M a r c e l a K o ś c i a ń c z u k Adam Mickiewicz Univeristy in Poznań, Poland
ART THERAPY IN THE INTERSECTIONAL PROSPECT .
WORKING AGAINST STIGMATIZATION USING ART
THERAPY METHODS
1ABSTRACT
Th is paper attempts to show an idea of art therapy as complex: social, psychological and cultural system. Art therapy, in this sense, is not just a therapy (in traditional sense). Due to critical philosophical and social theories art therapy, in intersectional perspective, is strictly connected with feminism, queer, critical art and postcolonial movement. Th e most important ideas of intersectional theory (such as awareness of multidimensional problems of minori-ties) are also important for art therapy which shows practical implications of art therapy’s theory. Th e article is concerned with art therapy as a discipline. It shows practical applications of intersectional ideas in institutional and existential perspectives of art therapist’s work. Th e text shows specifi c art movements connected with work against prejudice and stigmatization.
Key words:
art therapy, intersectional theory, social exclusion, stigmatization, empowerment
1 Following article is revised version of the Postgraduate Studies of Art Th erapy diploma. It was
written under the supervision of dr Mirosława Cylkowska Nowak, the public presentation of the diploma took place in Medical University in Poznan (Poland) 2011.
1. Introduction
Th e following publication concerns the range of problems concerning the art ther-apy as a method of working with people who experience the social stigma, due to the features of their appearance, saddled with illness or disability, ethnic identity, sexual orientation, color or belonging to a specifi c social group (professional or cultural). Th e main aim of the work is to present that the art therapy may be un-derstood multidimensional as a systemic action linked with socio-cultural pro-cesses that may favor the exclusion or extension such phenomena as stereotypiza-tion, etiquette or social stigma2. Th is text constitutes the author’s reference to the art therapeutic process, in the intersectional perspective. Th e following article in-dicates in what way using this conception reveals the space of exclusion (so far not noticed by the society). Th at process of revelation stigmatization’s areas works against the risk of micro-exclusions hidden in art therapeutic process.
Ac cording to the defi nition of American Art therapy Association the art ther-apy is:
the therapeutic use of art making, within a professional relationship, by people who experience illness, trauma, or challenges in living, and by people who seek per-sonal development. Th rough creating art and refl ecting on the art products and processes, people can increase awareness of self and others, cope with symptoms, stress, and traumatic experiences; enhance cognitive abilities; and enjoy the life-affi rming pleasures of making art3.
Th e above defi nition emphasizes the wide possibilities of using the art thera-peutic process towards experienced people in need of the therapy. With regard for its signifi cant role in increasing awareness, it may be the part of the work space with the social groups that contribute to attaching social or cultural norms to the excluded people.
Intersectionality is the term fi rst used by Kimberlé Crenshaw, in 1989, and soon aft er developed in the article Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity
Poli-2 Th ese are the terms referring to the social exclusion, graded according to a scale and range. As
far as a positive stereotype or an etiquette may exist, it is not possible in the case of stigma, more details further in the work.
3 Look: http://www.art-therapy.us/art_therapy.htm [access: 28.05.2011], fragments can be also
found in the book Arteterapia jako dyscyplina akademicka w krajach europejskich [Art Th erapy as an Academic Discipline in European Countries], W. Szulc (ed.), Wrocław 2010, p. 2.
tics, and Violence against Women of Color4. Th e second women researcher who was playing a vital role in reaching the theoretical base of the intersectionality’s concept is Patricia Hill Collins. In 1990 and 1992 she presented the main parts of that per-spective in: Black Feminist Th ought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment5 and in the anthology Race, Class and Gender. An Anthology6, the book which was edited by Hill Collins and Margaret Andersen. Intersectionality takes here the form of specifi c, unique, and so far, overlooked way of refl ection and social practice. It refers to minorities groups problems in system perspective. Peo-ple struggling with diff erent personal, health or social problems are frequently presented, in a way which consolidates discrimination and stigmatization, in aca-demic, institutional and psychological discourses.
Due to the intersectional perspective we overlay or cross institutional, per-sonal, psychological and socio-cultural dependencies to indicate the wide range of individual and social human being problems which have not been disclosed for such a long time. Intersectional theory pursue to reveal the complex mechanisms of exclusion and also in the same time enter new mechanisms of empowerment excluded people. According to this statement intersectionality may be called the critical theory. Its’ forerunner: Crenshaw and Hill Collins represents diff erent aca-demic perspectives, the fi rst one is the lawyer and the second one is sociologist. Cultural studies researchers, researches in economics, philosophy or social studies may be easily fi nd among women focused on intersectional theory. Th e main, historical source of intersectional refl ection is feminist theory, however the re-searches connected with intersectionality may be infl uenced by all methodological schools which are, at least up to the point, socially responsible.
Considering above statements, intersectional theory may be understood in analogy to wide range of contemporary trends in social sciences (especially in dialogue with multicultural concept, postcolonial studies, gender and queer stud-ies). Whereas art therapy (as a wide theoretical model of working with people and also as a practice) is understood in holistic way intersectional perspective is also very important for it. Intersectionality open a possibility of many diff erent disci-plines integration due to multidimensional individual and social (communal) development’s model. Intersectioanal art therapy provides specifi c actions indi-cated not only for people who are mental hospitals patients, emigrants or dis-4 K. Crenshaw, Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against
Women of Color, “Stanford Law Review” 1991, No. 6, p. 1241–1299.
5 Look: P. Hill Collins, Black Feminist Th ought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of
Empowerment, Boston–London 1990.
criminated people; these actions are important for entire populations. Although, the art therapy term is connected, in some way, with the term “therapy”, art thera-py should be here understood more as a social activism than a treatment, con-nected with corrective actions (which could be understood as the next kind of stigmatization toward discriminated people). On the contrary, art therapy in this sense like some contemporary therapeutic schools7 abandons essential ideas which establish clear borderline between the health and illness, norm and disorder.
