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ON LANGUAGE STRUCTURE, ACQUISITION AND TEACHING

1

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NR 2701

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ON LANGUAGE STRUCTURE, ACQUISITION AND TEACHING

STUDIES IN HONOUR OF JANUSZ ARABSKI ON THE OCCASION OF HIS 70

TH

BIRTHDAY

Editor

Maria Wysocka

Assistant to the editor

Bożena Leszkiewicz

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego Katowice 2009

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Editor of the series: Językoznawstwo Neofilologiczne

Maria Wysocka

Reviewer

Jerzy Zybert

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EDITOR’S NOTE

The academic career of professor Janusz Arabski began at Adam Mickie- wicz University in Poznań. He joined the staff of the Foreign Languages Insti- tute of the University of Silesia, Katowice in 1973. In 1995 the Institute of English Studies was founded and professor Arabski became its Head. He has devoted his time, energy and talents to this Institute and to the whole University of Silesia up to the present time.

His scholarly interests are chiefly in the fields of general linguistics, applied linguistics and psycholinguistics. He contributed to the development of these disciplines through his numerous publications not only of a theoretical and de- scriptive character but also presenting the results of his research, to mention gender studies as the recent example.

Professor Arabski has been invited as a visiting professor to lecture in many universities abroad (in Great Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Aus- tralia) and also has presented papers at numerous conferences in Poland and in other countries. His great initiative resulted in the invitation of many famous linguists to join the 20th annual conference on Second Language Acquisition, which he organized, in May 2008. It is due to his outstanding personality that the tradition of these regular meetings has been established. Specialists from all over the world look forward to them since they realize the unique opportunity to discuss the most important issues there.

It must also be emphasized that Professor Arabski is a member of the most prestigious associations and organizations in Poland and abroad, to mention only a few examples: the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL), the International Association of University Pro- fessors of English (IAUPE), the Polish Linguistic Society (PTJ), Committee on

Editor’s note 5

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Linguistics, and the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was also a member and co-ordinator of the European Union Tempus Programme.

Special attention must be paid to the presentation of Professor Arabski as an academic teacher and organizer of the whole teaching process. He intuitively felt the need for organizing new specialization courses and he offered to the stu- dents translation programmes of English combined with German, Arabic, and Chinese languages and also recently Spanish. These programmes are gaining greater and greater popularity since they provide the students with new profes- sionally developed skills.

Many younger scholars including the editor of the present volume herself, several contributors to it, as well as generations of students are indebted to Pro- fessor Arabski, who was their teacher and/or the helpful supervisor of their dis- sertations. This volume includes articles that discuss current problems in theoretical and applied linguistics, pragmatics, language learning and language teaching. They have been presented to Professor Janusz Arabski on the occasion of his 70th birthday. We hope that they will also contribute to further develop- ment of these disciplines, to which he devoted so much of his time talent and attention.

On behalf of all the authors of the papers published here, colleagues, friends from all over the world and my own behalf I would like to express our deep gratitude for everything that Professor Janusz Arabski has done in the areas of research, teaching and academic administration. I also hope that he will partici- pate actively in the life of our Institute and the whole University of Silesia for many years to come.

Maria Wysocka

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CURRICULUM VITAE

BORN

June 24, 1939, Siewierz, Poland

EDUCATION

# Secondary School, Siewierz, 1957

# Bachelor of Arts, English, University of California, Los Angeles,

# 1964Master of Arts, English, University of Warsaw, 1965

# Ph.D., English Linguistics, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań (dissertation title Infinitival Constructions in English and Polish),

# 1971Habilitacja, English Linguistics, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

(dissertation title Errors as Indications of the Development of Interlanguage), 1978

Curriculum vitae 7

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EMPLOYMENT

Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

# Department of Applied Linguistics Assistant Lecturer, 1965—1966

# Department of English

Assistant Lecturer in English, 1966—1972 Adjunct Professor, 1972—1973

University of Silesia, Katowice

# Institute of Modern Languages, Department of Foreign Language Teaching

Docent, 1973—1978

Head of Department, 1973—1978

# Institute of English and General Linguistics, Department of Applied English Linguistics

Docent, 1978—1989 Professor of English, 1989 Head of Department, 1978—1995 Vice-Director of Institute, 1978—1981 Director of Institute, 1989—1995

Dean of Curriculum (Faculty of Philology, University of Silesia), 1981—1982, 1983—1987

# Institute of English, Department of the English Language Head of Department of the English Language, 1995—2008 Head of Department of Language Acquisition, 2008 — present Director of Institute, 1995—2008

Opole Pedagogical University Docent, 1996—1997

Teachers Training College in Sosnowiec Director, 1990—1998

Academic Consultant of the University of Silesia, 1998 — present Teachers Training College in Jastrzębie Zdrój

Academic Consultant of the University of Silesia, 1993 — present Teachers Training College in Częstochowa

Academic Consultant of the University of Silesia, 1993—1997 Silesian School of Economics and Languages, Katowice (Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych w Katowicach)

Head of the Department of Philology, 1994 — present Vice-Rector, 1994—2005

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OTHER PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

— Chairman of Silesia Region, English Language Contest for Polish Secondary School Students, 1976 — present

— Member of the Academic Senate, University of Silesia, 1990—1996

— Member of the Committee on Modern Languages and Literatures, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1996—2002

— Member of the Linguistics Section of the Committee of Scientific Research (KBN), 1997—2000

— Member of the Linguistics Committee, Polish Academy of Sci- ences, 2004 — present

— Chairman of the Applied Linguistics Section of the Linguistics Committee, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2004 — present

— Member of University Accreditation Committee, 1999 — present

— Member of National Accreditation Committee, 2005—2007

EMPLOYMENT, GUEST LECTURES AND VISITS ABROAD

— Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C. (one semester), 1971

— University of Washington, Seattle, 1971

— Stanford University, 1971

— Kansas University, Lawrence (one semester), 1972

— Universität Rostock, (one semester) 1972 Gastdozent

— Edinburgh University, 1976—1977 British Council Fellow

— State University of New York, College at Fredonia Visiting Professor of Linguistics, 1979—1980

— The University of Michigan, English Language Institute Director of Courses, 1980

Visiting Lecturer, 1981, 1982—1983

—        / Institute for Foreign Students, Sofia, 1984

— Philipps-Universität Marburg, 1985, 1987, 1994

— Gesamthochschule Kassel-Universität, 1985

— Universität Stuttgart, 1985, 1995, 1996

Curriculum vitae 9

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— Justus-Liebig Universität, Giessen, 1985

