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The Council of Europe as an intergovernmental organisation1 promotes the uni- ty of the continent and aims to guarantee the dignity of the European citizens by en- suring respect for fundamental human values such as parliamentary democracy, human rights (including the education right) and the rule of law. One of its main goals is to promote awareness of a European cultural identity based on shared va- lues and respect for cultural and linguistic diversity. Article 149 (ex Article 126) on Education, Vocational Training and Youth specifies the educational policy in the Eu- ropean Community and the Member States. It focuses – among other things – on the quality of education, which can be analysed through the projects of syllabus design, implementation and evaluation. Namely, Article 149 states the following re- sponsibilities of the European Community:
The European Community shall contribute to the development of quality education by encouraging co-operation between the Member States, supporting and supplemen- ting their action while fully respecting the responsibility of the Member States for the content of teaching and the organisation of education systems as well as their cultural and linguistic diversity.
Thus, the European Community actions are aimed at:
– developing the European dimension in education through teaching the langu- ages of the Member States;
– encouraging mobility of students and teachers by the academic recognition of diplomas and periods of study;
* Doktorantka wydziału filologicznego kierunku filologia angielska − lingwistyka stosowana. Absolwentka Na- uczycielskiego Kolegium Języków Obcych w Cieszynie i Wydziału Filologicznego Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w So- snowcu, kierunku filologia angielska o specjalności: metodyka nauczania języka angielskiego.
1 It is worth remembering that the Council of Europe was founded in 1949 and symbolised reconciliation after the Second World War.
– promoting co-operation between educational establishments;
– developing exchanges of information and experience on issues common to the education systems of the Member States.
The Council of Europe aims to develop mutual understanding among people of different cultures and languages. Its practical achievements include 193 legally bin- ding European treaties or conventions including the European Cultural Convention in the education field, which was ratified by non-member States. The Committee of Ministers’ recommendations to governments set out policy guidelines on such issu- es as legal matters, health, culture and education, including language policy.
In particular, Recommendation No. R. (98) 6 of the Committee of Ministers to Mem- ber States Concerning Modern Languages2 states:
Stressing the political importance at the present time and in the future of developing specific fields of action, such as strategies for diversifying and intensifying language lear- ning in order to promote pluriligualism in a pan-Europe context, further developing links and exchanges, and exploiting new communication and information technologies.
This Recommendation specifies measures to be implemented concerning the le- arning and teaching of modern languages. These include general measures and prin- ciples plus detailed measures: early language learning (up to age 11); secondary edu- cation; vocationally oriented language learning; adult education; bilingual education in bilingual or multilingual areas; specification of objectives and assessment; teacher training. However, Governments of the Member States are asked to draw attention to this Recommendation along with the reference documents to attention in their countries through the national channels and in accordance with their constitutio- nal, national and local circumstances and national education systems.
Here, the paper3 aims to present a selected number of implications and achieve- ments of educational systems in the EU Members that have been launched in the form of recommendations and priorities by the Council of Europe4.
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In the European Union, language policy is the responsibility of the Member Sta- tes and the Union itself does not have one common language policy. The Europe- an Union institutions support this field following the „principle of subsidiary” and
2 Rekomendacje Ministrów Rady Europy nr 98/6. In Gajek, E.2004. Edukacja językowa w Unii Europejskiej. Infor- mator i przewodnik internetowy dla nauczycieli. Warszawa: Fraszka Edukacyjna. p.90.
More information is available on http://cm.coe.int/ta/rec/1998/98r6.htm
3 This is the second paper that belongs to the series on Language Policy and Education in Europe initiated in 2003.
The first paper is entitled Wspólnotowe priorytety w dziedzinie edukacji a problem jakości kształcenia nauczycieli w dobie globalizacji (Common European Priorities in Education and Problem of Quality in Teacher Education in the Period of Globalisation). In: Społeczeństwo oparte na wiedzy w dobie globalizacji. Wybrane zagadnienia by K. Ślęczka (ed.) Sosnowiec: WSZiM, 2003 p. 155-166.
4 The Council of Europe is the continent’s oldest political organisation with its permanent headquarters in Stras- bourg, France. Today it serves about 800 million people in 45 states, with five observers.
their role is to promote both co-operation among the Members and the European dimension in their states’ language policies. The European Union therefore has very limited influence because the content of educational systems belongs to the respon- sibility of individual Member States. However, a number of the EU funding projects and programmes actively promotes language learning and linguistic diversity.
Therefore, the policy of teaching foreign languages has been developed to assist all Member States to improve their language policies for pluriligualism5. As it is ho- ped that people in Europe will live in harmony, communicate with, and understand each other, the command of more than only one foreign language is an increasingly important factor. For this reason, both the Council of Europe and the European Union encourage all citizens to be multilingual; specifically to be able to speak two foreign languages (the first one for international communication, and the second, the language of their neighbouring country) in addition to their mother tongue.