Savneet Talwar, US art therapist, who has been working for many years with mental clinic’s patients and is also a theorists of art therapy, notes that psychiatric, psychotherapy and art therapy practice is rarely based on intersectional ideas8. On the one hand the promotion of stigmatization awareness and actions toward ex-cluded groups start to be sources of many art therapy workshops, however, on the other hand, there is a lack of borderline issues (between diff erent kinds of exclu-sion) awareness in art therapists’ environment. Talwar indicates a discrepancy between on the one hand the considerable presence of queer, postcolonial, third space and pluralization theories which show growing role of ambivalence and hybridity; and evident absence of these theories practical application in psycho – and art therapy practices.
According to Eve Kosofsky-Sedgwick concept, “strangeness” is a social con-struct9. Stigmatization is social process of creating the pattern of exclusion, indi-vidual human being becomes the scapegoat. Due to Kosofsky-Sedgwic ideas stig-matization is rather the symptom of society’s mental disorder than individual fault. Th e social system states the norms of sexuality, mental health or cultural behavior. Th e main aim of intersectional art therapy model is increasing individual and social awareness of specifi c social, economical and cultural mechanisms which constitute stigmatization. Even if therapists works with an individual, the thera-peutic process is concerned with the change of thinking patterns all people in patient’s cultural environment. Above statement is in line with the theoretical back-ground of systemic psychotherapy. Both perspectives indicates that any change of individual requires the change of all elements which infl uenced individual human being (for example behavior or relation patterns).
7 I would like to point out the concept of autogenesis, developed by Aaron Antonovsky who has
identifi ed the patient disposition and his or her sense of coherention as the main elements of recov-ery process. Th e illness is understand here as disharmony of the system. Look: A. Antonovsky,
Un-raveling the Mystery of Health – How People Manage Stress and Stay Well, San Francisco 1987.
8 S. Talwar, An Intersectional Framework for Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in Art Th erapy,
“Art Th erapy. Journal of the American Art Th erapy Association” 2010, No. 27, p. 11.
Intersectional art therapy builds the plethora of communication between peo-ple who create together local societies or communities. At fi rst shows artifi cially founded groups of excluded and included people and than extend that distinction by presenting the artifi cial rules of the distinction. Nor achievement success is possible without cooperation between members of confl icted groups. According to these statements art therapy is understand as a method of multicultural and inter-group communication. People who would like to start that kind of dialogue require great theoretical background and also social sensitivity because of possible risks such as: hidden exclusion based on underestimation somebody’s values or cultural diff erence; symbolic violence. Art therapy may be a fi eld of, participants empowerment. Every participant of art therapy is an active social actor, whose voice is important for whole group. Art therapist is just a member of the group, he or she is just a manager without any dominant position. Art therapy group allows each participant expression of the most important ideas or feelings, it is also a plethora of dialogue and processual communication. Joint art actions is a base of building a community not just a group, that community may include people who accept each other despite of the fact that they don’t share their ideas and have been enemies before. However, art therapist has key responsibility which may be considered from diff erent points of view. Beside noticed above risk connected with maintaining just artifi cial dialogue, the second barrier in reaching the goals of art therapy (which are compatible with the goals of participants of art therapy work-shops) has its source in stereotypes, social, economic, religious and cultural ideas sharing in client of art therapy cultural environment. Asyluum seekers centers, retirements homes, prisons or shelters for people with disabilities are usually close structures, which are based on a set of non-formal but very strictly complied with. Art therapist as an external social actor disrupt the internal order of the social system, what may be a source of repressions toward the people who would be art therapy participants.
Psychological disorders of the individual human being aren’t keep on sidelines in intersectional art therapy, however that point of view notices very strange con-nection between psychological (individual) problems and social, political, eco-nomical or religious context. Art therapy is not just a practical action but also theoretical concept, strictly connected with many poststructural theories which are gender mainstreamed, appreciate art as a social activism, and are rather not center oriented. Th at idea is focused on each individual participant development which can be reached by process oriented theory and action.
Th e individual development is very important however intersectional art ther-apy is mainly focused on systems. Due to that fact the goal of art therapist is
estab-lishing connections between individual values and possibilities on the one hand and environmental resources on the other hand. Th erapy is understand as a re-defi nition of exchange pattern between social and individual actor.
Th e following article is concerned with specifi c understanding of art therapy which may be understand as a method of fi ght against stereotypes and stigma-tization.
Elżbieta Czykwin has described the mechanism of stigmatization. Th at author has shown a scale from the mechanism of stereotypization to stigmatization. Th e fi rst problem is connected more with misunderstanding the complexity of the feature the second one is hidden violence based on deeper attitudes connected with lack of acceptation toward diff erences, fear of strangeness, and willingness to take an active off ence toward diff erent, non-accepted (or even tolerated) groups10. Erv-ing Goff man noticed three main categories of social stigmas. Firstly, the person may be stigmatized due to his or her illness or physical disability. Secondly, dis-crimination may be connected with non normative behavior (according to the psychological or developmental norm). What is more, the alleged character’s defect (such as minority sexual orientation, unemployment, sinistrality), being a member of (ethnic or race) minority may be also discrimination’s excuse11.
Stigmatization should be concerned also as identity depended mechanism (connected with individual and internal identity and also with construction of social identifi cation). Social normative constructs very oft en question reliability of individual construction of identity based on diff erent, minor choice of the values and norms set. Stigma is strictly depended on cultural stereotypes and norms. Stigma is established by social environment and may be also destructed or decon-structed by cultural surroundings. Th e grow of social consciousness, provided by social campaigns, social engaged theories or movements (such as intersectional art therapy) may be practical anti-stigmatization tools.
Intersectional refl ection notes especially the fusion of social mechanisms which create the ideas of identity and diff erence. System’s theories show that these feature of diff erent areas of stigmatization collocation is very important due to the mech-anism of the overlapping exclusion creating12.
In other words, the aim of this article is not only the presentation of hypo-thetical minority groups’ problems, but rather holistic multidimensional
perspec-10 E. Czykwin, Stygmat społeczny [Social Stigma], Warszawa 2007, p. 25.
