grate fire, it is a p a rtia l remedy.

W e should keep m ore th a n our comestibles at a proper tem perature.

Domestic Storage Aids Industrial

S

The only coal th a t usually can be ob tained in un- lim ite d ą u a n tity and a t the lowest price d u r in g the sum m er is the ru n of m in e produced a t those low- volatile m ines w hich do not supply the dom estic m arket.

T his coal is o f such h ig h ą u a lity th a t the p urchaser can afford to pay, and is w illin g to pay, even in years like this, approxim ately a t least w h a t it costs to produce, or in any event he is m ore ready to do so th a n w hen he is b u y in g the screenings a t a high-volatile p la n t.

Conseąuently unless the b u y in g o f th e dom estic con­

sum er can be hastened so as to extend in to th e sum m er the in d u s tria l purchases o f high-volatile screenings can h ardly be greatly speeded, fo r th e la tte r depend on the form er.

O f course there are tw o slig h tly different interests in the coal regions. The high-volatile producer, th o ugh he objects to the dom estic consum er b e in g so opposed to fine coal th a t he w ill buy lu m p coal to bre ak it down w ith a h am m er to fit h is stove, finds, however, th a t in th a t objection lies h is sole o p p o rtu n ity to sell h is coal a t a profitable price. I f the consum er were w illin g to b u m slack, he also could get his coal fro m th e smokeless- coal mines w hich cannot m ake lu m p coal, a n d the high- volatile producer w ould be deprived o f th e m ost p ro f­

itable p a rt of his m arket.

So the dem and fo r the greater use o f slack m ay be- come ultim ately in a sense sectional. The high-volatile producer w ants to sell all the slack he produces, and he does not like to be held in any w ay a t f a u lt for degradation of his coal on the w ay to th e m arket, but at the same tim e the w illin gn e ss o f th e consum er to pay a h ig h e r price fo r a lum p coal is the only th in g th a t keeps h im out o f the b an k ru p tcy court. Conseąuently i f the use o f fine coal becomes a t all generał he w ill cease to be keen to educate the p ub lic aw ay fr o m the larger sizes, fo r in doing so he m a y lose h is dom estic as well as his in d u s tria l m arket.

The h ig h - volatile m a n alw ays is in a ąuan d ary . E ith e r there are n o t enough buyers o f larg e coal or not enough o f sm ali. H e w a nts them b o th ; the pur- chasers of lu m p because they are w illin g to p ay h im a profit and the purchasers of slack because they pre- vent h im fro m show ing a total loss on th a t com m odity, b u t i f the users o f slack cali on h im h eavily in the su m ­ m er when the dom estic consum er is in d iffere n t, he is obliged to tu r n a deaf ear to th e m because slack is to h im only a byproduct. H e cannot afford to m ake th is unprofitable size in order to help the buying-early move- m ent so long as the lum p consum er re fra in s fro m e n te rin g the m arket.

October 2, 1924 C O A L A G E 463

S treet Scene, K ram er.

Kram er Mine Houses Its Stay-at-Home Employees

Only One Employee in Every Four Lives at Mine—Each Man Reąuires 4.4 Rooms—Two-Story Houses Accommodate Two Men Each at Cost 32.5 per Cent Less Than Bungalow Type

By Al p h o n s e F . Er o s k y Assistant Editor, C oal A ge,

Pittsburgh, Pa.

A UTOMOBILES, good roads and a generał rise in the standard of liv in g are creating new housing J . Jk . problem s fo r th e A m erican m ine owner. W orkers w ho desire a certain degree of independence and the advantages in h e re nt in liv in g in a residential and b usi­

ness atm osphere are w illin g to pay bigger rents and travel to and fro m w ork by auto a distance sometimes as g re at as 10 miles. T his releases the m ine owner from the ob lig ation of housing m any o f his employees.

P ennsylvania b itu m in o u s m iners in th is respect are fa llin g in line behind those of Illin o is, the procession being led by the an th racite workers.

B u t w ith the rise in the standard o f liv in g the m ine ow ner is obliged to assume the burden of p ro v id in g more com m odious ąuarte rs fo r those o f his m en who still choose to reside in the m in in g towns. He m u st also give them some of the conveniences fo u n d in th e larg e r m u n ic ip a litie s and cities. These facto rs influ- enced the plans adopted by the N orthw estern M in in g

& E x change Co. fo r b u ild in g a m in in g tow n at its new K ra m e r operation, w hich was opened in 1920.