Moreover, the working languages of the European Union are the languages used by the people within the Member States of the European Union6; there are the 23 official languages7 that have equal status. The European Union even has a special European Commissioner for Multilingualism – Leonard Orban. As the number of the Member States multiplies, the number of the official working languages also increases. In practice two or more countries share several national languages and the ratio of the Member States to national languages are unaffected. For example, German is the official language in Germany, Austria, Belgium and Luxembourg;
Dutch in the Netherlands and Belgium; French in France, Belgium and Luxem- bourg; Greek in Greece and Cyprus. All the national languages8 of the European
5 The concept of pluriligualism (multilingualism), which refers to teaching and learning several languages, has been widely advocated and put into practice with the help of the Council of Europe. For example, the research gathered by Hufeisen, B., Neuner, G. 2004 (May). The Plurilingualism Project: Tertiary Language Learning – Ger- man after English. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
6 The European Union devotes a sub-side of its “Europe” portal to the EUROPA language portal on languages and multilingualism (more information available on http://europa.eu/).
7 These are Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Ita- lian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish.
It is accepted that each EU Member uses at most one official language as the working language used for drafts of regulations and documents.
8 It has been suggested that each Member State can put forward at most one official language (one Mem- ber State, one language). Then, not all-national languages have been accorded the status of the official EU languages. These include Luxembourgish (the official language of Luxembourg since 1984), and Tur- kish (the official language of Cyprus). The Spanish and Irish governments have suggested the status of “of- ficial” EU languages for Basque, Catalan, Galician and Irish. However, at the 2667th Council Meeting of the Council of European Union on 13th June 2005 it was decided to authorise limited use of languages recognised by the Member States other than the official working languages. Accepting Irish as the 21st of- ficial language in 2005, the Council granted recognition to lesser-used languages in the following words:
Languages other than the languages referred to in Council Regulations no 1/1958 whose status is recognised by the Constitution of a Member State on all or part of its territory or the use of which as a national language is authorised by the law. The use of lesser-used languages is authorised on the basis of the arrangement between the council and the requesting Member State. For example, Luxembourgish and Turkish have not used yet this provision while the Spanish government has assented to the provisions in respect of Catalan, Galician and Basque (co- official languages in Spain). Then, on 30th November 2006, an agreement was signed between the EU and Spain
Union are the working languages used for drafting documents and regulations of general application. For example the Official Journal of the European Union will be published in 23 languages. Other documents, such as communications with national authorities or decisions addressed to particular individuals or correspon- dents are translated only into the languages needed9. For internal purposes, the EU institutions are allowed to choose their own language arrangements. The Eu- ropean Commission, for example, conducts its internal business in three langu- ages – English, French and German, and is multilingual only for public communi- cation10. The European Parliament, on the other hand, has Members who work in their own languages, and their documentation is fully multilingual11. Namely, the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was drafted in the 23 official treaty languages of the EU (the working languages plus Irish, in the languages of two former candidate countries: Romanian and Bulgarian, and the present candidate country: Turkish). It states the following provision12:
Article IV-448 (2): This Treaty may also be translated into any other languages as determined by Member States among those which, in accordance with their constitu- tional order, enjoy official status in all or part of their territory. A certified copy of such translations shall be provided by the Member States concerned and to be deposited in the archives of the Council.
The Council of Europe has been active in the promotion of modern language learning and teaching for over forty years13. Its programmes are co-ordinated by the Department of Language Education and Policy comprising bodies: The Language Policy Division in Strasbourg and the European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz (Austria). These are two complementary instances of the Department of Language Education and Policy in Europe.
to allow Spanish citizens to address complaints to the European Parliament in all three co-official languages and use them in the EU institutions as well. According to the agreement, a translation body, which is set up and financed by the Spanish government, is responsible for translation complaints submitted in these languages. On the contrary, the British government has not got plans to make similar provisions for Welsh and Scottish Gaelic as the official regional languages in the UK.
9 Since 1988 the European Parliament has approved a Resolution about National Sign Languages, according to which all Member States are to recognise their national sign languages as official languages. For example, the United Kingdom is to recognise British Sigh Language (BSL) while Belgium accepts Flemish Sigh Language (VGT) and Belgian-French Sign Language (LSFB), etc. The resolution is to bring better linguistic rights and protection for sign language users especially the deaf users of sign language.
10 Migrant languages are not given a formal status in the EU countries and are not included in the EU language-te- aching programmes. It is the responsibility of national or local authorities to provide classes to help immigrants in learning languages of their adopted country.
11 According to the EU’s English language website, the cost of maintaining the institution’s policy of multilingu- alism (the cost of translation and interpretation) is Є1123 million, which is 1% of the annual general budget of the EU, or E2.28 per person per year.
