WHY ARE WOMEN DISCRIMINATED AGAINST ON THE LABOUR MARKET IN POLAND? – THE RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

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Department of Microeconomics University of Szczecin

64, Mickiewicza Street, 71-101 Szczecin, Poland Phone +4891/4442092, fax +4891/4442137

E-mail: patrycjazwiech@tlen.pl, http://mikro.univ.szczecin.pl/zwiech

WHY ARE WOMEN DISCRIMINATED AGAINST ON THE LABOUR MARKET IN POLAND? – THE RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

SURVEY

Abstract

As far as professional life is concerned, major differences are observed with reference to the situation of women and men, which is reflected in the research indicating that women occupy worse position on the labour market and showing the determinants of such a situation.

Women earn less, hold lower positions, receive professional training more seldom than men and have greater problems getting a job in the majority of the EU Member States (including Poland). Although complex legislation on equal rights for women has come into force in the European Union, providing the legislation on equal rights for women does not automatically entail economic equality. The present paper aims at drawing the attention of Ukrainian researchers and practitioners in the field of economics to issues relating to discrimination against women and particularly to the reasons for such a state of affairs and to the necessity for adjusting to legal determinants.

The paper presents questionnaire survey on discrimination against women on the labour market. The group of 602 persons holding managerial position participated in the survey. The group examined consisted of 304 managers and 298 manageresses from three subregions of Poland, namely szczeciński, koszaliński and poznański. The survey was conducted in June and July 2004.

The paper attempts to answer the fundamental question, namely why women are discriminated against on the labour market in Poland. Seeking the answer, factors potentially affecting discrimination against women on the labour market have been grouped into four spheres. These groups included the following: determinants on a micro scale referring to women themselves; determinants on a micro scale referring to enterprises, employers and employees; the remaining determinants on a micro scale as well as determinants on a macro scale.

Key words: : discrimination against women, gender studies, Poland Introduction

As far as professional life is concerned, major differences are observed with reference to the situation of women and men which is reflected in the research indicating that women occupy worse position on the labour market (Balcerzak-Paradowska 2001 and 2003;

Jacukowicz 2000; Kalinowska-Nawrotek 2005a and 2005b; Titkow 2003, Zwiech, Gawrycka, Wasilczuk, 2007; Zwiech 2006c; World Bank Report no 29205, 2004).

Taken women’s rights they enjoy under the Convention on the elimination of every form of discrimination against women (adopted in 1979), the following types of discrimination against women on the labour market may be distinguished:

Economics & Sociology, Vol. 1, No 1, 2008

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1. employment discrimination referring to the right to equal employment opportunities and equal criteria adopted while selecting the applicants;

2. professional discrimination referring to the right to choose one’s profession and employment as well as to take up a full-time job and to be provided with equal working conditions;

3. position discrimination referring to the right to get promotion;

4. discrimination as far as the access to training is concerned – referring to the right to have access to training;

5. pay discrimination referring to the right to receive one and the same wage or salary for a particular type of work carried out.

Major differences are observed with reference to the situation of women and men on the labour market in Poland in all the aforementioned spheres. A fundamental issue here is to find the answer to the following question: why are women discriminated against in the labour market?

The results of the questionnaire survey

The questionnaire survey was carried out by the author in June and July 2004 on the group of 602 persons holding managerial position (out of whom there were 304 managers and 298 manageresses) and coming from three subregions of western and central Poland, namely szczeciński, koszaliński and poznański.

The survey carried out showed that 63% of women and 28.9% of men holding managerial position believed that Polish women were discriminated against in their professional life. Still, greater number of the respondents noticed particular types of discrimination (limited promotion opportunities – 65% of female respondents and 35.5% of male respondents, limited chance of pay rise – 57.2% and 30.9% respectively, higher risk of losing a job – 78.1% of manageresses and 53.3% of managers).

At the same time, it should be noticed that professional position held by manageresses and managers participating in the survey differed considerably. Taken the questionnaire survey into consideration, positions occupied have been grouped into the following five categories: chief executive (presidents, general and managing managers), vice-chief executive (their assistants), senior managers (managers of particular departments and chief accountants), vice-senior managers (their assistants) and finally middle managers (managers). Table 1 shows the structure of respondents.