The new K ram e r s h a ft m in e lies in Jefferson County, P ennsylvania, 10 m iles south of D ubois. I t is designed fo r a m a x im u m production of 4,000 tons of coal in 8 hours. A b o u t 800 men, in c lu d in g the necessary super- num erarie s to fili the places o f absentees, eventually w ill

Note— The owners of Kram er mine prefer to erect the two- story six-room houses shown in the headpiece because they are cheaper than dwellings of the bungalow variety. Note how the houses are set in pairs for protection in case of fire.

be needed fo r the operation o f th is m ine. A t the present tim e approxim ately 300 m en are employed ir double-shift entry w ork and on the surface. E a rly th is a u tu m n room w ork w ill be sta rte d ; when th is is begun about 500 m en w ill be employed. T his num ber w ill be sufficient to produce 2',500 tons of coal each w orking day. As th is rate of output, a fte r it once has been attaine d, w ill not be «xceeded fo r several years, the com pany has b u ilt a tow n sufficient to house only those of the employees reąu ire d to produce th is tonnage w ho do not choose to live in nearby com- m unities.

On ly a Quarter of Em ployees Re q u ire Hou sin g O bservation o f the h ab its and proclivities o f m iners re sid ing in the field s u rro u n d in g D ubois, as well as past experience, enabled the N orthw estern M in in g &

E xchange Co. to estim ate th e necessary in itia l capacity and the u ltim a te size of the tow n of K ram e r. Two salient facts th us were established: F irs t, only 25 per cent o f the m en employed need be housed in company- owned d w ellings; second, only 4.4 rooms are reąuired on the average to house each w o rk in g m a n and his k in re sid in g in the tow n. A ccordingly, in order to house 125 of the 500 w orkm en th a t w ill be needed to produce 2,500 tons o f coal d aily 100 houses h a v in g a total of 550 rooms have been erected. P ractically all these are occupied by com pany m en. In fo r m a tio n of th is kin d is o f value only to those c o n te m p latin g

464 C O A L A G E VoI. 26, No. 14

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! k p ic tu re moulding

Firnsh flo o r Base bo ard

"JoistS (8)/A'TL

P ic tu re mou/dtng

FRONT ELEVATION S1DE ELEVAT10N

Front and Side Elevations and a Few Constructional Details

I t w ill be noted that the houses are plain yet reasonably substantial. There are no ornate trim mings, the structure being designed for utility rather than beauty.

the erection o f a town in a m in in g d istrict connected by satisfactory trav e lin g fa c ilitie s w ith established com m unities.

O f the one h undred houses already built, ten are two-story structures c o n tain in g seven rooms each.

These are intended fo r occupancy by the bosses and the office force. F if t y two-story houses have six rooms e ach ; th is type has proved h ig h ly satisfactory, as w ill be explained later. The re m a in in g fo rty houses are o f the bungalow type, tw enty h a v in g five rooms and the other tw enty h a v in g fo u r rooms each.

Before the daily o u tp u t can reach 3,500 to 4,000 tons, at least 100 more houses w ill have to be constructed.

The company has about decided to m ake these dwellings tw o stories h ig h and of the six-room type, co n fo rm in g in construction to the six-room houses already erected.

T his type o f house probably w ill be adopted as a

standard, chiefly because it w ill accommodate an aver- age of two w orkingm en as ag a in s t one in the case of the sm aller dw ellings of the bungalow type. The reason fo r th is is obvious when it is considered th a t the bigger house contains one more bedroom th a n the bungalow and th a t the rooms are larger. M arrie d couples w ith no children m ay take in as m an y as fo u r boarders, fam ilie s c o n ta in in g two or three children may accommodate one or tw o boarders and large fam ilies m ay occupy an entire house. O n the average, each six-room house should shelter tw o w orkm en.

The five-room bungalow is exactly like the four- room type, except fo r the a d d itio n of a sm ali room ad jo in in g the kitchen. In the four-room p lan a single room serves as both kitchen and d in in g room. In the five-room type the a d d itio n a l room can be used either as a kitchen or as a storeroom. Thus, th o u g h the

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Floor and Cellar Plans for Two-Story Houses

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Here again utility is the keynote of design. A large living room together w ith a good sized dining-room and a kitchen of almost equal size make up the first floor. Three chambers and a bath, together w ith ample closets are found on

the second floor. H a lf cellars reąuiring the least excavation are placed under these houses.

October 2, 1924 C O A L A G E 465

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Front and Side Eleyations, Also a Few Details of the Bungalows

The advantage of the bungalow lies not in its cost but rather in its convenience. So far as the coal company is concerned, howeyer, it cannot allow this consideration to outweigh the housing utility of the two-story dwelling.

larg e r house is more convenient, it offers no m ore spacious accommodations th an the four-room bungalow . People liv in g in either type are cram ped fo r space and dislike the idea of ta k in g in boarders. The six- room house possesses a fu r th e r m arked advantage in th a t only three rooms per w orkm an are reąuired as a g ain s t 4.4 rooms in the bungalow .

S^{i x}- R^{o o m} T^{w o}-S^{t o r y} H^{o u s e s} B^{e s t} In v e s t m e n t

As practically the same ą u a n tity o f m ate riał and labor enters in to th e construction of the roof and fo u n d a tio n in the six-room house as in the four- or flve-room bungalow , the cost differential between it and the six-room structure represents only the addi- tional m ate riał and labor necessary to the construction between these two extrem ities. Excavation, fo u n d a ­ tio n and roof construction are item s th a t m ake up a goodly portio n o f the total cost. Inasm uch as the cost o f the six-room house is only 35 per cent greater th a n th a t of the flve-room bungalow , the expense of h ousin g a w orkm an in the form er is 32.5 per cent less th an in the latter. O f course, th is calculation is based on the assum ption th a t the occupants of the houses w ill take in boarders whenever circum stances p e rm it them to do so.