11 E. Goff man, Piętno, rozważania o zranionej tożsamości [Stigma: Notes of the Management of
Spoiled Identity, London 1963], Gdańsk 2005, pp. 34–38.
tive delineation. It would show overlapping areas which are possible places of ex-clusion such as: physical relations, verbal and nonverbal communication or discursive construction of memory and identity.
Another important thing (noticed by E. Czykwin) is understanding the pro-cess of stigma transmission (from stigmatized group to their surroundings such as the members of discriminated people families or even therapists working with minorities). Th at mechanism we called transferred stigma13. Considering the wide spread of marginalization mechanisms we should point out that stigmatiza-tion becomes an universal violence mechanism. Th at problem is crucial for art therapist. Art therapist who works with the victims of stigmatization may also become a subject of exclusion mechanisms. Th at diffi cult experience could be absorb in an eff ective way. Art therapist who is much more psychologically rein-forced than his patients. Th e experience of exclusion may be used as a tool which can enlarge his or her understanding of minorities’ problems and exclusion mechanisms.
Art therapy, in the perspective proposed by me, should touch problems of the individuals and communities in the systemically determined contexts concerning not only an infl uence on the individual appearing signals of disorders, but also, not to say above all, for the attitude of persons disqualifi ed in the face of the surround-ing them environment. One of the main problems, noticeable on the level of inter-action of the individual with its surrounding is, developed in the progress of pe-culiar stigmatizing socialization of the “ill” person, the claim position and/or the concentration only on the negative aspects of one’s status of the strangeness, with-out noticing resources, important from the perspective of the possibility of form-ing the positive relations in the social environment.
Noticing the infl uence of both actors, that is the ruled out individual and the community of reference, is causing the possibility of restoring the harmoniously perceived control, which the individual lost towards the infl uence of the outside circumstances. For the community, which stigmatizing activity is more oft en re-sulting from the fear of the stranger, or the anxiety towards the disturbance of the found order of this type, the gestures of the kindliness and the specifi c transgres-sion of the position of the victim, can constitute the road to build the space of the dialogue. Of course, for the achievement of this aim, many actions, aspiring for forming the new postures in the particular social groups, is needed.
2.
Art therapy in the intersectional prospect, auto-interpretation
of the discipline
Saveneet Talwar is pointing at a few fundamental areas of intersectional refl ection in the area of the theory of the art therapy. Th e fi rst step, which is possible to con-clude from the reading of the Talwar article, must be a self-refl ection of the art therapeutic environment, over the openness of the psychotherapists themselves, schools of therapy, as well as the organizations to issues of ruling out and the stig-matization14. Referring to everyone, an isolated dissenting opinion and the com-plaint about the camoufl aged inequality, is characteristic of this perspective. Th e art therapy is a part of the Euro-American legacy and its tradition refers to the prospect of the white woman (since a majority of psychotherapists is women). Th at is why, here appear the questions associated with appreciating of the diff erent pros-pects, presented by men, persons from the outside of the circle of the Euro-Amer-ican culture, persons of the other skin colour, as well as ill persons. Th ese problems are being put on the forum, with reference to the structures of the institutionalised art therapy, but these discussions are being moved also to the space of the work-shops and therapeutic actions, where art therapists are working with single indi-viduals or stigmatizing groups or stigmatizes (or with the representatives of both groups).
In relation to the feminist sources of the intersectional perspective, here appears the question about the openness of this type of refl ection to problems of men and maleness’s. Th ese issues are also associated with the conjugated problem of the possibility of the discourse within one sex to the themes connected to both sexes. Talwar is quoting the example of the text of David Gussak as the criticism of the art therapy, shaping the discourse of dominant role of the feminism, regarding white women. Gussak is demanding for the right of men to the creativity and the
protective perspective15. In discussion with this view, Talwar accuses him of binary depiction of the maleness and femininities and limiting rights of women for stand-ing up for the members of all minorities. Th is mutual criticism is demonstrating the problems associated with the perspective of the dominance and the dialogue to the great complexity, even on the level of coherence attempts of the discourse of the discipline which art therapy is. How the next two authors, Robert Tavani and Jeremy A. Riddel, notice, who are taking up the subject of personal, gender and
14 S. Talwar, op.cit., pp. 12–14.
15 D. Gussak, An Integrationist Perspective on Understanding Gender Identity in Th erapy, “Art
professional functioning of art therapist men in the art therapeutic environment, the therapists are not expressing opinions associated with their oppressions or the stigmatization in the art therapeutic environment. 64% of the respondents ex-pressed the opinion on their integration with the art therapeutic environment, 20% about rejecting them, 75% of them thought, that they are treated as individual entities, and 20% expressed the opinion of being stigmatized16.
In case of younger therapists, the issue of sexual diff erences is becoming a sec-ondary one, by virtue of the expressed attachment to the fl uidity of sexual catego-ries (expressed for instance in the fact, that the 20–29 art therapists age group is the only one, which determined staying between the masculine and feminine iden-tity, as dominating for one’s gender ideniden-tity, while the 80% of the total of examined men determined their identifi cation as clearly male). Men, surrounded by the women’s circle, are not becoming warriors for the feminist matter (even the young-est ones, in spite of determining themselves in the middle of the femininity/mas-culinity continuum), but also are not struggling with feminists and ideas of the feminism17. Simultaneously, explorations of J.A. Riddel are showing, that amongst the value on the scale measuring the willpower and the personal potential (Action Inventory of Strengths) men art therapists are demonstrating the greater sensitiv-ity to the beauty and the values as well as the attention and interest to the world, than the rest of the population. As Riddel himself notices, these are features unusu-ally needed at the work of the therapist, stereotypicunusu-ally not associated with the maleness18.
Shown examinations are bringing conclusion signifying that it is not that much an art therapeutic environment that rules out male art therapists, but rather a social standard of the maleness, that determines the crucial features in the work, of the therapist using the art, as „unmanly”, that is less valuable. Tavani additionally is certifying this application by pointing, that in spite of the dominance of women therapists, a man was already three times a president of the American Association of the Art Th erapy. It is an evidence of appreciating of confi dence of the appointed persons and their conditioned also existentially, biographically or generally con-cept of art therapy. Small amount of men art therapists is associated not only with the model of the masculine work, but also with its economic conditioning. It is 16 R. Tavani, Male Mail: A Survey of Men in the Field of Art Th erapy, “Art Th erapy, Journal of
American Art Th erapy Association” 2007, No. 2, p. 25.