— Christian-Albrechts Universität, Kiel, 1986

— Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, 1987

— London University, 1987

— University of Lancaster, 1987

— Université Nancy 2, 1987

— Université Lumiere Lyon 2, 1989

— / Jaama’a Baghda’ad / Baghdad University, 1989

— Magyar Tudományos Akadémia / Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, 1989

— Ealing College of Education, London, 1990

— University of Stirling, 1990

— University of York (one semester), 1993

— Universität Zürich, 1994

— Michigan State University, 1997

— European Union TEMPUS Program, Co-ordinator and member, 1990—2001

Liaison: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Adam Mic- kiewicz University in Poznań, Pedagogical University in Szom- bathely, Bergische Universität in Wuppertal, University of Durham, University of York, NENE College, Northampton, Galway Univer- sity College, Aveiro University, Vienna University

— Universiti Malaya / University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2002

— Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó, Chile, 2002 Visiting Professor of Applied Linguistics

— / National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan, ROC, 2004

— / Beijing University of Aeronautics

and Astronautics, Beijing, P.R. China, 2004

— / Shanghai University of Science and Technology / Shanghai, P.R. China, 2004

— University of Alberta, Edmonton, Kanada, 2004

— / Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan, 2005

— / The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, 2005

— Çukurova Üniversitesi / University Çukurova, Adana, Turkey, 2005

— Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia, 2006

— / Beihang University, Bejing, P.R.

China, 2006

— / The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, P.R.

China, 2006

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— / Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea, 2007 (two visits)

— Pontíficia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brasil, 2007

— Universita’ Degli Studi Dell’Aquilla, Italy, 2008

— Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika v Košiciach / Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, Kosice, Slovakia, 2008

— / Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,

Israel, 2008

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIP

— International Society of Applied Psycholinguistics (ISAPL) Vice-President, President, Vice-President, 2000 — present

— Polish Linguistic Society (PTJ)

— Polish Society of Modern Languages (PTN)

— Polish Society of Applied Linguistics (PTLS)

— The Polish Association for the Study of English (PASE)

— Societas Linguistica Europea (SLE)

— Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliguée (AILA)

— International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Lan- guage (IATEFL)

— International Association of University Professors of English (IAUPE)

Member of the Editorial Board of

— Linguistica Silesiana, 1974 — present

— Polish Studies in English Language and Literature by Peter Lang, 2000 — present

Editor of Linguistic Series WSZMiJO, 2003 — present

Organizer of 9 national conferences on Applied Linguistics and 20 interna- tional conferences on Foreign Language Acquisition

Direction of 21 Ph.D. dissertations and over 300 M.A. theses

Curriculum vitae 11

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DECORATIONS

Cross of Merit — gold, 1979

Knight’s Cross of the Order “Polonia Restituta”, 1990 Officer’s Cross of the Order “Polonia Restituta”, 1999 Commandor’s Cross of the Order “Polonia Restituta”, 2004

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SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

BOOKS

a) author

Errors as indications of the development of interlanguage. 1979. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

O przyswajaniu języka obcego — drugiego. 1985. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne.

Wymowa amerykańska. 1987. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna.

Przyswajanie języka obcego i pamięć werbalna. 1996. Katowice: Wydawnictwo

“Śląsk”.

b) co-author

A selected bibliography on language learners’ systems and error analysis.

1975. Arlington, Va.: CAL, ERIC.

Czasowniki angielskie. Słownik. 1997. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

c) editor

Spoken English. Vol. 1. 1977. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ślą- skiego.

Spoken English. Vol. 2. 1982. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ślą- skiego.

Wybrane metody glottodydaktyki. 1980. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Metody glottodydaktyki. 1988. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

On foreign language learning. 1989. Wrocław: Ossolineum.

Selected publications 13

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Foreign language acquisition papers. 1990. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uni- wersytetu Śląskiego.

Papers in linguistics and language acquisition. 1994. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Foreign language acquisition studies. 1996. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uni- wersytetu Śląskiego.

Języki specjalistyczne — język biznesu. 1997. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

Studies in foreign language learning and teaching. 1998. Katowice: Wy- dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Nowe tendencje w glottodydaktyce. 1998. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Za- rządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

PASE papers in language studies. 1999. Katowice: Wydawnictwo “Para”.

Studies in foreign language acquisition and teaching. 2000. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Metody badań glottodydaktycznych. 2000. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Za- rządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

Research on foreign language acquisition. 2001. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Insights into foreign language acquisition and teaching. 2001. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Teoria i praktyka dydaktyki języków obcych dzieci w młodszym wieku szkolnym. 2001. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Języki specjalistyczne. Język biznesu. 2001. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Za- rządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

Z problematyki języków specjalistycznych. 2002. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

Time for words. Studies in foreign language vocabulary acquisition. 2002.

Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Wybrane zagadnienia glottodydaktyki. 2003. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Za- rządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

Pragmatics and language learning. 2004. Kraków: Wydawnictwo “Uni- versitas”.

Czas w języku i kulturze. 2005. Katowice: Wydawnictwo “Para”.

Challenging tasks for psycholinguistics. Proceedings of the 7th Congress of International Society of Applied Psycholinguistics. 2006. Sosnowiec:

Wydawnictwo Instytutu Języka Angielskiego Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

(CD-ROM).

Cross-linguistic influences in the second language lexicon. 2006. Clevedon:

Multilingual Matters.

On foreign language acquisition and effective learning. 2007. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

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Challenging tasks for psycholinguistics. Proceedings of the 7th Congress of International Society of Applied Psycholinguistics. 2007. Katowice: Wy- dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

ARTICLES

“Linguistic analysis of English composition errors made by Polish stu- dents”. 1968. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 1.

“Applied linguistics in Poland”. 1968. The Linguistic Reporter.

“Infinitival constructions with verbs in English and Polish”. 1974. Biuletyn Fonograficzny 15.

“Adjective with infinitive in English and Polish”. 1975. Glottodydaktyka 7.

“Imperative in English and Polish”. 1975. Linguistica Silesiana 1.

“Nielingwistyczny aspekt błędu językowego”. 1976. In: GRUCZA F. (ed.):

Glottodydaktyka a lingwistyka. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.

“Contrastive studies and interlanguage”. 1979. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 10.

“Przyczyny niepowodzeń na lektoratach”. 1979. Przegląd Glottodydaktycz- ny 1.