Table 1. The structure of respondents by position held and sex Item

number Position held Women Men

1 chief executive 31.2% 39.9%

2 vice-chief executive - -

3 senior manager 22.1% 36.3%

4 vice-senior manager 24.8% 12.9%

5 middle manager 21.9% 10.9%

TOTAL 100% 100%

Source: own compilation based on the questionnaire survey

Nonetheless, this structure will be subject to change if persons who pursue activities as self-employed and hold chief managerial position are not taken into account. Table 2 shows the structure of hired workers.

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Table 2. The structure of hired workers by position held and sex Item

number

Position held

(persons pursuing activities as self- employed excluded)

Women Men

1 chief executive 13.1% 21.9%

2 vice-chief executive - -

3 senior manager 28.0% 47.2%

4 vice-senior manager 31.4% 16.7%

5 middle manager 27.5% 14.2%

TOTAL 100% 100%

As Table 2 showed, almost 70% of men occupied the position of chief executive or senior manager. By contrast, only over 40% of women held such positions. On the other hand, the largest percentage of women (i.e. 31.4%) held the position of vice-senior manager, whereas the majority of men (namely 47.2%) occupied the position of senior manager. Hence, the situation of manageresses is more difficult than the situation of managers.

At the same time, wages and salaries were another aspect in the case of which considerable differences between men and women could be observed. Taken the questionnaire survey analyzed into consideration, the average salary received by women holding managerial position amounted to 4034.72 zlotys, while in the case of men – 5484.89 zlotys. Thus, women earned 70% of salaries received by men.

Excluding persons pursuing activities as self-employed and taking only hired workers into account, it turns out that the average salary earned by women amounts to 3934.78 zlotys and men – 5213.66 zlotys (hence, women received 75.5% of salaries earned by men)¹.

The answer to the question about salaries earned by women and men holding comparable positions was particularly interesting. In order to answer this question, average salary received by women and men depending on position held had been analyzed. Chart 1 shows the results of this analysis.

5035,71 4151,52 4034,24 3103,17

7377,55 5320,51 4735,85 3406,25

0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 0 0 0

c h i e f e x e c u t i v e s e n i o r m a n a g e r v i c e - s e n i o r m a n a g e r

m i d d l e m a n a g e r

W o m e n M e n

Chart 1. Salaries earned by manageresses and managers holding comparable positions (persons pursuing activities as self-employed excluded).

1 In the case of persons pursuing activities as self-employed – 4431.03 zlotys and 6376.81 zlotys Economics & Sociology, Vol. 1, No 1, 2008

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Having analyzed the above data, it can be noticed that the higher positions women occupy, the greater the differences in salaries between women and men are observed. Salaries received by women holding the position of middle manager were 10% higher than salaries earned by men holding the same position. Still, the difference between salaries received by women and men holding the position of chief executive amounted to 47% (to the advantage

f men

ng on education level were nalyzed. Table 3 shows the results of the analysis carried out.

rsons holding managerial position and ratio f salaries depending on education level and sex

number

Education level Women Men r

salaries received by men

o ).

It is also worth asking about salaries earned by women and men who have the same education level. Hence, average monthly salaries dependi

a

Table 3. Average monthly salaries received by pe o

Item Ratio of salaries

eceived by women to

1 Doctorate 7000.00 10750.00 65.1

2 MBA 7500.00 8500.00 88.2

3 higher – 2 majors 4000.00 8796.88 45.5

4 higher – master’s degree 4144.44 5358.62 77.3

5 bachelor’s degree 3781.64 4484.13 84.3

6 higher vocational 4033.33 4966.67 81.2

7 secondary vocational 3285.71 4884.62 67.3

8 secondary 4187.50 5937.50 70.5

9 vocational - 5500.00 -

vel affected increase in salaries earned by men to a greater extent than in the case f wom

ws these ratios together with sa

ut modest increase in average salary (this increase amounted to only 3%, i.e. 110

7% of salaries earned by men, hile in the case of women holding master’s degree – 71.6%.

As it turned out from Table 3, low salary ratios were reported in the case of persons who graduated in two majors (45.5) and gained a doctorate (65.1) which implied that high education le

o en.

As far as hired workers are concerned, ratio of salaries received by women to salaries received by men differ from the aforementioned case. Table 4 sho

laries earned by hired workers depending on education level.

As shown in Table 4, salaries received by hired workers who graduated in two majors or completed postgraduate studies and who gained a doctorate or MBA degree, increased by 47.8% (two majors), by 64.4% (MBA), or by 93.4% (doctorate) compared to men with higher education or holding master’s degree. In the case of female hired workers, only holding MBA or doctorate resulted in salary rise. Graduating in two majors or completing postgraduate studies brought abo

.30 zlotys).