12 Further information is available on http://europa.eu/, p.12.
13 Council of Europe. 2006. (May). The Council of Europe and Languages. Department of Language Education and Policy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
The Language Policy Division (Strasbourg) is responsible for development of14: language education and policies to promote linguistic diversity and pluriligualism15, the common European instruments for the assistance to the Union Member States with education policy analysis, planning and setting standards; foreign language education policy, protection of the language education rights and responsibilities of minorities, including responding to situations of (potential) conflict that require urgent action in multilingual contexts16. One recent development of the Language Policy Division is The European Year of Languages (2001), that brought key langu- age policy issues firmly into perspective and marked the final stage of the Division’s transition from theory to practice. For example, through the medium-term pro- gramme (2002-2004) entitled Plurilingualism, Diversity, and Citizenship the follo- wing activities have been achieved:
− Language Education Policy Profiles: an offer to assist Member States (or local authorities) with a self-evaluation of language education policy in a spirit of dialogue with the Council of Europe experts who act as a catalyst for policy analysis and strategic planning;
− Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe: a reference tool for the reformulation and reorganisation of language teaching to promote pluriligualism and diversification in a planned and coherent manner;
− Language Policies for the Education of Minorities: expert assistance to specific Member States in reviewing and developing policies for bilingual (or trilingu- al) education;
− Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: manual and support materials are developed to assist in relating certificate examinations to the six levels in a reliable manner
The European Centre for Modern Languages (Graz) is responsible for17: sup- port for the implementation of language education policies, promotion of innova- tive approaches to the learning and teaching of languages18; professionalism and professional status of language educators. The working languages of the European Centre for Modern Languages are English and French, the official languages of the Council of Europe. The principal aim of the Centre is the promotion of learning and teaching of languages in Europe. In particular, it focuses on support for the imple- mentation of language education policies in the Member States; use of the standard
14 On: www.coe.int/lang (available on 13.01.07). p.1.
15 Council of Europe. 2001. Living Together in Europe in the 21st Century: the Challenge of Plurilingual and Multi- cultural Communication and Dialogue. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
16 Candelier, M. 2004 (May). Janua Linguarum – The Gateway to Languages. The Introduction of Language Aware- ness into the Curriculum: Awakening to Languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
17 European Centre for Modern Languages was set up in 1994 in Graz (Austria). More information is available on:
http://www.ecml.at, information@ecml.at
18 For example, Goodfellow, D. 2003 (September). The Educational Use of ICT in Teacher Education and Distance Language Learning. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages. Fur- ther information on: http://www.coe.int
instruments as well as innovative approaches to learning and teaching all langu- ages. The framework of activities has extensive scope and orientation in the forms of various programmes of projects19. These projects and activities are organised in co-operation with the teacher trainers, curriculum experts, materials writers, and language teachers, researchers and governmental officials who are involved in the implementation of the national language education policy.
As there are several projects that cover a wide range of ideas, and focus on more than one aspect of language education, four general headings representing them can be distinguished. These are coping with linguistic and social diversity, communication in a multicultural society, professional development and reference tools and innovative approaches and new technologies20.
In the context of ECML the Council of Europe has been co-ordinating the policy of modern language education as well as supporting and giving recognition to the needs of language learning and intercultural experience at all levels. The Council of Europe tackles a wide range of issues in the field of education. In particular, these issues include the implementation of major projects, content and methods; the po- oling of ideas, the sharing of experience and research, the publishing of links and exchanges plus the development of new partnerships, innovations and networks;
the publishing of policy studies and handbooks of good practice for policy-makers and educators.
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Moreover, it is the Lisbon strategy that has advocated the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs as well as greater social cohesion within the Eu- ropean Union21. To face this challenge, the EU Members have undertaken several
19 For example for educators:
➢ Lazar, I. 2003 (July) Incorporating Intercultural Communicative Competence in Language Teacher Education.
Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
➢ Heyworth, F., Dupuis, V., Leban, K, Szesztay, M., Tinsley, T. 2003 (September). Facing the Future – Language Educators across Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
➢ Council of Europe. 1998. Modern Language Learning and Teaching in Central and Eastern Europe: Which Diver- sification and How Can it be Achieved? Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
For the educational systems in all EU Member States:
➢ Council of Europe. 2001. Living Together in Europe in the 21st Century: the Challenge of Plurilingual and Multi- cultural Communication and Dialogue. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
➢ Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, asses- sment. Strasbourg, Modern Languages Division and Cambridge: CUP, Council of Europe.