17 Ibidem, pp. 26–27.
18 J.A. Riddel, h.m. riddel (the lack of capital letters in initials of the author is intentional and
planned by her), Men and Art Th erapy: A Connection Th rough Strengths, “Art Th erapy, Journal of American Art Th erapy Association” 2007, No. 1, p. 14.
visible very well at Polish institutions. Work of art therapist in the Polish reality belongs to the relatively poorly paid professions, similarly to other so-called pro-tective and educational professions, most oft en fi nanced (insuffi ciently) by the public sector.
An example can be a centre for intellectually disabled men in Owińska, in which, by virtue of the specifi city of work with men, it would be worthwhile to provide the nursing and therapeutic care for the representatives of both sexes. At this institution, only one carer is working. In opinion of the therapists and nurses from this centre, it is the low wages that discourage men for taking up work on the therapeutic position. Statements of therapists pointed also the approbation for taking the profession of the therapist by men. Fact of not-choosing by men the profession of art therapist is then not connected with the stigmatization of the male minority by the art therapeutic environment, but is showing rather the system problems, many-sided ones, associated with the matter of the humbler fi nancial status of the art therapist profession (situated within so-called protective profes-sions), as well as with calling to the stereotype of the masculine profession and the manhood formulated en block. Problem of the male minority in the feminised art therapists environment, is showing also a certain wider tendency, which I would like to distinguish in this place. By virtue of beliefs, already shown in the introduc-tion, shared by many art therapists, the art therapy is treated as the action with ill people or the ones that require help. It is of course, in a great measure, the truth. However, one forgets about developmental, educational and cultural (not to say cross-cultural) signifi cance of the art therapy. Limiting its role only to the protec-tive-corrective activity, simultaneously a potential of this discipline itself is limited, and devitalize the value of self-esteem of its representatives.
Gussak’s article (complaining for limiting the vision of the art therapy to one model, conventionally associated with the femininity) constitutes the important voice in debate on character of the art therapist profession. Although art therapists environment is crossing, in many areas, the border of traditionally understood therapy; not always it is able to break the stereotype of therapy through the art, understood as a protective activity. And so, the art therapist is becoming a person exercising control and gently disciplining ill persons or the ones experiencing the problem. It might be said, that this kind of model would be associated with the specifi c violence of the hospitality, about which Jaques Derrida or Homi Bhabha wrote19, with reference to the models of the multiculturalism, which are being cre-ated with the thought about a „good” of other societies, without allowing them to
speak, within the west model. Model of therapy activity described with the tongue of restoring and correcting attributes of the entity, to the purpose of one’s reso-cialization, or cohesion of one’s behaviours with the adopted norm, seems to be in contradiction of the idea of the art therapy in the proposed presentation. In real-ity, the aim of the art therapy is always a change, which, however, should not take place one-sidedly. Th e resocialization, similarly to the described hospitality, is an activity infl uencing the entity or the group of people, whose behaviours and values should be in cohesion with the presently eff ective standard, developed by the ma-jority of the members of society.
In my opinion, a comprehensive purpose of the art therapy is rather leading to meet the views and beliefs of the people, acting at odds with the certain norms and constituting these norms. Th e dialogue, which changes the both sides, will lead to adopting the norms or to their renegotiation by both sides. Since the verbal dia-logue between the representatives of the group, into the serious way disturbs the framework of the system (what is oft en associated also with the violence) and the representatives of persons respecting humanistic and legal norms, is oft en very diffi cult (if not impossible), the art therapy pointing at the fi eld of the art as the general-humanistic platform of the contact and the dialogue, can constitute the help in establishing the contact, which will never be simple, by virtue of the in-creasing memory of injustice and the attitude of victims, existing sometimes at the both sides of the dialogue.
Th e tongue, constituting the specifi c matrix of the thinking, shaping also the determined social postures, plays a key role both in the theoretical refl ection as well as in the practice of the art therapy. Presence, amongst female and male ther-apists, of the ethnic or top-class representatives, or racial minorities, is becoming a possibility of increasing the awarenessing and re-asserting the dynamically changing concept of the entire function of the art therapy, for the whole environ-ment. Th e presence of the minority representatives amongst therapists causes, that the issues important for the determined target groups are stopping to be marginal, and are rather included in the general dialogue and discussion, in which the spa-tiotemporally conditioned aims of art therapeutic actions are developed. Being a part of the environment, those people symbolically have a voice, which is protect-ing the target groups from the unintentional stigmatization. Lucille Venture, one of the fi rst pioneers of the art therapy, sensitized to Americans and Afro-Americans, pointed at it, and in 1977 defended a Black Beat in Art Th erapy
Exist-Diff erence, J. Ruetherford (ed.), London 1990, pp. 207–211; Look: J. Derrida, A. Dufourmantelle, Of Hospitality, Stanford 2000.
ence doctoral thesis20. Venture is pointing, that philosophical and psychological sources of (contemporary) art therapeutic prospects refer to Freudian classical theories, what simultaneously is limiting culturally and class their fi eld of the infl u-ence. Th e philosophy adopted directly from the research practice and refl ection of Freud, should be relatively rendered to the determined cultural circle, about what the late schools of the psychoanalysis were sensible of.
Th e researcher is postulating for developing the new language of the art thera-py, in the agreement with the groups, which this activity is regarding. She herself, as the representative of a few target groups, and at the same time the therapist, became a symbol of the transgression and a promoter of the new vision of art therapy.