“Warunki i sposoby występowania interferencji”. 1980. In: ARABSKI J. (ed.):

Wybrane metody glottodydaktyki. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

“Psychologiczne aspekty glottodydaktyki”. 1984. In: Psychologiczne podsta- wy nauczania języków obcych. Materiały z VII Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Nauczycieli Języków Obcych. Katowice.

“The role of age in second/foreign language acquisition”. 1984.

Glottodydaktyka 17.

“Simplifying by transfer”. 1984. Ruskij i Zapadni Jazici 5.

“Elements of structuralism in nineteenth century foreign language teach- ing”. 1986. In: KASTOVSKY D., SZWEDEK A. (eds.): Linguistics across his- torical and geographical boundaries. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter

“Recent advances in foreign language acquisition research”. 1987.

Anglistentag Proceedings. Universität Kiel.

“The perception of the American vocalic system by Polish adolescents”.

1987. Linguistica Silesiana 9.

“Skojarzenia swobodne w języku angielskim u studentów anglistyki”. 1988.

In: ARABSKI J. (ed.): Metody glottodydaktyki. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Selected publications 15

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“Przyswajanie języka obcego i niektóre wskazówki dla uczących tego języka”. 1988. Języki Obce w Szkole 2.

“The acquisition of articles and hierarchy of difficulty”.1990. In: ARABSKIJ.

(ed.): Foreign language acquisition papers. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

“ELT curricula at Polish universities”. 1993. In: KOHN J., WOLFF D. (eds.):

New tendencies in curriculum development. Szombathely: Commision of the European Communities.

“Stages in the acquisition of foreign lexis”. 1996. In: ARABSKI J. (ed.): For- eign language acquisition papers. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

“Organization of the foreign language mental lexicon”. 1997. In: HICKEYR., PUPPEL S. (eds.): Language history and linguistic modelling. Berlin: Mou- ton de Gruyter.

“Pamięć w przyswajaniu słownictwa obcojęzycznego”. 1997. In: GRUCZA F., DAKOWSKA M. (eds.): Podejścia kognitywne w lingwistyce, translatoryce i glottodydaktyce. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.

“The characteristics of successful learners”. 1998. In: ARABSKI J. (ed.):

Studies in foreign language learning and teaching. Katowice: Wy- dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

“Foreign lexis acquisition model”. 1998. In: KÜHLWEIN W. (ed.): Language as structure and language as process. In honour of Gerhard Nickel on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag.

“English verb: A dictionary”. 1998. In: GUSSMANN E., SZYMANEK B. (eds.):

PASE papers in literature language and culture. Lublin: The University Press of the Catholic University of Lublin (co-author).

“Zdolności językowe a inteligencja”. 1998. In: ARABSKI J. (ed.): Nowe tendencje w glottodydaktyce. Katowice: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

“Skojarzenia językowe w badaniach psychologicznych”.1999. In: BANYŚW., BEDNARCZUK L., KAROLAK S. (eds.): Studia lingwistyczne ofiarowane Profesorowi Kazimierzowi Polańskiemu na 70-lecie Jego urodzin. Ka- towice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

“O zdolnościach językowych”. 1999. In: POST M. (ed.): Festschrift for profes- sor Jan Cygan on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Wrocław: Wy- dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

“Gender differences in language learning strategy use (a pilot study)”.

1999. In: MIßLER B. and MULTHAUP U. (eds.): The construction of knowl- edge, learner autonomy and related issues in foreign language learning.

esseys in honour of Dieter Wolff. Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag.

“Nauczanie języków obcych w Polsce a polityka językowa”.1999. In: MAZURJ.

(ed.): Polityka językowa na przełomie tysiącleci. Lublin: Wydawnictwo UMCS.

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“Gender differences in foreign language reading skills”. 1999. In: A session organized in Brzeg on the occasion of Professor Dr Gerhard Nickel’s 70th birthday. A Festschrift. Opole: Instytut Filologii Angielskiej. Uniwersytet Opolski.

“Neuroanatomical perspective of age in L2 acquisition”.1999. In: ARABSKIJ.

(ed.): PASE papers in language studies. Katowice: Wydawnictwo “Para”.

“Rola płci w przyswajaniu jezyka obcego”. 2000. In: KIELAR B.Z., KRZESZOWSKI T.P., LUKSZYNJ., NAMOWICZ T. (eds.): Problemy komunikacji miedzykulturowej. Lingwistyka, translatoryka, glottodydaktyka. Warszawa:

Graf Punkt.

“Gender differences in foreign language pronunciation skills”. 2000. In:

PLAG I., SCHNEIDER K.P. (eds.): Language use, language acquistion and language history. (Mostly) empirical studies in honour of Rüdiger Zimmer- mann. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag.

“Learning strategies of L1, L2 and L3 lexis”. 2002. In: ARABSKI J. (ed.):

Time for words. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

“Age factor in foreign language acquisition”. 2003. In: SLAMA-CAZACU T.

(ed.): La langue et les parlants. Language and its users. Limba şi vorbitorii. Bucharest: Arvin Press.

“Compliment responses in a cross-cultural perspective”. 2003. In: ARAB - SKI J. (ed.): Pragmatics and language learning. Kraków: Universitas.

“Obce w języku obcym”. 2004. In: BORKOWSKA E., ŁYDA A. (ed.): Kultura dialogu. Tożsamość europejska a edukacja. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

“Foreign vocabulary teaching based on its acquisition”.2005. In: KOENIG F., GAIES S., GAOYUAN, LI FUYIN, TANG DEXIN(eds.): Proceedings of the In- ternational Symposium on Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching Beijing-Shanghai. Cedar Falls, IA: The University of Northern Iowa Press.

“Transfer międzyjęzykowy”. 2006. In: KURCZ I. (ed.): Psycholingwistyczne aspekty dwujęzyczności. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Gdańskiego Towarzystwa Psycholingwistycznego.

“Magia słów”. 2006. In: KITA M. (ed.): Żonglowanie słowami. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

“Language transfer in language learning and language contact”. 2006. In:

ARABSKI J. (ed.): Cross-linguistic influences in the second language lexi- con. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

“General Trends in Languages Transfer Studies”.2007. In: ARABSKIJ. (ed.):

Challenging Tasks for Psycholinguistics. Proceedings of the 7th Congress of International Society of Applied Psycholinguistics. Katowice: Wy- dawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Selected publications 17

2 — On Language...