➢ Dalgalian, G., Feuillet-Thieberger, J., Kalve, H. 2004 (December). Language learning and Teaching in the Context of Twin Cities. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
20 These activities involve project teams, regional events, expert meetings, network meetings, consultations, fellowships, communication and documentation. ECML, Council of Europe, 2004. Programme of Activities 2004-2007. p. 4-8.
21 European Council, Lisbon – March 2000.
initiatives and innovations. In particular, in 2002 the idea of being world leader in terms of the quality of its education and training systems by 2010 arose in Europe.
Then, a fundamental transformation of education and training throughout Europe began. This process has been carried out in each country depending on national contexts and traditions. The process is driven forward by co-operation among all the Member States at European level, through sharing experiences; working towards common goals and learning from good practice with the implementation of „open method of co-ordination22”.
To ensure the EU Members’ contribution to the Lisbon strategy, Ministers of Education adopted a report on the future objectives of education and training sys- tems in 2001, agreeing for the first time on shared objectives to be achieved by 2010.
In 2002, the Education Council and Commission endorsed a ten-year work pro- gramme entitled Education and Training, 2010 diverse systems, shared goals – education and training to be implemented through the open method of co-ordina- tion. Approved by the European Council, these agreements constitute the new and coherent strategic framework of the present and future co-operation in the fields of education and training23. For the benefit of all citizens in the EU three major goals are to be achieved by 2010:
1) To improve the quality and effectiveness of the EU education and training systems;
2) To ensure that they are accessible to all;
3) To open up education and training to the wider world.
To achieve these ambitious but realistic goals, Ministers of Education agreed on thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at making a reality of lifelong learning24. In parti- cular, educational systems have to develop in the following fields: teacher training;
basic skills; integration of Information and Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of systems to make lear- ning accessible to all; mobility; citizenship education, etc.
On 11 November 2003 the European Commission adopted a Communication presenting the evaluation of the programme’s implementation. The communication called for accelerated reforms in the years to come and a stronger political commit- ment to achieve the Lisbon goals.
22 „The open method of co-operation” (the most developed form of which is currently the Luxembourg process) consists of a co-ordinated strategy in which the Member States set common objectives and instruments in edu- cation and training systems perceived as future targets to be met in the whole EU.
23 The project Education and Training 2010 integrates all actions in the field of education (the Copenhagen pro- cess). It contributes to the Bologna process initiated in 1999, which is crucial in the development of the Europe- an Higher Education Area. Both processes contribute actively to the achievement of the Lisbon objectives and are therefore closely linked to the Education and Training 2010 program.
24 It is worth remembering that implementation of Education and Training 2010 supports the definition of key competences for lifelong learning. In 2004 the European Commission published it in the form of „A European Reference Framework for Lifelong Learning” as a tool for policy makers and those responsible for creating le- arning opportunities. It provides a comprehensive list of key competences that are needed for personal fulfilment, social inclusion and employment in a knowledge society. In: Progress report of Working Group B on Basic Skills.p.3.
More information is available on http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/objectives.html
The European Qualification Framework (EQF), which the Commission formal- ly published as a Staff Working Document on 8July 2005, seems to be currently a key priority for the Commission. The objective of the planned EQF is to facilitate the transfer and recognition of qualifications held by individual citizens by linking qualifications’ systems at national and local sector levels as well as enabling them to relate to each other25. The European Qualification Framework therefore acts as a translation device and will be one of the principal European mechanisms intended to facilitate the mobility of European citizens for work and study. This device func- tions alongside with the European Credit Transfer System26 (ECTS), the European Credits Transfer System for Vocational Education and Training27(ECVET), the EUROPASS Training28 and the European Curriculum Vitae Format29.
These mechanisms and models are designed for both young and adult learners alongside their lifelong learning activities. They are applicable regardless of the le- arners’ biographies, their formal/informal learning pathways and their motivation (acquisition of skills and competence) or mobility (regional, national, and interna- tional, horizontal and vertical). All group learners are considered to be the main authors in their learning activities.
Then, the Council of Europe has produced a substantial number of recommen- dations, reforms, projects, workshops and documents concerning teaching modern languages. These initiatives have several implications for foreign language education
25 There is a proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the recognition of profes- sional qualifications COM (2002) 119final -Official Journal C181E of 30.07.02.
26 The European Credit Transfer System (known in Poland as ECTS) refers to the transfer of credit points in the field of higher education, depicting the results and period of study. Three documents are used for this purpose such as: Catalogue of Courses, the University Programme and the List of Credits and Results. It is to help in the recognition of diplomas and periods of study due to the exchange of students in the European Union. (In Angielsko-Polski i Polsko-Angielski Glosariusz Terminów i Pojeć, Narodowa Agencja Programu Socrates Fun- dacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, 2004. p.116-117. More information available on: http://www.socrates.org.
pl/erasmus http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/socrates/ects_en.html
27 The Copenhagen declaration of 30th November 2002 sets the priority of developing a credit transfer system for VET. In the first semester of 2005 the formal proposal from the European Commission on the ECVET system was introduced to contribute to lifelong learning. The implementation of ECVET required an agreement at the level on the objectives, principles, scope and field of application of the system, as well as on the reference framework for its first and extended implementation in the first and second semester of 2006. The European Commission presents these elements in the framework for implementation in the document entitled the European Credits Transfer Sys- tem for Vocational Education and Training published on 24th September 2004 in Brussels.