Analysis of the shown problem is demanding making aware the art therapists and the public surrounding of the stigmatized persons, that not every of the rep-resentatives of the stigmatized groups, in the similar manner will get the right to vote and become a spokesman of the minorities21. Sometimes, co-authoring with the persons ruled out of the discourse is entirely demolishing its current shape. Th at happens in case of opening into the voice of mentally disabled people. Th ere exists a very fine line between the patronizing attitude of „helping”, and the strengthening and the reliable exchange or the dialogue with the people, who does not refer to the criteria of the standard communication. A key element diversifying these two attitudes is an awareness of the equality and equal statuses of both part-ners, along with the acceptation of the diff erent systems of values, ways of com-munication, or the cognition. It is extremely hard to achieve this type of contact in the verbal relation, based on the standard principles of the communication, how-ever it is possible in the space of the art.
Within the conception of the developmentally understood art therapy proposed by me, a secondary meaning has a closely comprehended forming the social or communicational competence. Corrective functions of therapy, which are most oft en appointed in discussing the results and purposes of the carried out therapy, should be realized additionally, as a result of the deeper understanding of both 20 L. Venture, Th e Black Beat in Art Th erapy eExperience, Unpublished dissertation, Union
Insti-tute, Cincinnati, OH, USA 1977, cf: J.S. Potash, Rekindling the Multicultural History of the American
Art Th erapy Association, “Art Th erapy: Journal of the American Art Th erapy Association” 2005, No. 4, p. 185.
21 Th e position of the spokesman of the minority is also bringing the risk of labelization and
assignment of the described entity to the specifi ed discourse, thereby not letting it to change or de-velop. Look: A. Stefańska, Arteterapia a rozwój emocjonalny człowieka [Th e Art Th erapy and the Emotional Development of the Man], “Wychowanie na co Dzień” [Every Day Upbringing] 2008, No. 12, pp. 16–19,
sides, which will be drawing from each other their values and abilities. In this sense, according to Anita Stefańska’s belief, who otherwise than Lucille Venture perceives the psychological sources of the art therapy, the inspiration of intersectional pros-pects in the art therapy is the humanist psychology22. How the above author no-tices, the lack of ability of establishing the traditional partnership with the intel-lectually disabled people, does not exclude a possibility of double-sided use of the potentials of sensitivity, sometimes manifesting it selves in the very diverse way23. Irrespective of specifi c foundations of the therapeutic schools, within the human-ist psychology, a philosophy of this current seems to fulfi l all ethical and ephuman-istemo- epistemo-logical preliminary assumptions of the art therapy in the intersectional perspective, which is appealing to the human life as the relational whole. Th e change is per-ceived here not in the corrective meaning, but rather in the developmental one, as the transgression. In the context of the conjugated stigmas, imposed on the mem-bers of minorities, also important is noticing, both in them alone, as well as in the external environment, (oft en disapproving) the potentials and the possibilities of fi nding connections and community, or the liquid border between the prospects of so-called „in group” and „out group”24, a horizon of the health and illness, or similar ones, but of diff erently named values. Th e approval of the pluralism can lead, paradoxically, to discovering the common space for both groups or commu-nities. Th e space of emotion, experiencing happiness and suff ering, constitutes the existential base of all art therapeutic projects, and can constitute the interface of the meeting, however the work of the art therapist is appealing also for producing the attitude of approval of the dissimilarities, not only the outlook or concerning the individual features, but also the systemic ones.
Intersectionality is sensitizing to the system mechanisms, which infl uence the fates of individuals and groups, that is why the art therapy in this perspective should take a refl ection also over implications of redefi nition and reinterpretation of traditional places of the art and therapy. In this sense, alongside the foundations of the humanist psychology, here are also important the experiences of the artistic avant-garde, as well as the awareness of eff ects of the civil insubordination, or re-bellion of the community considering the traditional frameworks of the system,
22 Look: Ibidem.
23 Look: A. Stefańska, “Teatr uwarunkowany osobą” nie tylko teoretyczne rozważania o pewnej
ofercie teatroterapii dla dorosłych osób z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną [„Th e Th eatre Conditioned by Person” not only Th eoretical Considerations about the Certain Off er of Th eatre Th erapy for Adults with Intellectual Disability], in typescript, p. 2.
24 Look: H. Tajfel, J.C. Turner, An Integrative Th eory of Intergroup Confl ict [in:] Th e Social
which is bringing the memory about the countercultural moves or the beginnings, and the unceasing lasting of the third sector, non-governmental organizations, which are becoming a place of many art therapeutic initiatives. It turns out that the traditional frameworks, which from one side guaranteed the community the feeling of the stability and safety, were preclusive for entities, which were not able to meet the requirements of the norm concerning, for example, participation in the cul-tural event. It brought many eff ects, not always made aware and culcul-turally analysed, associated with excluding the particular social groups. Traditional order of assign-ing the cultural event to the determined place, is givassign-ing rise to the custom of hidden exclusion of the deprived groups, by virtue of health, fi nancial and age considera-tions (sometimes even racial ones). Th e defence of the tradition by the privileged persons, oft en consists in references to the stability of the found order which, how-ever, is not for everyone a source of the support and the safety, on the contrary, is becoming an additional component excluding persons already stigmatized.
In the process of the traditional therapy of ill persons, for example in programs of the mobilization of the unemployed people, only fi nancial needs of supported persons are noticed in the fi rst-rate. Th erapy is sometimes having an infl uence directly on these most visible needs of customers, omitting the wider context of the above gaps. Th e help, which is limited to delivery of the tangible property, is based on a vision of the individual, that is only a consumer. It is a very objectifying vision. Spiritual, cultural or aesthetic needs of marginalized persons are rarely noticed.