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“Błąd językowy w badaniach nad przyswajaniem języka obcego”. 2008. In:

KITA M. (ed.): Błąd językowy w perspektywie komunikacyjnej. Katowice:

Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania Marketingowego i Języków Obcych.

REVIEWS

E.M. STACK, 1967: “The language laboratory and modern language teach- ing”. Glottodidactica 2.

Z. MIKULSKI, 1967: “English in pattern and practices”. Glottodidactica 2.

P. STREVENS (ed.), 1969: “English 901”. Języki Obce w Szkole.

C. CHOMSKY, 1974: “The acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10”.

Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 5.

H.V. GEORGE, 1974: “Common errors in language learning”. Modern Lan- guage Journal 57, No 6.

A.M. SCHENKER, 1974: “Beginning Polish”. Modern Languages 58.

S.M. GASS, L. SELINKER, 1985: “Language transfer in language learning”.

Language Learning 12.

R. TITONE, M. DANESI, 1986: “Applied Psycholinguistics”. IRAL 24/4.

B. HARLEY (ed.), 1998: “Lexis issues in language learning”. IRAL 31/1.

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I. THE STRUCTURE

AND FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

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2*

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ASPECTUAL PAIRS AND THE VERB’S SEMANTICS

Bożena Cetnarowska, Jadwiga Stawnicka

1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of the present paper is to highlight the role of the lexical meaning of verbs for their ability to enter into the relationships of aspectual partnership.

Before indicating which verbs have aspectual partners and which do not form aspectual pairs (hence they belong to the categories of perfectiva tantum and imperfectiva tantum), a classification of verbs will be carried out on the basis of their properties relevant to their aspectual behaviour.

Considerable attention has been given so far to the importance of the lexical verb meaning in the literature on the subject. Our intention will be to indicate one of the possible solutions, a compromise solution in our opinion, which aims at reconciling the multiplicity and variety of approaches towards the iden- tification of aspectual pairs.

2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SITUATIONS DENOTED BY VERBS

In the literature on the category of aspect in Slavonic languages it is noted that, before describing the verb’s ability to enter into the relationship of aspectual partnership, one should offer a classification of situations denoted by verbs1. The 21

1 Due to space limitations, in this paper it is not possible to give a survey of all the most important classifications of situations denoted by verbs (which were introduced in the literature on the subject). A selection of such typologies will be presented here.

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approach which links the semantics of verbal aspect with the semantics of verbs was initiated in the aspectual literature by J.S. Maslov, with his 1948 article 

       (, 1948). This approach is developed fur- ther in Russian Slavonic studies by M.Ja. Glovinskaja (  , 1982, 2001), who describes several types of aspectual oppositions. One cannot under- estimate the significant contribution made to the studies of aspectual oppositions by A. WIERZBICKA(1967), A. BOGUSŁAWSKI(1963, 1977, 2003), C. PIERNIKARSKI

(1969, 1975), F. ANTINUCCI and L. GEBERT (1977). A semantic classification of verbs is postulated by Czech researchers (F. DANEŠ, Z. HLAVSA, 1987). It is also discussed at length by E. Padučeva in her articles published over the past several years (  , 1990, 1996, 1998). An earlier semantic typology of verbs can be found in the work by T. Bulygina ( , 1982), who based her proposal on the classification outlined in Z. VENDLER (1957).

Vendler’s aspectual classification of verbs has played a significant role in Slavonic studies, although it requires modifications before it can be applied to account for the Slavonic data2. Z. VENDLER (1957: 143—160, 1967: 69—12) identifies four classes of verbs: states (static situations), e.g. know, love, hate, activities (dynamic situations), e.g. run, walk, swim, cry, accomplishments (processes, situations which unfold towards their inherent endpoint), e.g. paint a picture, write a novel, build a house and achievements (momentary dynamic situations), e.g. find, win the race. Z. Vendler divides verbs into types on the basis of two criteria. He tests whether a given verb can be employed in the con- tinuous form and whether it is compatible with adverbial expressions of the type in two hours. States do not occur in the progressive and are not compatible with time-frame adverbials such as in two hours (cf. I know John; *I am know- ing John; *I knew John in two hours). Activities can occur in the continuous form (I am pushing a cart) but are not felicitous with in X time adverbials (*I pushed a cart in two hours). Accomplishments can occur in the progressive (I am writing a letter) and with time-frame adverbials (I wrote a letter in two hours). Achievements do not occur in the continuous form (*I am finding the treasure) but are felicitous with expressions such as in two hours (I found the treasure in two hours)3.

An attempt at adapting Vendler’s aspectual classification to the Russian ma- terial was made by H.R. MEHLIG (1981: 95—151). He distinguishes between

2 Attempts to adapt Vendler’s classification to Slavonic languages are illustrated by, among others, T.V. BULYGINA(1982), H.R. MEHLIG (1981), E.A. PADUČEVA(1985), C. SMITH(1991), and the works by Guiraud-Weber. A modification of Vendler’s verb typology to account for Polish as- pectual opposition is proposed by R. Laskowski.

3 Z. Vendler does not identify the class of semelfactives, in contrast to C. SMITH, who distin- guishes semelfactive verbs (such as knock, flap, flash) in her 1992 monograph The Parameter of Aspect, in addition to delimitative verbs and the so-called parametric situations. D. DOWTY(1979) employs the term degree achievements to refer to parametric verbs.

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states (  ‘to know’), activities (  ‘to run’), accomplishments ( /   ‘to write’), and achievements (  /  ‘to find’).

He points out that the progressive form is available for verbs identified as activ- ities or accomplishments. Although there are no continuous tenses in Russian, Mehlig finds parallel verb forms. Time-frame adverbials    ‘in two hours’ are compatible with verbs subsumed under accomplishments and achievements. Imperfective Russian verbs of the achievement type are given noncurrent interpretation, hence they do not denote durative situations, e.g. *

  (‘He is finding a key’). Taking into account verbs’ ability to form aspectual pairs, H.R. Mehlig observes that accomplishments and achievements have aspectual partners. In contrast, activities and states belong to the group of imperfectiva tantum, although imperfective verbs of the activity type can be made perfective by means of the so-called kinds of action (Aktionsarten). How- ever, no characterization is provided for perfectiva tantum in Mehlig’s analysis.