28 The EUROPASS Training refers to the official document that depicts the practical training concerned with the professional qualifications and experience in other Member States in the frame of the European pathways (in Angielsko-Polski i Polsko-Angielski Glosariusz Terminów i Pojeć, Narodowa Agencja Programu Socrates Funda- cja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, 2004 .p. 111).
29 The European CV format refers to the one form of writing CV that was accepted by the European Commis- sion to standardise the official presentation of personal information, work experience, education and training, personal skills and competences, language skills or additional information about the EU citizens. The format is available in thirteen languages of the EU, EEA (in Angielsko-Polski i Polsko-Angielski Glosariusz Terminów i Pojeć, Narodowa Agencja Programu Socrates Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, 2004. p.118; Gajek, E.2004.
Edukacja językowa w Unii Europejskiej. Informatoir i przewodnik intrnetowy dla nauczycieli. Warszawa: Frasz- ka Edukacyjna, p.31, 100-103. More information available on http://www.cedefop.eu.int, www.europa.eu.int/
comm/education/index_en.html,www.eurescv-search.com
in the European Union Member States such as the European Language Portfolio30 and the Common European Scales of Reference31.
The European Language Portfolio is perceived as a personal student’s document promoted by the Council of Europe, which describes peoples’ competences in dif- ferent languages and contacts with other cultures. It serves as a guide to individual language learning and explains how, where and at what level, skills or competences have been acquired. The European Language Portfolio is helpful in discovering how well people can communicate in foreign languages through the detailed definition of skills according to the Common European Scales of Reference32. In particular, it seems to be useful for those who are changing schools or applying for jobs in other countries. The European Language Portfolio is designed for three different stages – the primary school, the later years of school and for the adults33. This Portfolio has three following parts:
− Language Passport – an overview of skills and levels the individual presents in different languages. The overview is defined according to six levels of compe- tence in the Common European Scales of Reference where each language skill is described separately and enables learners a precise self-assessment. All lan- guage exams, courses, and contacts with a particular language and culture are to be listed here. To ensure the understanding of this document, the Language Passport for adults has a standard international form.
− Language Biography – a personal record of learners’ language learning process.
It is to help them assess their current levels, and guide their future foreign lan- guage education.
− Dossier – a collection of materials to back up what has been written in the Language Passport and the Language Biography. These include samples of what learners can do, and official papers such as certificates and records are of the courses attached.
The European Language Portfolio is designed to encourage people to learn more languages, even to elementary level, and to continue learning throughout their lives.
The document aims to improve general learning skills and the ability to assess one’s own competence. The idea is to facilitate mobility within Europe by documenting language skills in a clear and internationally comparable way. It is hoped that it will contribute to mutual understanding within Europe through the ability to communi- cate in a number of languages and through the experience of other cultures.
30 More information about Modern Languages Division on the European Language Portfolio is available on http://
culture.coe.int/portfolio (available on 10/01/07).
31 Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching and asses- sment. Cambridge: CUP, Council of Europe. p. 23-24. The Framework describes modern language skills at the global scale of competences defined for the levels of A1, A2, B1, B2 and C1, C2, which are defined further in this paper.
32 The Common European Scales of Reference are discussed further in the article.
33 For example, Student Teacher Portfolio, which includes Guide for Teacher Educators, Guide for Student Teachers, Passport, Biography, Dossier, has been written within the framework of the ECML of the Council of Europe pro- ject: From Profile to Portfolio: A Framework for Reflection in Language Teacher Education by Newby, D., Allan, R., Fenner, A.B. Jones, B., Komorowska, H., Soghikyan, K. Further details are available on: http://www.ecml.
at/mtp2/FTE/
Teachers and schools can use the European Language Portfolio to describe their courses, and their certificates can clearly implement the six levels of the Common European Scales of Reference. Should learners move and change a teacher or school, the European Language Portfolio can help the new teacher to discover more about their previous formal and informal process of learning languages as well as their needs and motivations. Employers can use the European Language Portfolio to re- cognise the practical language skills that existing or potential employees have, and the skills that need to be improved. They can also use this document for the precise description of the language skills that are required for a particular job, for example, in the case of a foreign language teacher34. However, employment and self-employ- ment in some sectors may yet differ from one Member State to another as far as the transfer, practice and recognition of educational diplomas are concerned35.