Exceeding borders of the traditionally comprehended art and culture, releasing it from the attachment to the determined space and time, is causing the possibil-ity of holistic view of illness, or the diffi cult life situation of the patient or the customer, and at the same time, is leading to the building of the more open and conscious of the needs legal, political, or cultural system, of various social groups. Judith Rubin is pointing at the fact, that the art therapy must be characterized by a dissimilarity from all these types of therapy, which are closely tied up with the institutional determination, because they are not able to fully carry out the holistic assumptions, which are underlying in the art therapeutic concepts. To these holis-tic assumptions, belongs among other things, supporting the individual develop-ment, in conditions of fl exible change of its living conditions. Rubin is describing the example of the family therapy, which result is sometimes the disintegration of the former structure and the change of fi nancial, temporal and spatial abilities of customers25. Traditional therapy, assigned to the determined time and space, can
not fully answer for the needs of the changing very quickly situation, also by virtue of assigning it to the specifi ed space of the offi ce or the specialised centre. Th e art therapy does not hesitate to become involved in such spaces, as whereabouts of emigrants, hostels for the homeless or mothers with children, or even the passing places, „interplaces” like stations or (from the example of Judith Rubin) eating places. Excluding practices, which are getting back from individuals the right to specifi ed places (as, for example, cultural institutions, to which disabled persons cannot get, or family houses, lost by the people experienced with the family vio-lence) result in eradication, or the identity loss, divesting from the specifi ed people the right to identifi cation with places, which no longer can be shared, cannot co-belong to them. Since the change of the entire system is a continuous process, the art therapy is starting from the paradoxical action, which is showing spaces of the stigmatization and is distinguishing deny places, or so-called „no-places” and is making spaces of the participation, action and affi liation from them. An example of such action can be the art therapy in the environment of the street, appealing to passions of many (especially young) people, who are creating murals.
Using the social and individual potential of the street art, is bringing new op-portunities to the art therapy. Connie M. Hannah is describing them, pointing at the functions of one of the actions, in which for creation of the murals, people struggling with illnesses or psychological crises were employed. Hannah is calling attention to the fact, that the above action was not only signifi cant for its authors, who had a possibility of demonstration of their needs and desires towards the broad public. It was an important event also for the entire local community, which noticed other dimension of presence of people contending with problems, in their surroundings26. Th ey were perceived not so much as an ill people, marked by the fate or a fl aw of character, but rather as authors, changing the image of the neigh-bourhood. An additional positive dimension of such remodelling of the social awareness is a fact, that an artist, in the European culture, is a positively indexed form, not stigmatized in spite of his or her non-standard behaviours.
Art therapists, similarly to authors, who are uncovering the street and forsaken places, using them for non-traditional forms of the art, as the happening, perfor-mance or installation, are reinterpreting forgotten and excluded spaces, to oppose the stigmatization of the people, who was symbolically and in reality deprived of the possibility of staying or belonging to the positively perceived places.
26 C.M. Hannah, Healing Arts. A Mural on Mental Illness and Wellness, “Art Th erapy. American
A continuation of the close relationship between the socially involved artistic activity and the art therapy, are ones of the earliest made attempts of so-called „art therapy studio”, what can be translated as the art therapy in the studio of the artist. Representatives of this current are pointing at hospitals and current places of ther-apy, the resocialization and the seclusion, as insuffi cient for the actual change and the development of the individual or the group. Th e stagnation, that carries the institutionalization of traditional medicine, causes that it is hard to perceive it as the place favourable for overcoming diffi culties of contemporary man.
At present, almost 20 years later, a lot of places, which before were spaces of the stigmatization, are also slowly becoming the places important for the local com-munities, opening to volunteers, cooperating with public benefi t organizations. Changing forms of the care of chronically ill and intellectually disabled people, can be examples. A positive space of the meeting and the dialogue are L’Arche houses, communities established by Jean Vanier, whose idea was to create the space of the common life and the cooperation between mentally disabled per people and oth-er occupants of the house. In the local communities Arka houses (how the French name of the move can be translated) are becoming not only a space of the life and actions of the disabled people, but also a meeting place of neighbours with occu-pants of the house, joint festivities, as well as a space of the dialogue of the people interested in problems of occupants of the house and other disabled people and those living with the disabled people. All occupants of the house are treated as partners, who are sharing the everyday life with one selves, each of them can par-ticipate in all events happening at home.
Th e existence of such places as the Arka is an inspiration for the slow change of a way of thinking, both of so-called clinicians and representatives of the social welfare and developing the latest models of therapy as the shared development, which is being undergone in the daily life, oft en on the small space, rather than at the large institution, in which it is hard to exceed the atmosphere of anonymity or the restrictive manner of the organization of the house.
Connie Hannah pointed at the fact, that people involved in a project of joint creating of the murals, contending with exclusion, not only because of their illness, but also, for example, a cultural origin, during repeated stays in the psychiatric institutions, experienced the unceasing control, which eff ectively reduced their potential of the self-confi dence and the possibility of cooperation27. In the sug-gested project, disciplining was replaced with the value of agreeing. Group mem-bers negotiated the project with each other as well as the way of making murals,
overcoming the fear of negating their opinion by members of the „healthy” com-munity. Th e second, important for the plan to take the art therapy away from traditionally comprehended institutions, feature of joint actions was the other philosophy, being the underlying reason for therapy, in the model of working with the artist. It protested a lot of views, which are matching the medical and scien-tifi c model, but treat patients as the subject of the research, rather than the possible partners of the cooperation. As far as the prospect of the art therapy at the school is opened for expressing both by the author (art therapist), as well as by the co-originator (person in the process of the art therapy) diverse emotions, their free expression, the clinical model associated with the Enlightenment perspective, is appealing to the neutrality, objectivity and aspiration to the transport on the ra-tional level.
Th e second (strictly medical) prospect is bringing sometimes the risk of micro exclusion, or micro aggression, about which Derald Wing Sue is writing. He is pointing, on the example of the academic practice of the phenomenon of exclusion of students of other ethnic origin, through inadequacy of their way of the narra-tion, appealing to experiences that does not remain in traditional canons of the psychological knowledge. Referring by the academicians to the requirements of the objectivism developed in the circle of the Euro-American culture, without the possibility of including the elements from the other cultural circles, is giving rise to the frustration of people of the diff erent origin and existential and cultural ex-periences28. Students of psychology, educated in this way, are being taught contra-dicting their identity during the education, and then, the practice associated with the work.
3.