In Russian grammar, edited by N.Ju. Švedova (  (.) 1982), the verb typology is based on the identification of the semantic category of boundedness/terminativity ( ). In a terminative pair, the perfective verb implies that the delimitative endpoint has been reached whereas the imperfective verb denotes an attempt at reaching the endpoint. Nonterminative verbs do not participate in the aspectual opposition. However, the action de- noted by the verb can be bounded “from the outside”, or some temporal con- straints can be imposed on it. This may involve marking the initiation of the action (  ‘to begin singing’), reaching the end of the action (   

‘to stop, to finish speaking’), placing boundaries at both ends of the action (   ‘to lie down (for some time)’), or singling out one act ( 

‘to give a knock’). The property of terminativity (or lack of terminativity) refers to the verb base and it determines its inclusion into one of three classes:

imperfective verbs of the imperfectiva tantum group, verbs forming aspectual pairs and verbs identified as perfectiva tantum.

The classification of verbs in E. PADUČEVA (1985) is based on the following criteria: stativity/dynamicity, durativity (i.e. extension over time)/lack of durativity, control over the situation by the agent/lack of control, temporal construal of the given state of affairs/atemporal construal of the state of affairs.

The criterion of stativity/dynamicity is the most important in the above-mentioned hierarchy and it determines the division of verbs into two cat- egories: stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Stative verbs can be split into two groups: atemporal states (  ‘hold, contain’) and temporal ones ( 

‘to be sick’). This split is based on the verbs’ combinatorial properties, namely compatibility or lack of compatibility with time adverbials which limit the tem- poral extension of a given state of affairs. The features of controllabil- ity/noncontrollability and extension over time/lack of extension over time are not relevant for stative verbs. When the property of extension over time/lack of

Aspectual pairs and the verb’s semantics 23

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extension over time is taken into account, dynamic verbs can be divided into unbounded (nonterminative) durative dynamic verbs (i.e. activity verbs) and dynamic verbs which exhibit some limitations on their duration. Unbounded durative dynamic verbs can denote either situations controlled by the agent ( ‘walk’) or noncontrolled states of affairs (  ‘to boil’). The group of bounded dynamic verbs (i.e. with some temporal limitation imposed on the situation) contains verbs denoting actions focused on their result (  ‘to find something’,  ‘to lose someone, something’) as well as verbs de- noting actions in which no emphasis is laid on the result ( ‘to open’,

   ‘to melt’).

A. ZALIZNJAK and A.D. ŠMELEV (2000) classify verbs according to their as- pectual properties and base their classification on Vendler’s taxonomy. They in- clude into the class of accomplishments those aspectual pairs whose imperfective member denotes a terminative process and the perfective member refers to an event which has come about through the process (  —   ‘to build a house, to be in the process of building a house’

(impf) — ‘to build a house (pf)’). The group of achievements subsumes mo- mentary verbs (   —  ‘to arrive’ — ‘to be arriving’). The classes of states and activities belong to imperfectiva tantum. Verbs classified as imperfectiva tantum denote relations, i.e. parameters of physical objects ( ‘to weigh, to have a particular weight’), spatial configuration ( -

 - ‘to be located somewhere’,   ‘to adjoin something, to border on something’), relations between objects and events ( 

 ‘to consist of something’,   ‘to differ, to be different from some- thing’), permanent situations (including occupations, e.g.  

‘to be a teacher’ and permanent states, e.g.  ‘to love’, 

    ‘to believe in justice’), temporary (stage-level) states (   ‘to worry, to irritate’,    ‘to doubt in something’) and nonterminative processes ( ‘to walk’,     ‘to talk’).

R. LASKOWSKI(1996: 39—48, 1998: 153ff) postulates a semantic classifica- tion of verbs which is based on four types of oppositions: the development of the situation in time (i.e. the situation is either stative or dynamic), the endpoint of the situation (the situation either results in a new state or does not lead to the appearance of any state), the manner in which the resulting state is achieved (i.e. the change is momentary or has the nature of an ongoing process), pres- ence or lack of the subject’s control over the development of the situation.

Taking the above-mentioned four opposition types into account, R. Laskowski identifies seven major verb groups. One of those groups are state verbs which describe, for instance, physical states (spać ‘to sleep’, stać ‘to stand’, głodować

‘to be hungry’), emotions (bać się ‘to be afraid’, cieszyć się ‘to feel happy’), or permanent relations (ważyć ‘to weigh’, kosztować ‘to cost’, różnić się ‘to dif- fer’). Laskowski recognizes then a class of eventive verbs denoting atelic pro-

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cesses, i.e. dynamic atelic situations which lack active involvement of the subject participant, e.g. nonintentional movement (drżeć ‘to tremble’, chwiać się ‘to rock’), production of sounds (skrzypieć ‘to creak’, trzeszczeć ‘to crack’), or natural phenomena (wiać (o wietrze) ‘to blow’, padać (o śniegu) ‘to snow’).

There are also activity verbs denoting atelic intentional situations which are controlled by the subject, e.g. verbs of movement (jechać ‘to drive, to ride’, tańczyć ‘to dance’), verbs of speaking (mówić ‘to talk’, kłamać ‘to lie’), verbs of perception (słyszeć ‘to hear’, widzieć ‘to see’), or occupation verbs (rządzić

‘to rule’, handlować ‘to trade’). Furthermore, processual verbs denote inde- pendent processes which take place without any control by the subject (rosnąć/wyrosnąć ‘to grow (impf/pf)’, psuć się/zepsuć się ‘to break down (impf/pf)’), whereas action verbs describe telic situations with the active in- volvement of the subject, e.g. verbs of creation and destruction (budować ‘to build’, burzyć ‘to demolish’). Finally, Laskowski’s classification includes the classes of verbs denoting happenings, i.e. sudden nonintentional and non- controlled changes (zgubić ‘to lose’, ocknąć się ‘to become awake’), and verbs denoting acts, i.e. sudden intentional changes (zadzwonić ‘to call’, pokazać ‘to show’).

Verbs denoting states, events and activities belong to the group of imperfectiva tantum whereas verbs denoting happenings and acts are perfectiva tantum. Only processual verbs (referring to telic durative noncontrolled situa- tions) and verbs denoting actions (i.e. telic durative controlled situations) form aspectual pairs whose members do not differ in their lexical meaning (LASKOWSKI, 1998: 167).

3. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THEIR ASPECTUAL BEHAVIOUR

In order to classify verbs according to their properties relevant to their as- pectual behaviour, it is necessary to distinguish between an aspectual pair in the strict sense (aspectual pair sensu stricto) and an aspectual pair in the wider sense (aspectual pair sensu largo). It is also indispensible to note the heteroge- neity of the classes of verbs referred to as perfectiva tantum and imperfectiva tantum.