Moreover, the Common European Scales of Reference36 developed by the Langu- age Policy Division of the Council of Europe is understood in all the Member States and includes the following levels:
the Basic User Level defined as A1 - Breakthrough , A2 – Waystage (heading towards KET exam37);
the Independent User Level defined as B1 – Threshold (heading towards PET exam), B2 - Vantage (heading towards FCE exam);
the Proficient User defined as C1 – Effective Operational Proficiency (heading towards CAE exam), C2 – Mastery (heading towards CPE exam).
The contents of the CEF are designed to act as a frame of reference in terms of different qualifications, language learning objectives, and the standard basis of achie- vements. For example, each level defines the language skills in terms of three groups such as understanding (listening, reading), speaking (spoken interaction and spoken production) and writing (writing for communication). To fulfil its functions, CEF is comprehensive, transparent and coherent. It specifies a range of language knowledge, skills and objectives, providing a series of levels and stages according to which pro- gress can be measured. There are relations between the needs, objectives, content, ma- terials, programmes, methods, evaluation, testing and assessment in the framework.
However, it is not only a uniform system and therefore should be multipurpose, flexible, open, dynamic, user-friendly and non-dogmatic. The CEF has educational aims such as the promotion of linguistic diversity, indication of the levels of courses,
34 Court of Justice of the European Communities. 2006. Komunikat prasowy nr64/06 o uznawaniu praw lektorów języków obcych. On: www.curia.europa.eu/jurisp/cgi-bin=c119/04 (available on 18/07/06) p.1-2.
35 Wentkowska, A.2003. Swoboda przepływu pracowników w aspekcie uznania wykształcenia. In: Społeczeństwo opar- te na wiedzy w dobie globalizacji. Wybrane Zagadnienia by K. Ślęczka (ed.) Sosnowiec: WSZiM, 2003, p.67-78.
36 The full title is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages – Learning, Teaching, and Asses- sment. The abbreviation is CEF.
37 These are the internationally recognised exams that can be taken after each level has been accomplished. As far as children are concerned, they can take Cambridge English for Young Learners Exams such as Starters (after 4th grade), Movers (after 5th grade) and Flyers (after 6th grade) or graduate from the primary school with KET exam. Then, they can take PET exam after gymnasium and FCE after the secondary school.
course-books and examinations and promotion of new methods in education38. It attempts to be a comprehensive tool for syllabus designers, materials writers, and examination bodies, teachers and learners to locate their involvement in language education in relation to one frame.
O
SWLRQVIRUIXWXUHDFWLYLWLHVThe European Commission has developed an Action Plan for the European langu- age learning and linguistic diversity. The Action Plan focuses on three areas: promo- tion of life-long learning, improving language teaching and creating a more language- friendly environment. Thus, future trends in language education seem to be based on improving the practice of teaching and learning. Examples of good practice in these areas are presented during a number of conferences, projects and workshops and described in the European Centre for Modern Languages’ publications, comprising the areas of social and cultural learning, content-based learning, language and study skills plus student support, and targeting specifically at practitioners39.
The thematic approach enables researchers to deal with the major challenges so- ciety has to face at the beginning of the 21st century, highlighting the role of lan- guage education40 in improving mutual understanding and respect among people in Europe. One of these challenges is the policy in the frame of syllabuses / cur- riculum of the language education. Namely, these are the Waystage – Threshold – Vantage series by JA van Ek and J L M. Trim41 in 1970s. The series was redesigned in the 1990s and developed in the Modern Languages Programme of the Council of Europe. Each of them is a statement of language learning objectives which sets out how a learner should be able to use English in everyday communication (at elementary, intermediate and advanced levels respectively42). They specify the most essential situations, topics, functions and notions of lexical and grammatical ca-
38 Heyworth, F. 2005. The Common European Framework of Reference. In: MET, vol.14, no 2. p.52-60.
39 Council of Europe. 2006. (July). European Curriculum Guidelines for Access Programmes into Higher Education for Under-represented Adult Learners. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
40 For example, the European Profile for Language Teacher Education was designed as a source of expert advice in the field of teacher education for policy makers and teacher educators. It was built on the Training of Teachers of a Foreign Language: Developments in Europe in 2002.The study focused on language teacher education in 32 countries and highlighted examples of good practice. The results presented the rich diversity of traditions in the education of language teachers in Europe. Yet, the Profile is flexible and easily adaptable to national educa- tional contexts. The European Profile includes forty items that could be incorporated in each language teacher education programmes and is organised under four main headings: Structure, Knowledge and Understanding, Strategies and Skills and Values.
41 J A van EK, J L M Trim. 1998. Waystage 1990. Cambridge: Council of Europe and CUP.
J A van EK, J L M Trim. 1998. Threshold 1990. Cambridge: Council of Europe and CUP.