Empowerment as the common goal of the art therapy and the
intersectional concepts
Empowerment is a term developed on the ground of the social and political sci-ence, however, it quickly started to be commonly used on the ground of psychol-ogy. Meaning of the empowerment refers to strengthening, motivating and fi nding potentials of individuals. Th ey are pointing here on the holistic and relational entity, with regard to its entire environment. Empowerment is involving the fi ght
28 D.W. Sue, Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation, Microaggresion in Everyday Life, New
for equality, social solidarity, respect for the dignity, but also for the economic, social and legal justice towards minority groups.
Lauren Cattaneo and Alyia Chapman are defi ning empowerment as “the repeat-edly iterated process of establishing, by the entity, that repeatrepeat-edly was deprecated, the important aims, orientation to increasing the power and eff ectiveness in the achievement of these objectives, increasing its self-determination, awareness, ef-fectiveness and the knowledge referring to the achievement of the aims”29. Th is conception clearly refers to the cultural prospect. Reinforcing the entities takes place basing on their individual potentials and abilities, however, it refers to the network values, space of purposes and possibility of their realization.
Cattaneo and Chapman are pointing, that the idea of empowerment refers not only to the potentials of the entity, but the entire partnership or community. I showed the problems associated with it, referring to the lack of a sense of unity and the cooperation between people, who, by experiencing the institutional care, cre-ated in themselves the defensive model, or conservative one, which is characterized by a lack of initiative and attitudes of cooperation. Th ese are also features, which can be characteristic for the stigmatized people. Entities, subjected to the long-term stigmatization, for the greater part of their social-cultural surroundings, internal-ise the negative image of themselves, associated with a sense of helplessness, low self-esteem, need for the isolation. Elżbieta Czykwin is pointing, that making the stigma a central personal reference, aff ects, in the signifi cant way, on the Me image and, thereby, relations with environment30. Th e stigmatization, however, has not always have to become a central point of reference for the specifi ed person. A key element of the counteraction of the stigmatization is the change in the entire social circle of the entity, since this closest environment has a decisive infl uence on the forming of beliefs, purposes and automatic interpretation. Th e earlier the entity experienced the exclusion or the stigmatization, the more it infl uences on it, there-fore its cooperation with art therapist should longer or more intense and should support the art therapy of the group.
Riane Eisler examinations show, that experiencing the violence, negligence and disrespect in the youngest years, result in developing, in alleged „victims”, the ma-noeuvrable syndrome of stigmatization of others31. Prejudices can, how Eisler in-dicates, result from low self-esteem, fear and experiencing the trauma. Th erefore,
29 L.B. Cattaneo, A.R. Chapman, Th e Process of Empowerment. A Model for Use in Research and
Practice, “American Psychologist” 2010, No. 10, p. 647.
30 E. Czykwin, op.cit., p. 224.
31 R. Eisler, Breaking the Devastating Link between Internal Terrorism and Intimate Violence,
the work with persons, who are cultivating prejudices towards minority groups, can appeal in many cases to making aware of reasons of such behaviour, which is associated with the helplessness towards experiencing the stigmatization, or other type of violence, in the past. Above author proposes building the network of part-nerships, in which exist equal economic and social chances, for all members of the community. On the example of Scandinavian countries, Eisler is showing, that sometimes the system change is causing the awareness change.
Intersectional prospect is aspiring to the global, institutional change. However, a need of action exists, both on the individual as well as on the system ground. With reference to legal or political wide prospects, providing for the excluded individu-als the possibility of referring to the certain guaranteed principles, values or fi nan-cial means is crunan-cial. Art therapists involved in matters of people, with whom they are working with, are becoming a specifi c persons of the public confi dence, that is why, in social discourses, they can become spokesmen of businesses of marginal-ised people.
However, the second purpose of the therapy combatting the stigmatization, should be improving the internal potentials of the individual, which will be able to oppose by itself a stigmatization, and even to infl uence the change of beliefs of the environment. Of course, it is a long-lasting process, requiring the support (towards the empowerment), fi nished with getting by the entity, a satisfaction, in assertive and emphatic expression of needs and demanding a respect of the laws appending for it.
Randi Rolvsjord, editor of the „Nordic Journal of Music Th erapy”, suggested the model of the music therapy, referring to the concept of empowerment. Th is project, how Wita Szulc notices, constitutes the chance, not only for developing the eff ective therapeutic method, but has also a broad cultural meaning and is appealing to close relationships between artistic, medical, humanistic and associated with the social science horizon. Although the fact that Wita Szulc, in her book, constituting the inspection of the mainstreams of the art therapy, is not saying it directly, it is pos-sible to conclude, that putting the music therapy of the empowerment in the direct vicinity of the cultural concepts, appealing to the cultural commitment and the community music therapy, is pointing out the possibility of deciphering the music therapy of the empowerment exactly within these theories32.
32 It also confi rms the referring to these concepts by Randi Rolvsjord. W. Szulc, Arteterapia.
Narodziny idei, ewolucja teorii, rozwój praktyki [Art therapy. Birth of the Idea, Evolution of the Th e-ory, Development of the Practice], Warszawa 2011, pp. 124–126.
How Rolvsjord writes, in spite of the semantic extensiveness of the empower-ment term and the close relationship of the fundaempower-mental ideas of the public par-ticipation and strengthening the self-determination of individuals with the funda-mental ideas of the music therapy, not every technique or the music therapy method is possible to call the music therapy of the empowerment33. Evoking Procter’s concept34, similar to the above described anti-psychiatric views, within the frames of which empowerment constitutes the alternative to the medical per-spectives, Rolvsjord is presenting his own vision, combining the out of institu-tional, social, cultural or political experiences and the ones closely connected with therapeutic concepts. For this conception, noticing the potentials of the customer, which are becoming a creational base of creating by him, both the paths of the communication with other people, and the ways of resolving the internal or outside confl icts, seems to be crucial35.