As the accom panying plans and elevations o f the several types of houses in the tow n o f K ram e r give the layouts, proportions and m an y of the details of con­

struction, little com m ent other th an a few generał rem arks is necessary here. The w alls are constructed

Bungalow Floor Plan

The four-room bungalow is laid out sim ilar to the five-room type here shown, the differenee between the two being only slight.

of 2x4-in. studding, lathed and plastered on the inside and drop-sided on the outside. Floors are b u ilt of tongued-and-grooved flooring re sting on 2x8-in. jo ists spaced on 16-in. centers. Chim neys are constructed of a single course o f bricks inside w hich is placed 1-in. flue lin in g tile, the elear opening be ing 8xl2-in. 1 The pier on w hich the chim ney rests form s a p a rt of the center wali of the foun d ation .

Each w indow sash contains one large pane o f glass in place o f four, th is latte r construction b ein g fre- ąuently followed in b u ild in g m in e rs’ dw ellings. The large glass is a great convenien«e to the housew ife in cleaning windows. The upper and lower sashes are provided w ith counterbalancing w eights. T his is a departure from generał practice in th is region. I t elim inates th e inconvenience and breakage caused by fa llin g sashes. These tw o details m ig h t well be incorporated in all m in e rs’ houses. Roofs are cov- ered w ith extra-heavy com position roofing paper.

F oun d ation and cellar walls are of concrete 8 in.

thick. Each cellar is excavated under only h a lf the house area, th o u g h the fo u n d a tio n w ali extends com- pletely around the b u ild in g . T he half-cellar reąuires the p ouring of a center w ali extending fro m side w ali to side wali. W hen a house is b u ilt on sloping ground, the cellar is located under th a t p o rtio n of it where the ground is the lowest, so th a t the excavation is kept to a m in im u m . The cellar floors are concreted. E n tran ce in to the basement is gained th ro u g h an outside door in all except the seven-room houses, w h ich are provided w ith an inside stairw ay fo r th is purpose.

A ll fo u n d a tio n w alls were poured w ith a concrete m ixture, the proportions of w hich were 1 : 3 : 5 . The coarse aggregate used was J-in. crushed lim estone, sometimes term ed |-in. screenings. T his com paratively sm ali and u n ifo rm m a te ria ł facilita te s p u d d lin g in n arro w form s an d is dissem inated u n ifo rm ly through- out the w ali mass, whereas a heavy aggregate— a 2-in.

size was trie d — sinks to th e bottom .

The u tility of the cellars was inereased by p ro v id in g each w ith a chim ney flue so th a t a sm ali stove m ig h t be set up fo r h e a tin g either the basem ent its e lf or w ater fo r w ash ing. A s each cellar is provided w ith a w ater faucet a n d a 3-in. stable cesspool w ith a beli trap , it can be m ade to serve either as a la u n d ry or as a place where the m in e r m ay change h is clothes.

T hou gh all houses are provided w ith r u n n in g w ater, only the seven-room dw ellings have b ath roo m s and 30-gallon ran g ę boilers or hot-water heaters. E v ery kitche n is p rovided w ith a sink.

466 C O A L A G E Vol. 26, No. 14

A Bungalow Street I f he has no fam- ily or only a sm ali one the miner fre- quently prefers the bungalow type of house. M any of them, however, pre- fer a larger dwell- ing so th at they can keep boarders.

K ram er is a new town ; conseąuently streets have not yet been graded.

W ater fo r d rin k in g , w ashing and fire protection comes fro m a well 220 ft. deep, located near the au x iliary h o istin g sh aft. Thence it is forced ag a in s t a head o f 240 ft. by a pum p h a v in g a capacity of 40 gallons per m in u tę to a 20,000-gallon cypress storage tank. The intake pipę to the ta n k is 3 in. in diam eter, and the discharge 4 in. The effective head a t points in the tow n varies fro m 100 to 180 ft.

I t has been observed by officials of the company th a t the average fa m ily liv in g in houses w ith o u t bath- rooms w ill use about 50 gallons o f w ater daily. On this basis 20,000 gallons of w ater is sufficient fo r one day’s supply fo r 250 familie® (the num ber th a t some day m ust be accomm odated in the tow n) as well as fo r a proposed bathhouse, the shops and other b uild in gs.

By p u m p in g continuously, the ta n k can be completely filled in 8 i ^hours.