J A van EK, J L M Trim. 2001. Vantage. Cambridge: Council of Europe and CUP.
42 Another example is the experience presented by Girard, D. 1994. Selection and Distribution of Contents in Lan- guage Syllabuses. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. The project was No.12 entitled : Learning and Te- aching Modern Languages for communication.
tegories. Further specifications include socio-cultural competence, pronunciation, and intonation criteria. These documents are of practical use to all those concerned with language teaching: those involved with syllabus design, course design, material writing, planning, evaluation and assessment43.
In Poland every teacher can prepare their own syllabus as long as it incorporates the objectives and content from the core curriculum issued by the Polish Ministry of Education44. In particular, each syllabus/programme should include: an introduction
− the presentation of the syllabus’s origin, authors and their professional experience, characteristics of students and teachers for whom it is designed, plus requirements re- lated to its implementation; a set of objectives and exit competences; content; procedures of achieving objectives − methods and techniques recommended; forms of formative and summative evaluation of educational results; examples of lessons and tests.
There are also a number of proposals based on factors identified in the analy- sis of syllabuses, as well as in syllabus design, implementation and evaluation. For example, the idea is to encourage school-based syllabus designers to adjust foreign language syllabuses to local needs45.
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Another challenge for future activity in the EU is the teaching of languages to chil- dren. Certain EU Members have a long tradition of early foreign language learning, while others are seeking a new beginning after disappointing experiments in the 60s and 70s. Then, the experts of the Council of Europe are trying to define a policy of early language learning and to describe the methodology of language learning in primary and pre-school education. A process of comprehensive research is being undertaken, dealing principally with:
– comparison of the language ability of the secondary school learners who lear- ned languages at primary school with those who did not;
– evaluation of the progress of the early learners against pre-established criteria;
– comparisons of the results obtained by different approaches to early language learning46 in the Member States.
43 One more example is Council of Europe. 2000. Language across Curriculum: Network Processing and Material Production in an International Context. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages.
44 Komorowska, H. 2000. Young Language Learners in Poland. In: An Early Start: Young Learners and Modern Lan- guages in Europe and Beyond by Nikolov, M., Curtain, H. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages. p.124.
45 Komorowska, H. 2005. Programy nauczania w kształceniu ogólnym i w kształceniu językowym. Warszawa: Frasz- ka Edukacyjna. p. 66.
46 It also refers to teaching about the EU. For example, the authors of course book such as Wajda, E. provides gu- ides such as Adventures Portfolio. Przewodnik dla nauczyciela. Elementary. Warszawa: Oxford University Press.
www.oup.com/elt Other projects are available on www.codn.edu.pl
The main conclusions drawn from the research completed by the European edu- cational institutions are that early language learning can have a very positive effect on pupils in terms of language skills, positive attitudes to other languages and cul- tures, and self-confidence. Nevertheless, the early start does not guarantee better results. For success to be certain, the appropriate conditions in terms of pedagogy and resources should be created.
Researchers in the review entitled Foreign Languages in Primary and Pre-school Education: Context and Outcomes47 introduce the following recommendations:
1. Research – sufficient funding should be made available for innovation, from the planning stage to the post-implementation stage, for example syllabus design, implementation, and evaluation. This research should focus on the results achieved, considering the context and direct observa- tion of classroom situations.
2. Parental involvement – parents should be involved during the introduction of language learning in a primary school, and the choice of the first or second foreign language should be explained, so they can establish a supportive at- mosphere for learners outside the classroom.
3. Continuity – pedagogical continuity should be provided between pre-prima- ry, primary and secondary sectors.
4. Time – the amount of time devoted to early language learning (and especial- ly to speaking) should be increased. There should be preferably short daily lessons instead of one or two longer lessons per week. However, an improved timetable is not enough to guarantee positive results. Lessons should also be of consistently high quality.
5. Teacher training – teachers need the following attributes: proficiency in the target language; ability to analyse and describe the language; knowledge of the principles of language acquisition; pedagogical skills specifically adapted for teaching foreign languages to young learners48.
6. Opportunities for all pupils – research is necessary in order to develop the early language learning methods which will encourage successful learning for lear- ners from all backgrounds. The motivation of boys should be enhanced.
7. Appropriate methodologies for different age groups – innovation in foreign language teaching should not be reduced simply to lowering the age at which children begin their course. Suitable methods should be developed and used for each age group concerned.
8. Linguistic diversity – it is appropriate to favour foreign languages widely spoken not only locally but in neighbouring regions as well; the solution is
47 Blondin, C., Candelier, M. Edelbos, P. 2004. Foreign Languages in Primary and Pre-school Education: Context and Outcomes. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages. CILT: Cen- tre for Information on Language Teaching and Research. The LINGUA element of the European Union’s SO- CRATES programme.