A binary division is proposed here based on the presence or lack of the fol- lowing properties of verbs: stativity, durativity, homogeneity, existence of a process leading up to a change.

Aspectual pairs and the verb’s semantics 25

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The property of stativity allows us to divide situations into stative (   (   ) ‘to be different (from something)’) and nonstative ones.

Nonstative situations can be split into durative and nondurative ones, according to the presence or lack of the feature of durativity. Durative situations can be further divided, on the basis of their manner of development, into those which exhibit a homogeneous or heterogeneous (nonhomogeneous) development. Si- tuations with a heterogeneous development can be, in turn, classified as those which involve a process leading to a change and those which involve no process leading up to a change.

The following diagram shows the classification of situations described above:

From the aspectual point of view, i.e. when the ability of verbs to enter into aspectual pairs is taken into consideration, verbs can be divided into three groups: imperfectiva tantum, perfectiva tantum and verbs which form aspectual pairs.

Dynamic heterogeneous verbs enter into terminative aspectual pairs. The imperfective member of such a pair denotes a process with a heterogeneous (i.e.

nonhomogeneous) development, whereas the perfective member implies that the delimitative end has been reached. Consequently, statements can be made about the occurrence of the final state, the achievement of which does not allow the situation to develop further (    —      ‘build a house (impf)’ — ‘build a house (pf)’)4. Here belong also verbs denoting goal-oriented

[STAT]

—————————————————|

| |

[+] [–]

  (   ) [DUR]

—————————————|

| |

[+] [–]

[HOM] [PROC]

| |

—————— ——————

| | | |

[+] [–] [+] [–]

          

Fig. 1.Division of situations denoted by verbs. [STAT] — stativity, [DUR] — durativity, [HOM]

— homogeneity, [PROC] — existence of a process which leads up to a change; (+) presence of a property, (–) absence of a property.

4 An aspectual pair in the strict sense contains lexically identical equivalents (correlates) which differ only in their aspect. Traditional aspectology recognizes semantic identity of aspec- tual partners in iterative and terminative oppositions. No attention will be given here to the com- plex problem of whether to treat members of an aspectual pair as forms of one lexeme or as two separate lexemes.

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processes, i.e. processes which lead up to a change, though not in an automatic

— ‘to solve an equation (impf)’)5. In the so-called parametric aspectual pair, such as   (  ) —   ‘(about prices) to rise (impf/pf)’, the imperfective verb denotes a process of changes (i.e. a change in the intensity of a feature) while the perfective verb refers to the ascertainment of the fact of change at the moment when it is being observed. Within an iterative pair ( —  ‘to meet (impf/pf)’), differences between aspectual partners refer to the single-time occurrence vs. multiple occurrence6. When the status of an aspectual pair is determined, it is necessary to take into consider- ation, on the one hand, prototypical phenomena and, on the other hand, periph- eral phenomena. Verbs denoting physical states or psychological, emotional, volitional and intellectual ones are characterized by the possibility of the occur- rence of initial modifications (  —   ‘to be ill’ — ‘to fall ill’,

 —  ‘to love’ — ‘to come to love’). This group encompasses

 ‘to hear (impf/pf)’), as well as verbs denoting spatial location which are characterized by the possibility of the occurrence of temporal modifications ( —       ‘to lie’ — ‘to lie for some time’).

There exists an interesting approach formulated by Russian researchers which makes use of the notion of the field structure in the interpretation of as- pectual pairs ( , 2000). The central position is occupied by ter-

write (impf/pf)’), between which are located correlations of verb triplets such as

 —  —  ‘to burn (impf)’ — ‘to burn (pf)’ — ‘to burn (SI)’. Further from the centre are placed the so-called perfective pairs of the

7, in which the perfective verb

Aspectual pairs and the verb’s semantics 27

5 Such pairs are referred to as ‘  —  ’ in Russian aspectology, e.g.   

—  ,   —   (  ,  , 2000: 57).

6 Several approaches can be distinguished in contemporary views concerning recognition of aspectual pairs. Aspectual pairs whose members are identical in meaning include such pairs in which aspect is marked by a suffix, e.g. zapisywać — zapisać. In this view, verbs such as pisać list — napisać list do not constitute aspectual pairs (  , 1960). In the Polish language (GRZEGORCZYKOWA, LASKOWSKI, WRÓBEL(eds.), 1984) imperfectivization by means of suffixes is generally regarded as a purely aspectual process. In another view (BOGUSŁAWSKI, 1963), not only suffixes, as in zapisywać — zapisać (-ywa: -a) but also prefixes, as in pisać — napisać (Ø: na-) serve as aspectual markers. Not included here into aspectual pairs are the so-called man- ner-of-action prefixes, which form derivatives from perfective verb bases and which have only lexical functions, e.g. dokupić. We can also distinguish the aspectual pair in the strict sense (e.g.

pisać — napisać) and the aspectual pair in the wider sense, e.g. siedzieć — posiedzieć (COCKIEWICZ, 1992).

7

  —  ,    —    are included among the

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denotes an instantaneous change while the imperfective partner refers to the state resulting from such a change8. The periphery is occupied by pairs such as

 —  ‘to sit’ — ‘to sit for some time’, i.e. the morphologically simplex verb and the delimitative derivative.

Furthermore, Russian researchers postulate yet other types of aspectual oppositions. These include, for instance, semelfactive pairs whose members de- note a multiple event (process) and a single event, e.g.   —  

‘to knock’ — ‘to give a knock’, ingressive pairs (denoting a process and its in- ception, e.g.   — e  ‘to run’ — ‘to start running’), or anticipational pairs (consisting of verbs denoting a description of the state of af- fairs at a given moment preceding the event and verbs referring to the event it- self, e.g.    —   ‘to be running late’ — ‘to be late’) (,  , 2000: 61).

The classes of imperfectiva tantum and perfectiva tantum are not homoge- neous. The group of perfectiva tantum subsumes absolute perfectiva tantum, which do not constitute members of terminative or iterative aspectual pairs and which do not serve as bases for derived imperfectives (   ‘collapse, fall down’,   ‘wake up’). It contains also two types of relative perfectiva tantum. Some of them do not enter into aspectual pairhood relation of the terminative or iterative type but give rise to aspectual derivatives ( ‘to sit for some time’,    ‘to start longing for sth’). Others exhibit the po- tential of deriving verbs and can occur in aspectual pairs of the iterative type, but not in terminative aspectual pairs (  ‘to find’,    ‘to notice’)9.