In case the water-storage tank, fo r any reason, m ust be emptied, the p um p can be so bypassed as to dis­

charge directly into the 3-in. cast-iron m ain . T his w ater line is fitted w ith bell-and-spigot jo in ts caulked w ith leadite. Twelve fire hydrants are installed th ro u g h o u t the tow n and so disposed as to afford fire protection to every house in it. These hyd ran ts are o f the anti-freezing type— th a t is, so designed th a t the w ater colum n auto m atically drains. Loose stone is buried at the base o f each h y d ra n t to receive the d ra in water.

As an added protection ag ainst the spread of fire,

A Bungalow Front

R ound porch columns are more expensive than sąuare ones but add greatly to the aprearance of the structure. The weight of the porch is surported by 3-in. pipę columns footed on smali concrete pierś. This is a detail conducive to Iow maintenance.

houses located on a d jo in in g lots are set in tw os w ith an extensive open space between each p a ir. Lots have 50-ft. fro n ts and are 100 ft. deep. Streets are 40 ft.

wide w ith a 20-ft. alley m idw ay between each two th a t are parallel. F ro n t b u ild in g lines are 20 ft.

back from the street lines. A p lan th a t has worked out to advantage in th is village is th a t of se p aratin g the town in to tw o sections, one fo r people o f A m e rican b irth and the other fo r foreigners.

F ro m the w ater m ains a f-in. tap lin e is r u n to each p a ir of houses. O n each of these tap lines close to the m ain is inserted a Corporation cock fo r s h u ttin g off the water supply to the houses served, in th e event o f a leaky pipę or other accident. A d jo in in g the Corpora­

tion cock an 18-in. lead gooseneck is inserted in the tap line. T his gives flexibility to the connections and pre- vents a break, should either the tap line or the m ain settle below the 1 e v e 1 s at w hich they were first laid.

Two house lines, of course, are connected to each tap line, one to each of a p a ir of houses. In e a c h of of these branch lines is placed a stop-and- waste cock fo r drain- age purposes.

The tow n has been b u ilt on a flat-topped h ill covered w ith loose surface m ateriał o f a broken and sandy n a ­ turę. T his gives nat- ural surface drainage.

Two complete sewer systems have been installed. One is of the surface or open type an d handles waste w a te r fro m the four-, five- and six-room houses. I t provide-s a ąuick run-off fo r surface w ater a fte r a heavy rain . The other is o f the sa n ita ry or closed type, intended fo r h a n d lin g waste w ater an d fecal m a tte r com ing from the ten houses eąuipped w ith bathroom s. E ach system, of course, is independent o f the other.

The surface-sewer system, w hich cares fo r n in e ty o f the one h u n d red houses, th u s f a r constructed, is laid

Kramer Water Tower Even a smali m ining town must have a dependable supply of potable water. Elevating a tank upon a tower as here shown provides not only water storage but also an ample head for fire fighting

October 2, 1924 C O A L A G E 467

House

Water tank capa a ty 2 0,0 00 galłons-

Seventh

■Broken Stonc

J /iT r -Septic ta n k T r < /,S00 gcr/bns / / ca p a city

S+ree+

Map of the Town Showing the Two Sewage Systems

Two distinct systems of sewage disposal are here installed. One serves the houses provided w lth bathrooms and the other those not so provided. One system discharges to a septic tank

and the other to surface disposal.

on the m a in streets w ith 4-in. terra-cotta pipę and con- nected to the houses th ro ug h 3-in. pipę of the same m ateriał. These tile are set below the fro st line.

W aste w ater, not absorbed by the loose ground in w hich the open-joint sewers are buried, runs by g rav ity to the discharge p o in t located in a ravine some distance from the tow n.

Sewage fro m the ten seven-room houses on the sani- ta ry system is carried aw ay in 6-in. sealed-joint terra- cotta pipes la id on a 3-per-cent g rad ie n t to a central septic tank. The capacity of th is ta n k is 1,500 gal.

A li jo in ts in th is sewer line are sealed w ith a m ix ture of one p a rt sand and one p a rt cement.

O utside toilets are provided fo r the tenants occupy-

6 nV itrifie d sewer tile cemerrtecłJoints

-25’— ->L

Septic tank Pipę from houses

Ground Une

6” out/et

|<--- -100'--- )

dLcrterais 4" fa rm otrain tile openjoints

U

* ! 'Veht

\i i

_ —L

Ground Une

Slope tile 1 ° minimum

.Top soi/ 4"CI. Vent Cap

ra so ii 3 0 Pif*

Enamel Iron Septic Tank Capacity 1500 Gals-No.107

Cmshed słone Vent D e ta il

in g the houses not eąuipped w ith bathroom s. Two toilets and two coal bunkers are b u ilt under the ro o f o f one outhouse serving each p a ir o f houses. The tw o toilets surm ount an open concrete vault.

I t is now the belief o f the com pany th a t it w ould have been to its advantage to in sta ll only one sewage system, and th a t of the san itary type. Aside from all considerations of san itatio n, the closed sewer system w hich discharges into a septic tan k involves a lower m aintenance cost.