48 For example, the project titled Developing Teachers of Modern Languages to Young Learners coordinated by Ni- kolov, M. (2004-2007) and directed by ECML in Graz.
to concentrate on raising young children’s awareness of the diversity of fore- ign languages49, rather than on teaching one language only50.
9. Co-ordination of research – research into early language learning should be effectively co-ordinated to ensure that all of the relevant aspects are covered.
There should be enough flexibility to allow scope for implementing and eva- luating alternative solutions to those currently existing.
10. Potential dangers − lack of proper resources and/or the sufficient planning to fulfil the conditions suggested above could be counter-productive. Disap- pointing results could lead to widespread disenchantment with the very con- cept of early language learning.
In comparison with the European recommendations, teaching foreign languages to young learners in Poland faces the following challenges51:
− guaranteeing a choice of languages at the age of ten in all areas of Poland;
− lowering the starting age for language learning;
− integrating language teaching with the primary school curriculum.
In this context, there are at least three aspects of the Polish primary education reform that have an impact on language syllabus design52:
1. Integrated primary subjects that support the content-based instruction and cross-curricular topics in the teaching materials.
2. Descriptive evaluation and assessment including elements of learners’
self-evaluation.
3. End of school test to function as a diagnostic instrument for further language education.
There is still a need to train more qualified teachers of all foreign languages to ra- ise the quality of language education in the primary school. However, modules in
49 A number of publications by the Council of Europe focus directly on the development of young learners’ awa- reness of the languages in Europe. For example, for the young learners: The Council of Europe with Sue and Max. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. The book aims to make young learners aware of other people and accept their differences. Learners through the pictures, story and games are to discover and explore the Council of Europe, following the statement “each one of us has something which others do not have”.
For the secondary school students there is a brochure Europe is more than you think. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Public Relations Publishing. This educational pack provides teachers with basic information about the Council of Europe and its work in the fields of democratic citizenship, human rights education, history teaching, modern language learning, cultural diversity and tolerance. Both publications, illustrated by an artist and the Council’s Goodwill Ambassador for childhood and education - Tomi Ungerer, are to promo- te the European values upheld by the Council of Europe to the younger generation.
50 In comparison with the USA where the matter is usually implemented in the primary schools through such programs as FLEX (Foreign Language Experience, Foreign Language Exploratory Programs) and FLES (Foreign Language in the elementary Schools).
51 Komorowska, H. 2000. Young Language Learners in Poland. In: An Early Start: Young Learners and Modern Lan- guages in Europe and Beyond by Nikolov, M., Curtain, H. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, European Centre for Modern Languages. p.128.
52 Komorowska, H. 2005. Programy nauczania w kształceniu ogólnym i w kształceniu językowym. Warszawa: Frasz- ka Edukacyjna. Komorowska, H. 2000. Young Language Learners in Poland. In: An Early Start: Young Learners and Modern Languages in Europe and Beyond by Nikolov, M., Curtain, H. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publi- shing, European Centre for Modern Languages. p.124.
teaching young learners have been recently introduced in pre- and in-service te- acher training at universities and high schools to support the language education of this particular age group.
As the Council of Europe suggested in 2002, in the area of competencies, skills, tasks, learning and teaching: establishing high-quality foreign language syllabuses in the primary schools requires a solid commitment of expertise, time, funding, and per- sonnel, but that commitment is clearly worth making53. Certainly, in Poland, the idea is to encourage school-based syllabus design to adjust syllabuses to local needs.
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The following actions seem to be still relevant to educational policy in Europe in the near future:
− leading projects and workshops on education policy, content and methods54;
− gathering ideas and sharing experiences and research;
− publishing links and exchanges;
− developing innovations and networks (distance learning);
− establishing new partnerships and programmes;
− publishing handbooks of good practice for policy-makers and educators.
The Council of Europe, and educational reforms in the Member Countries sup- port these actions which have enabled a range of principles for language education to be developed in the form of trends such as: teaching based on learners’ differing needs, interest and characteristics; highlighting practical communication skills es- sential in all types of foreign language education; developing these skills throughout life to meet future challenges and opportunities. However, the majority of achie- vements planned will depend on EU and national support as well as on resources provided by the international, national and local authorities.
53 Council of Europe. 2002. CEF of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Strasbourg: CUP. p. 53.
54 For example such projects as Co-operative Learning in European Context (CLIEC). Kopff-Muszyńska,K. 2005.
Does Poland need Intercultural Education? The CLIEC Project in Poland, 2002-2005. In: CLIEC a report on the methodology of co-operative learning and its implementation in different European educational settings by Joos, A., Ernalsteen, V. the European Commission, Socrates Programme.p.36-55.
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