Too strong stressing the need to use the help, and the concentration on the problems of customers of the art therapy, is contrary to the ideas of the empower-ment. Attitudes of this type oft en appear, in referring to psychoanalytical concepts, courses of the music therapy (stressing the role of the access36). Rolsvjord is point-ing also at many attempts, which stress the shortages, and are set to the direct fi ght against them 37. Meanwhile, strengthening is not mainly, and above all, a resistance, but it also constitutes (not to say, above all) a positive expansion programme, shaped by every entity, with respect to its own existential and social situation. Th e pressure and exerting the infl uence, methods of forming the habits, so oft en ap-plied in educating basic skills of disabled persons, are probably needed, and con-stitute the considerable help to these customers, however they are not measures increasing their holistic comprehended competences. Not giving those methods up, it is necessary to off er many groups also a therapy consisting in their own ini-tiative, which will have a chance to be completely conducted by the customer, in any way.
33 R. Rolvsjord, Th erapy as Empowerment. Clinical and Political Implications of Empowerment in
Mental Health Practices, “ Nordic Journal of Music Th erapy” 2004, No. 2, p. 100.
34 S. Procter, Empowering and Enabling – Model of Music Th erapy in Non-Medical Mental Health
Provision [in:] Contemporary Voices in Music Th erapy, Carolyn, Stige Kenny (eds.), Oslo 1992.
35 Ibidem, p. 102.
36 At least, exceptions are also here, for example Benenzon’s Th erapy is an example inspired by
the psychodynamic theories of the school, appealing mainly to the potentials of the entity, Look: K. Aigen, Introduction to the Article Written by Rolando Benenzon, “Nordic Journal of Music Th erapy” 2007, No. 2, p. 145.
Provided empowerment, in the context of single entities using the music ther-apy, has mainly a psychological meaning, it is also possible to indicate its setting in the cultural music therapy, referring to the community, and having its implications for the cultural policy.
Empowerment is based on calling to the internal and outside stability, which oft en is hard to notice, in dynamically changing mobile reality, what of course is becoming a fi eld of the formation of the microexclusions. Th e long-term coopera-tion, based on the debate and the exchange, as well as on the cooperation system, at the goodwill of all partners, can constitute the reply to this challenge. It will also be a step in the change of the art therapy, which will become a more well-known and consciously perceived and used by the local communities tool.
4. Summary
Th e article is pointing at the basic features of the art therapy in the intersectional perspective, which is an essential tool in the work with the stigmatized persons, as well as with many social environments, which consciously or unconsciously are using, towards minority groups, the mechanisms of the violence. In this sense, the shown method is becoming important not only for the medical refl ection or close-ly therapeutic one, but is suggesting appclose-lying the art therapy in the context of the discussed social and cultural issues. Problem of the „misfi t” – the person excluded because of the granted him or her stigma, is particularly essential in the view of reality of the globalizing world, in which we are incessantly meeting with the in-fl atedness. Th at is why, the art therapy, which in the comprehensive way would take the issues of the relation, confl icts and connections between the prospects of the diff erent levels of the identity of the individual, is becoming an unusually essential tool of the cross-cultural and interpersonal communication as well as considerably aff ects the growth of the individual and public awareness.
In the above text, I presented, on the chosen examples, the art therapeutic work opportunities, with applying the concept of the intersectionality, which already should refer to the self-refl ection of the art therapist and his or her automatic identifi cation, both in the individual context, as well as towards the whole social and professional group of the art therapists. I pointed on the basic gender, racial and class dilemmas, which noticing and passing is bringing a possibility of the empower mental action, (energizing) the discipline as well as the reference groups of the art therapy.
R E F E R E N C E S :
Aigen K., Introduction to the Article Written by Rolando Benenzon, “Nordic Journal of Mu-sic Th erapy” 2007, No. 2.
Arteterapia jako dyscyplina akademicka w krajach europejskich [Art Th erapy as an Aca-demic Discipline in European Countries], W. Szulc (ed.), Wrocław 2010.
Cattaneo L.B., Chapman A.R., Th e Process of Empowerment. A Model for Use in Research and Practice, “American Psychologist” 2010, No. 10.
Crenshaw K., Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color, “Stanford Law Review” 1991, No. 6.
Czykwin E., Stygmat społeczny [Social Stigma],Warszawa 2007. Derrida J., Dufourmantelle A., Of Hospitality, Stanford 2000.
Eisler R., Breaking the Devastating Link between Internal Terrorism and Intimate Violence, “World Pulse” 2004, http://www.saiv.netnrdocs/devastatinglink.pdf.
Gussak D., An Interactionist Perspective on Understanding Gender Identity in Th erapy, “Art Th erapy: Journal of the American Art Th erapy Association” 2008, No. 25.
Hannah C.M., Healing Arts. A Mural on Mental Illness and Wellness, “Art Th erapy. American Journal of Art Th erapy Association” 1992, No. 2.
Junge M., Art Th erapist and the Paradoxical Gift of Sight, “Art Th erapy, Journal of American Art Th erapy Association” 2009, No. 3.
Kosofsky-Sedgwick E., Epistemology of the Closet, Berkeley–Los Angeles 2008. Moon C.H., Studio Art Th erapy, London 2002.
Potash J.S., Rekindling the Multicultural History of the American Art Th erapy Association, “Art Th erapy: Journal of the American Art Th erapy Association” 2005, No. 4.
Riddel J.A., riddel h.m., Men and Art Th erapy: A Connection through Strengths, “Art Th er-apy, Journal of American Art Th erapy Association” 2007, No. 1.
Rolvsjord R., Th erapy as Empowerment. Clinical and Political Implications of Empowerment in Mental Health Practices, “Nordic Journal of Music Th erapy” 2004, No. 2.
Rubin J., Introduction to Art Th erapy. Sources and Resources, New York 2010.
Sue D.W., Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation, Microaggresion in Everyday Life, New Jer-sey 2010.
Talwar S., An Intersectional Framework for Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in Art Th era-py, “Art Th erapy. Journal of the American Art Th erapy Association” 2010, No. 27. Th ompson G., Artistic Sensibility in the Studio and Gallery Model: Revisiting Process and
Product, “Art Th erapy. Journal of American Art Th erapy Association” 2009, No. 4. Venture L., Th e Black Beat in Art Th erapy Experience, Cincinnati 1977.