A ll streets in the tow n are ligh ted w ith 75-watt lamps. A 2,300-volt c irc u it is carried fr o m the m ine p la n t to the center of the tow n, where it is stepped down to 110 volts by b eing passed th ro u g h tw o 15-kva.

transform ers. T his fu rn is h e s lig h tin g c u rre n t to both streets and houses.

Simple System of Sewage Disposal

After passing a septic tank the sewage flows to a system of drain tile, through which It percolates to the soil. The tile in this cas® acts as a filter for a liquid already purified by the septic tank.

In a recent lecture on the in d u s tria l uses o f nickel, a lu m in u m bronze and other non-ferrous alloys, delivered before the In s titu te o f M etals in L ondon, says th e Colliery G uardian, W . M . Corse stated th a t the produc- tio n o f nickel was largely confined to th e B r itis h E m p ire . The b ulk o f th is m etal is used in steel manu- facture. The o u ts tan d in g characteristic o f a lu m in u m bronze is its resistance to corrosion, alth o u g h it possesses hardness an d stre ngth to a h ig h degree.

C urio usly enough, it w as stated, however, the larg est single use fo r th is alloy was fo r the m a n u fa c tu re of a w o rm wheel fo r F o rd trucks, fo r w h ic h purpose 11,000,000 lb. had been b o u g h t d u r in g the past few years. The service records o f these gears in dicate d a Iow percentage o f breakage an d a long life . Im p o r ta n t w ork is b e in g done b oth in G reat B r ita in a n d the U n ite d States on stainless iro n a n d stainless steel alloys, w h ic h contain nickel and ch ro m iu m , a n d m u c h is expected fro m experim ents now in progress.

468 C O A L A G E Vol. 26, No. 14

Care in Choosing and Maintaining Fuse and Switches May Prevent Many Accidents*

Keep Fuses in Fireproof Cabinets—Automatic Circuit Breakers of 2,000-Amp. Capacity or Over Should Be Remotely Controlled—Fach Phase in a Three-Phase Circuit Should Be Provided with Separate Fuses

By J. F. Mac Wil l ia m s

Power Engineer, Pennsylvania Coal & Coke Corporation, Cresson, Pa.

F

be used only when m ounted on non-combustible and non-absorptive m ate riał. I t is always preferable th a t they be installed in fireproof cabinets. T his type of fuse is exposed, and conseąuently the p ro b a b ility of a short-circuit or in ju r y

to anyone w o rk in g around t h e fuse or m a k in g a renewal is always im m in e n t.

The only advantage th a t this fuse has is th a t it is rela- tively cheap.

Inclosed fuses o f the p łu g type are m uch safer th a n lin k fuses of the open type, b u t even these fuses m ay be m isused and thus prove ineffective. I t is a com m on practice fo r some m en to inse rt a piece of m etal ab out the size of a penny in the base o f the Socket and th us m ake t h e fuse inoperative. W henever th is type of fuse is used the line w ire should be connected

to the center contact and the load w ire to the threaded p art. I f th is is done the circ u it becomes dead the in s ta n t the fuse is turn e d loose fro m the bottom or lin e contact. In conseąuence it is m uch safer fo r the w o rk m an who has to handle it.

The inclosed type of cartridge fuse also is safer th an the open-link type, and when provided w ith fe rru le contacts m ay be used on circuits ca rry in g currents as h ig h as 60 am p. W hen equipped w ith knife-blade con­

tacts the fuses are suitable fo r use on circuits carry in g m uch la rg e r currents. Some o f these fuses w hich have renewable lin k s m ay be m isused to carry a h ig h e r c u rre n t th a n th a t fo r w hich they are designed. Even non-renewable cartrid ge fuses often artr im pered w ith an d m ade inoperative or fused to lim itu Ł ^ch h ig h e r th a n those fo r w hich they were desig> ^ by ju m p e r w ires be in g connected between the tw o ^ ^lais.

The inclosed e x te m ally operated fuse sw itch prob- ab ly is the safest fo r generał work. To renew the fuse the te rm in als are first of all e ntirely disconnected fro m all live parts. The U n d e rw rite rs’ classification o f th is complete u n it is A .A .

W h ate v e r type o f fuse be used on a c irc u it it is alw ays necessary th a t it be installed and m a in ta in e d

♦Article entitled, “Electrical Starting- Devices,” read Oct. 2 be- fore the M inin g Section meeting of the N ational Safety Council, Louisville, Ky.

properly. I f th is is done few accidents w ill occur.

W hen renew ing fuses in grounded cabinets care should be taken to avoid short-circuits or accidental con- nection w ith the ground. A ll contacts should be kept clean and in proper a lig n m e n t; otherw ise excessive h e atin g m ay occur and cause serious dam age.

A u to m a tic c irc u it bre ak­

ers w ill afford m uch better protection to apparatu s th a n alm ost any type of fuse. U sually these break­

ers are designed so as to t r ip at any curren t value between certain lim its fo r w hich the breaker has been made. Such breakers should be installed h ig h enough fro m the floor and in such a position th a t ne ith e r the operative nor an y infiam- m able m a te ria ł w ill be ex- posed to the arc w hich rises fr o m the contact tip s when the breaker opens.