The group of imperfectiva tantum comprises absolute imperfectiva tantum and relative imperfectiva tantum. Absolute imperfectiva tantum do not act as bases for perfective verbs and are not found in terminative aspectual pairs (  ‘to border’,  ‘to cost’,    ‘belong to’). Relative imperfectiva tantum, in turn, are not encountered in terminative aspectual pairs but can undergo morphological aspectual derivation ( ‘to love’,  -

  ‘to work’,   ‘to feel sad’).

so-called perfective pairs (       ) (   , 1996: 94ff; ,

 , 2000: 57). However, the status of pairs such as  —  has not been deter- mined yet. Various points of view on this matter are presented by M.Ja. Glovinskaja ( , 2001: 118—119).

8 In Gramatyka języka polskiego (GRZEGORCZYKOWA, LASKOWSKI and WRÓBEL(eds.), 1984:

476) aspectual pairs such as poznać — znać are not referred to as perfective pairs (see also PIERNIKARSKI, 1969: 145, 147).

9 This division of perfectiva tantum is taken from ŁAZIŃSKI(1995: 1—6).

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4. CONCLUSION

The following article has outlined one of the possible solutions to the con- troversial issue of how to identify aspectual pairs and unpaired verbs, i.e.

classes of imperfectiva tantum and perfectiva tantum. The border between verbs which enter into aspectual pairs and verbs which are aspectually defective may be shifted, depending on the particular concept of the aspectual pair. This leads to the widening of the scope of one group and the narrowing of the scope of another group. We have employed here the notions of an aspectual pair in the strict sense (aspectual pair sensu stricto) and an aspectual pair in the wider sense (aspectual pair sensu largo). A distinction has been adopted between groups of perfectiva tantum and imperfectiva tantum in the wider sense and in the narrow sense.

Changes in the criteria of aspectual partnership result in shifting the border between aspectual partners and verbs classified as perfectiva or imperfectiva tantum. For instance, if one adopts the semantic criterion, members of a terminative pair (  —      ‘to build a house (impf/pf)’) are treated as aspectual partners. When the wider sense of the aspectual pair is adopted and the so-called Maslov’s criterion10 is recognized, aspectual partner- ship subsumes also iterative pairs. The class of perfectiva tantum is not homo- geneous, either. It includes absolute perfectiva tantum, which do not have aspectual partners in terminative or iterative aspectual pairs and which cannot derive imperfective verbs (  ‘collapse, fall down’,  ‘wake up’), as well as relative perfectiva tantum, which can act as bases for morpho- logical aspectual derivation. Relative perfectiva tantum cannot occur in terminative aspectual pairs, though some of them are possible in iterative pairs (  ‘to find’,   ‘to notice’), while others lack iterative aspectual partners (  ‘to sit for some time’,  ‘to start longing for sth’)11. The scope of imperfectiva tantum subsumes imperfectiva tantum re- cognized on the basis of their incompatibility with terminative aspectual pairs and the impossibility of morphological aspectual derivation. It also com- prises imperfectiva tantum identified due to their nonoccurrence in terminative pairs, which, however, exhibit the possibility of morphological aspectual deriva- tion.

Aspectual pairs and the verb’s semantics 29

10 This refers to the possibility of using imperfective verbs in the function of praesens historicum.

11 See ŁAZIŃSKI (1995: 1—6) for types of perfectiva tantum.

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REFERENCES

ABERNATHYR. et al. (eds.) (1967): To Honour Roman Jakobson. The Hague: Mouton.

ANTINUCCI F. and GEBERT L. (1977): “Semantyka aspektu czasownikowego”. Studia Gramatyczne 1: 7—43.

BOGUSŁAWSKI A. (1963): Prefiksacja czasownikowa we współczesnym języku rosyjskim.

Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich.

BOGUSŁAWSKI A. (1977): Problems of the Thematic-Rhematic Structure of Sentences.

Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

BOGUSŁAWSKI A. (2003): Aspekt i negacja. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo “Takt”.

COCKIEWICZ W. (1992): Aspekt na tle systemu słowotwórczego polskiego czasownika i jego funkcyjne odpowiedniki w języku niemieckim. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uni- wersytetu Jagiellońskiego.

DANEŠF. and HLAVSA Z. (1987): Větné vzorce v češtině. Praha: Academia Praha.

DOWTY D.R. (1979): Word Meaning and Montague Grammar. Dordrecht: Reidel.

GUIRAUND-WEBER M. (1988): L’aspect du verbe russe. Essais de présentation. Aix-en Provence: Publications de l’Université de Provence.

GRZEGORCZYKOWA R., LASKOWSKI R. and WRÓBEL H. (eds.) (1984): Gramatyka współ- czesnego języka polskiego. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

HILL P. and LEHMANN V. (eds.) (1981): Slavistische Linguistik 1980. Referate des VI.

Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens Hamburg 23.—25. Sept. 1980. München:

Otto Sagner.

LASKOWSKI R. (1996): “Aspekt a znaczenie czasowników (predykaty zmiany stanu)”. In:

RYMUTK., SMÓŁKOWAT. and BOBROWSKII. (eds.): Studia z leksykologii i gramatyki języków słowiańskich. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Języka Polskiego. Polska Akademia Nauk, 39—48.

LASKOWSKI R. (1998): “Aspekt a określenia czasu”. In: GRZEGORCZYKOWAR., LASKOW-

SKI R. and WRÓBEL H. (eds.): Gramatyka współczesnego języka polskiego. War- szawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 169—171.

ŁAZIŃSKI M. (1995): “O pojęciu perfectivów tantum i różnych kryteriach ich wy- dzielania”. Poradnik Językowy 5/6: 1—6.

MEHLIG H.R. (1981): “Satzsemantik und Aspektsemantik im Russischen (zur Verb- klassifikation von Zeno Vendler)”. In: HILLP. and LEHMANNV. (eds.): Slavistische Linguistik 1980. Referate des VI. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens Hamburg 23.—25. Sept. 1980. München: Otto Sagner, 95—151.

PIERNIKARSKI C. (1969): Typy opozycji aspektowych czasownika polskiego na tle sło- wiańskim. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich.

PIERNIKARSKI C. (1975): Czasowniki z prefiksem po- w języku polskim i czeskim.

Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

RYMUT K., SMÓŁKOWA T. and BOBROWSKI I. (eds.) (1996): Studia z leksykologii i gra- matyki języków słowiańskich. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Języka Polskiego.

Polska Akademia Nauk.

SMITH C.S. (1991): The Parameter of Aspect. Dordrecht—Boston—London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

VENDLER Z. (1957): “Verbs and times”. The Philosophical Review 66: 143—160.

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VENDLER Z. (1967): Linguistics in Philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

WIERZBICKA A. (1967): “On the semantics of the verbal aspect in Polish”. In:

ABERNATHY R. et al. (eds.): To Honour Roman Jakobson. The Hague: Mouton, 2231—2249.



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GLOBAL ENGLISH:

A PROPOSAL FOR COMPREHENSIBILITY

Tammy Gregersen

Personal note: It is with great honor that I dedicate this manuscript to my close friend and respected colleague, Janusz Arabski. He is a model of dedica- tion whose lifelong service to language and education should challenge us to reach beyond our own geographic borders to positively influence lives in the global community — just as he has done.

1. INTRODUCTION

English is spoken by more than 1.5 billion people around the world today, and studies have demonstrated that 80% of communication in English occurs between non-native speakers, where no native speakers are involved (SEIDLHOFER, 2004). From a language spoken by only a few Anglo-Saxons on the British Isles, English has now evolved into what is now the world’s first lan- guage in terms of the media, international travel and safety, education, and communications (CRYSTAL, 1997). If indeed, the majority of people who com- municate in English do so as non-native speakers, sheer numbers would suggest that we need to re-evaluate what role “standards” should play, and seek mutual intelligibility as our global cause.

English language use spread exponentially when the British colonizers reached as far as India in the east, the present United States and Canada in the west, and South Africa, Nigeria, and Australia in the south. Besides the so-called “Standard” British or American Englishes, there are other Englishes

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currently in use, and the speakers of these other Englishes are claiming an equal status by teaching, learning and standardizing their Englishes and using them in academia, media, literature, and other arenas. The birth and develop- ment of these Englishes occurred in a similar fashion to that of British and American Englishes, and consequently, are not different from their American or British forebearers (KACHRU, 1982). Therefore, a uniform type of English repre- senting a single example of culture and communication in all English-using countries cannot be valid anymore (KACHRUand NELSON, 1996). Americans are considered the authority in American English, the British in British English — why can’t the Indian and Nigerian English speakers, for instance, have the same authority in Indian and Nigerian Englishes respectively? Furthermore, as American and British English have all originated from British English, and are now considered “standard”, Indian and Nigerian Englishes, and all other varie- ties of English that have become nativized, are equal in their ability to convey the needs of their speakers and serve their social and economic purposes.

KACHRUand NELSON(1996) cite that two dispersals are essentially responsi- ble for the worldwide spread of English: 1) Many native speakers of British English immigrated to Australia, New Zealand, and North America; and 2) Some native speakers immigrated to the colonial contexts of Asia, those coun- tries being India, Pakistan, Malaysia and Singapore; and Africa, represented by Nigeria and South Africa. These researchers indicate that the colonization of some countries in Asia and Africa encouraged a context of coexistence between the English language and the languages and cultures of the colonized regions, and resulted in lasting effects on the English language varieties in these regions.

There was a linguistic blending of the new with the old.

Therefore, English, as the language of the colonizers, was introduced in far reaching corners of the world. In other parts of the globe, it operated as a lin- gua franca, where if one desired a prestigious job in government or business, English was a must. As one after another nations rebelled against the British colonizers and gained independence, English language use changed. While some nations such as India and Nigeria had nativized English after it had al- ready been established as the official language of government, other nations created government systems that functioned in their respective native languages, like Egypt and Iraq. Beyond these examples, another large majority of nations of the world teach English within their educational systems.

KACHRU (1982, 1985) synthesized the spread of English worldwide in his Three Concentric Circles Model. In it, he proposes that countries of the world can be classified into three concentric circles: Inner, Outer, and Expanding. The Inner Circle includes countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, and USA, where the earlier variety of English is used. In these countries, English is modeled on the same traditional British English, but has evolved into distinctive, but still mutually intelligible varieties. The second circle is the

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Outer Circle which incorporates countries such as India, Nigeria, and Pakistan, where English has a long history of institutionalized functions in education, government, literature and business. Varieties of World Englishes are most viv- idly embodied here. The third circle, the largest of the three, is the Expanding Circle which includes the majority of the countries of the world. English in the Expanding Circle has many varied roles, one of which is as a medium of ex- tracting knowledge in different fields of science and literature through English language teaching. It is also used for technical purposes. Most of the English learned in these countries is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Chile is an example of a country in the Expanding Circle.

English as an International Language (EIL) has many different labels: Eng- lish as a lingua franca, English as a global language, English as a medium of intercultural communication and International English. EIL is used by speakers from all of the Concentric Circles, and is not a term limited to Outer Circle countries. SEIDLHOFER (2004) contends that EIL is the English language model that should be implemented and promoted globally as the lingua franca because it does not demand conformity or subordination to the Inner Circle, or its vari- ety of cultural norms. The term, “World Englishes” captures the wide spectrum of the English varieties used by English speakers locally, while EIL is the Eng- lish variety or model that these speakers use to communicate when a common language or culture is not shared (FIRTH, 1996).

English as an International Language is probably the most relevant model of English in a global context in that it has a valid and solid cultural foundation (MCKAY, 2003). Its strongest feature is its absence of a subtractive nature, or in other words, it does not threaten the power and status of the speaker’s first lan- guage. This feature is central to the EIL model since English in this scenario coexists alongside other local languages in a multilingual context resulting in many bilingual speakers. Furthermore, there is no obligation to conform to the norms of the native English speaking cultures. The rationale supporting this is that EIL learners, contrary to immigrants in English-speaking countries, will not be living and interacting with members of these English-speaking countries.

Thus, the purpose of teaching an international language is to facilitate the com- munication of learners’ ideas and cultures in an English medium. These fea- tures of EIL reflect the advantages of adopting this model in Outer and Expanding Circle countries.

Kachru, however, points out that there is a bias toward the Inner Circle vari- eties of English, and that is why CRANDALL (2003) stated that the term “World Englishes” recognizes the spread of English globally, and the maintenance of different local or national varieties of English, especially among individuals in the Outer Circle countries. This Inner Circle bias toward native-like standards results in strongly held beliefs outside the Inner Circle that “Standard English”

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