They should be eąuipped also w ith a h an d tr ip prop­

erly insulated and in such a position th a t the breaker m ay be readily opened m anually w ith o u t in ju r in g the operative’s h an d or arm or exposing h im to the arc. Such a breaker should always be set to tr ip a t a cu rre n t value m uch less th an th a t w hich w ould cause in ju r y to any connected apparatus or cables. A u to m a tic c irc u it breakers used for in te rru p tin g currents h ig h e r th a n 2,000 amp.

should be remotely controlled so as to avoid p o ssibility of danger to the operative i f any p a rt should fa il w hen the circu it is be in g opened.

A utom a tic reclosing c irc u it breakers, i f installed outside th e ' power p la n t or substation, should be inclosed in a locked fireproof box to prevent anyone ta m p e rin g w ith them . The key should be placed in the hands of a responsible person, f a m ilia r w ith elec­

tric al eąuipm ent.

T his type of breaker is designed so th a t it w ill close ju s t as soon as a short-circuit or overload has been taken off the line. T herefore, g re at care should be taken to avoid shock or burns. To obviate danger when re p a irin g such a sw itch, or feeder w ires con­

nected to it, the control c irc u it should first o f all be opened and the c irc u it grounded. Unless th is be done the w orkm an m ig h t begin to w ork on either the c irc u it breaker or one o f the feeders w hen the power is off and later the c irc u it breaker m ig h t close, g iv in g h im a severe shock or burn.

... .

Fuses a n d sw itches are p ro v id e d to p ro te c t m en a n d m a c h in e ry , b u t , like oth e r safety devices, th e y h a v e th e ir o w n dangers a n d need to be c are fu lly chosen, correctly in stalle d a n d k e p t in first-class c o n d itio n . I n conseąuence o f acci­

d e n ts th e y h a v e been care fully redesigned so as to e lim in a te h aza rd s, a n d care n o w is ta k e n to p ro te c t th e m a n d to keep th e ir flashes w ith in a fireproof c a b in e t. T h e b o y set to open a n d close a d o o r a n d th u s keep a m in e safe a t D e la g u a , C o lo ., set fire to jo m e chips a n d n e arly destroyed th e m in e he w as engaged to protect. S im ila r ly th e fuse or sw itch set to close or open a circ uit, if n o t p ro p e rly con stru cte d a n d protected, m a y tak e a life or s ta rt a fire, th u s n e g a tiv in g in p a r t th e purpo3e o f its in s ta lla tic n .

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimiiiimimiiimiiiimmiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii&

October 2, 1924 C O A L A G E 469

I f circu it breakers are properly installed and main- tained the danger of b u rn in g out generators, m otors or cables and in ju r y to attendants w ill be reduced greatly. A uto m atic reclosing circuit breakers m ay be installed so as to sectionalize feeders and trolley circuits and thus localize any trouble. They also have another advantage in th a t they m ay be adjusted so as not to close on any load w hich would be in ju rio u s to the ge n e rating or converting equipm ent.

Tliere are m any types of so-called safety switches.

One m anufactured by the V. V. F ittin g s Co. appears to give satisfaction. T h i s sw itch is enclosed in an iron box and is Busbar Grounding Terminal p r o V i d e d w ith a A clip like this may be easily ,

slipped over a busbar and connected C U r V e a O p e r a t in g

to a so od ground. handle l o c k e d in

p osition when the sw itch is closed. This handle has a socket at the end w hich m ust be entered in to a slot in an extension at the lower right-hand corner o f the box. The s h a ft operating the sw itch is protected by th is extension so th a t it cannot be operated w ith a w rench or plier. A linem an w ish in g to w ork on the c irc u it controlled by th is sw itch opens the switch and unlocks the handle, w hich he takes w ith him . In th is way he is assured th a t no one w ill close the switch w ith o u t his knowledge.

O il switches often are reąuired to open circuits carry in g currents m uch larg er th an those fo r w hich the sw itch is designed. The oil in these switches is provided ip order to prevent arcing when the current is in terrupted. These arcs carbonize the oil, thus reducing the in s u la tin g characteristics and possibly causing trouble. D u st and d ir t also enter the tanks and in m any cases fo rm conducting m ateriał.

K^{e e p} O^{i l} U^{s e d i n} Sw i t c h e s C^{l e a n}

W henever an arc is broken under oil the oil dissipates some of th is heat and itself becomes heated. This causes an expansion of the oil, expelling a certain quan- t ity of a ir fro m the tank. W hen the oil cools and contracts, new a ir enters the tank. I f th is a ir contains m oisture, w hich it nearly always does, fine particles of w ater vapor fo rm on the sides of the tan k and drop in to the oil.

I f m uch m oisture and d irt is p e rm itted to collect in the oil and tank, a heavy arc m ay cause the sw itch to explode. Sw itches of th is type w ith vertical contact boards p e rm it dust and d ir t to drop into the tan k rath e r easily, where-

as h orizontal boards prevent a large p a rt of the dust fr o m g e ttin g in to the oil.

D ust and d ir t collect on the outside o f a sw itch ow ing to the p r e s e n c e o f oil, w hich holds any p a r­

ticie of d ir t w hich

comes in contact w ith the sw itch. Com m on dust and d ir t in th is m an n e r fo rm a conductor between the sw itch te rm in als and often cause leakage of curre n t to groun d or fr o m one line w ire to another.

To avoid accidents it is therefore necessary to keep the sw itch as clean as possible and m ake periodic

Pole-Mounted Clip

Because this grounding term inal is mounted on an insulated pole there is little danger to the workman even should he attempt to place it on a

“live” conductor.

inspections o f all the current-carrying parts and also of the oil. Sludge in the bottom of an oil ta n k may become so deep as to cause current to leak fro m one of the line wires to the ground. I f the sw itch is not grounded the tan k and supports w ill become charged and dangerous.

How often the oil should be changed depends on the service w hich the oil sw itch is reąuired to perform . I t m ay be necessary to change it every m on th or only every few years. In dusty dam p places it m ay need renewal every few m onths. In dry clean places it m ay be necessary to renew the oil not oftener th a n every fo u r years. No generał rule can be form ulated, as the tim e w ill depend on the location and severity of the service. Every oil sw itch should be inspected a t least once a year. I f the contacts are dam aged they w ill, of course, increase the p ro b a b ility of accidents.

Fr e q u e n t In s p e c t i o n Sa v e s Tr o u b l e

A t the m ines of the Pennsylvania Coal & Coke Cor­

poration, unless a sw itch has been in abnorm al service, it is inspected once a year. I f m oisture or sludge appears in the ta n k it is cleaned out, the contacts adjusted and the oil entirely renewed. A n y oil w hich appears to be satisfactory is tested before it is used. O il th at appears to be good often is found, upon fu r th e r

inspection and test, to be unsuitable fo r use u n til filtered. F o r th is pur- pose a pressure filter press is used.

N ew or filtered oil m ust n o t break down at any lower voltage th an 35,000 when tested between sphere gaps i in. in diam eter and set 0.15 in.

apart. The flash p o in t should not be lower th an 171 deg. C. and the fire p oint not less th an 178 deg. C.

Graded-resistance types of m otor starters are used on both alternat- in g and direct-current circuits. These starters have a n um ber of contact points or smali switches w hich m ust be periodically inspected. Perfect

contact should be made a t each p o in t to ob tain results.

M ost o f these starters are provided w ith a blow out coil fo r preventing serious arcing. These coils m u st always be kept in good co n d itio n ; otherw ise they w ill not fu n ctio n properly, and serious dam age m ay result.

W hen s h u ttin g off the curren t w ith th is type of con- troller each contact should be broken ąu ic k ly ; unless th is is done, the controller cover m ay be blow n out under severe conditions, and the operator in ju re d or a fire result.

A com pensator is a com bin atio n sw itch and trans- fo rm e r and is therefore subject to the same dangers as already m e ^ ed and should be protected and cared fo r in the m e m an n e r as other switches.

The w e d g ^ f lp e contacts m ake a m ore perfect con- nection tth m ^fc th e r types and conseąuently greatly reduce arcing.

W he n properly designed and m a in ta in e d , au to m a tic m otor starters are the safest e ąuip m e n t to use fo r s ta r tin g m otors. They can be located where there is little d anger of fire or accident to the operator an d can be m ade to p e rfo rm th e ir d uty accurately each tim e they are used.

I f six m otor leads were b ro u g h t o ut o f delta-con- nected in d u ctio n m otors each phase could be protected independently by six fuses or relays. W it h th is

Fuse Socket Ju st as soon as the fuse is partly unscrewed it be­

comes "dead” if the line and load are connected in this manner.

470 C O A L A G E Vol. 26, No. 14

This Fuse Is Efficient, Safe and Readily Mounted A n efficient fuse suitabie for outdoor service is im portant on any outside electrical circuit, but more especially is it impor­

tan t that it should be so constructed that it w ill not be ruined the flrst time it is called upon to function. Freąuently one dis- turbance ąuickly follows another, and if the line is left unpro- tected after the flrst accident due to the breakdown of fuse ap- paratus the result m ay be disastrous.

arrange m e nt better protection could be afforded the operative and eąuipm ent.

L ine fuses always have been a great source of trouble and danger to power users and power com- panies. The P ennsylvania Coal & Coke C orporation has found, a fte r several years’ experim enting w ith m any different types, th a t the Schw eitzer & Conrad Type E ejector cutout, th o u g h perhaps m ore expensive th an others, gives satisfacto ry results. T his fuse is simple and com pact; the fuse element proper consists of a strip of high-resistant high-tensile stren gth fusib le w ire w hich is held in tension by a coil sp rin g. The fuse is provided w ith slots fo r quick insertion under te rm in al screws an d enclosed in a cork w hich protects it fro m corrosion and also acts as an arc barrie r.

The cork itse lf is enclosed in a tube, so there is little p o ssibility of the fuse b eing affected by external atm ospheric conditions. The complete operating mech- an ism is enclosed in a bakelite tube w hich is screwed to the op e rating handle. C u rre n t passes fro m the base o f the coil sp ring to the fuse element th ro u g h a flexible copper cable. T his cable shunts the spring, and therefore the curre n t in the sp rin g is negligible.

Sp r i n g Br e a k s He a v y Cu r r e n t Ar c

W hen the fuse lin k is broken fro m any cause what- ever, the s p rin g contracts and introduces a long gap between the tw o fuse ends in the tube. T his quick and positive r u p tu r in g featu re is assisted by the b a r ­ rie r effect o f the cork. The result is th a t i f the fuse operates on an overload barely sufficient to m elt the fuse lin k , a positive break is obtained. In case of a short-circuit, th e cork is ejected by the explosive action of the arc, and besides ac tin g as a b a rrie r it helps to in te r r u p t the arc by sw eeping it out of the fuse tube.

The whole fuse outfit is m ounted on a crossarm at such an angle th a t any flame or gases escaping from the open end a t the bottom are directed aw ay fro m the linem an. A new fuse is p u t in to positio n by a quick m o tion . T his is im p o rta n t i f the operator is closing the c ir c u it on an extrem ely heavy load.

I f oil switches were designed so th a t it w ould be necessary to open th e sw itch before a short-circuit or

ground could be applied, a g re a t step tow ard protection of the operative w ould be accomplished.

In the short-circuiting and grounding- com partm ent type o f switches, the g ro u n d connection should be m ade first. I f the doors on the com p artm en t are h in g e d at the top they should not be removed b u t sw ung fo rw a rd sufficiently th a t the operative w ill be able to reach by them and apply the connection to the sw itch. B y th is procedure the door w ill act as a b a rrie r in case the sw itch is charged.

W hen m en are w o rk in g on lines the conductors should be grounded and short-circuited. The gro u n d connec­

tion should be m ade first and the short- circuiting devices applied a fte rw a rd . T his should be done w hether the w ork is to be perform ed inside the p la n t or o u t­

side on the line. The ap paratu s fo r th is w o rk should consist o f flexible cable of a size n ot less th a n N o. 6, h av in g fo r station w ork a clip, w h ic h hooks over the gro u n d bus and locks in place.

O n the other end of the cable a set o f s p rin g elips fittin g the contacts o f the lin e te rm in a ls and m ounted on wood handles should be used. F o r g ro u n d in g outside-line w ires a piece of J-in. p ip ę n ot less th an 5 ft. long w ith a connection head on one end and a p o in t on the other should be used. A clip s im ila r to th a t m entioned above, m ade o f copper an d m ounted on wood handles, should be used fo r a tta c h in g to the line wires.

Da n g e r s Ar e Le s s e n e d b y Gr o u n d s

G ro und connections should be m ade to provide safety to equipm ent, to discharge ab n orm al p otentials and to afford a p a th fo r c u rre n t leaks fro m equipm ent. Such means w ill reduce the hazards accom panying the oper- atio n o f electrical apparatus. Som etim es it is not feasible to ground electrical ap p a ratu s, an d often by doing so the hazards to the operator are inereased rath e r th a n decreased. In any case, the g ro u n d in g of equipm ent, supports, etc., m u st be understood to be done fo r the protection o f the operative fro m shock should these parts become charged. G rounded-fram e p arts actually inerease the d an g e r o f shock to the operative should he m ake contact between current- carry ing p arts and grounded-fram e p arts. A li g ro u n d connections should be tested occasionally so as to be sure they are always effective.

A low-voltage release w ith short-time lim it w ill be found preferable to the no-voltage release w hen equip- m ent may be subjected to severe shock by a sudden restoration of norm al voltage. The short-tim e lim it prevents the complete in te rru p tio n of service if the drop of voltage and its re tu rn is rapid.

L inem en alw ays should use line protectors such as line hose, tie caps, rub b e r pigs, etc. These m en also should use transform er-fuse pullers whenever they are required to remove or in stall fuse plugs on trans- form ers w hich m ay be either heavily loaded or in dam aged condition.

Pr o v id e Wo r k m a n w i t h Te s t e r

Some sim ple fo rm o f tester fo r d e te rm in in g w hether the line w ires are charged often has prevented serious in ju r y to persons required to m ake re pairs. A sim ple and cheap tester, called the Pocket Electroscope, th a t can easily be carried, is m ade by the M in e ra lla c Co., o f Chicago. I t is the practice o f the P e n n sy lv an ia Coal 6 Coke C orporation to fu r n is h its m en w ith th is in ­ strum ent.