Taken one and the same education level into consideration, women holding managerial position earn less than men. Ratio showing the relation between salaries amounts to 49.9 in the case of persons who have graduated in two majors which implies that women with such an education level earn less than 50% of salaries received by men. Salaries received by women with secondary vocational education constitute 66.

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Table 4. Average salaries received by hired workers holding managerial position and ratio of s depending on education level and sex

number

Education level Women Men r

salaries received by men

salarie

Item Ratio of salaries

eceived by women to

1 Doctorate 7000.00 10000.00 70.0

2 MBA 7500.00 8500.00 88.2

3 higher – 2 majors 3812.50 7640.00 49.9

4 higher – master’s degree 3702.20 5170.73 71.6

5 bachelor’s degree 3879.31 4382.35 88.5

6 higher vocational 3750.00 3944.44 95.1

7 secondary vocational 3250.00 4875.00 66.7

8 secondary 3500.00 3937.50 88.9

9 vocational - 3500.00 -

hat women n

, 2 – slight influence, 3 – considerable influence, 4 – great influence, 5 – chief rimination against women were grouped into four sph

rprises, employers and employees;

icro scale;

4.

by women (4.42) as well as division of sponsibilities among family members (4.34).

The slightest differences are observed in the case of persons with higher vocational and secondary education. However, this situation does not result from the fact t

earn a lot. It is rather that men with such education receive relatively low salaries.

Therefore, data presented shows that manageresses occupy lower position i enterprises and earn lower salaries holding position and education level comparable to men.

One may seek the causes of differences between the situation of women and men on the labour market in factors determining discrimination against women. Taken the questionnaire survey discussed into account, respondents were asked to number various factors that might determine worse position of women on the labour market from 1 to 5 (1 – no influence

influence).

Factors potentially affecting disc eres which referred to the following:

1. determinants on a micro scale referring to women themselves;

2. determinants on a micro scale referring to ente 3. the remaining determinants on a m

determinants on a macro scale.

Table 5 shows determinants on a micro scale referring to women.

As shown in Table 5, women holding managerial position regarded the following factors determining differences between the situation of women and men (to the disadvantage of the former) and referring to women themselves as major ones: division of responsibilities among family members (4.64), other than economic roles performed by women (4.54), women’s beliefs about the division into female and male activities (4.09) as well as women’s broken employment record (4.04). By contrast, managers chose such factors as character differences between women and men (4.48), other than economic roles performed by women (4.46), other values and objectives defined

re

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Table 5. Structure of answers (in %) given by the respondents while stating the reasons underlying worse situation of women on the labour market – factors on a micro scale referring

women themselves

EN WOMEN

to

M

1 2 3 4 5 Average 1 2 3 4 5 Average

A 1 22 49 20 8 2.97 7 12 62 15 4 3.02

B 3 7 36 39 15 3.56 3 6 13 53 26 3.96

C 1 3 11 67 18 3.98 0 2 8 74 16 4.04

D 7 8 14 65 6 3.55 8 10 22 42 18 3.52

E 0 0 11 32 57 4.46 0 0 0 46 54 4.54

F 0 0 16 34 50 4.34 0 0 1 34 65 4.64

G 24 7 224 7 0 2.12 19 45 24 12 0 2.29

H 4 4 11 34 47 4.16 27 49 18 6 0 2.03

I 2 5 3 23 67 4.48 5 4 73 9 10 3.18

J 1 5 19 40 35 4.03 1 4 20 35 40 4.09

K 1 3 12 21 63 4.42 3 14 49 21 13 3.27

Commentary:

1 – no influence; 2 – slight influence;3 – considerable influence;

held by women;

ent record;

nequally distributed housework);

ctivities as well as social roles;

– other values and objectives defined by women and men

ource: own compilation based on the results of the questionnaire survey

d finally

fessions (4.59). Table 6 shows the structure of answers given by the spondents.

4 – great influence; 5 – chief influence A – improper professional qualification B – women’s professional preferences C – women’s broken employm

D – limited spatial mobility

E – other than economic roles performed by women;

F – division of responsibilities among family members (u G – biological differences between sexes;

H – differences in talents shown by women and men I – character differences between women and men;

J – women’s beliefs about the division into female and male a K

S

The greatest differences between women and men with reference to the assessment of importance of factors influencing women’s position were observed in the case of the following factors: differences in talents shown by women and men (women stated that this factor had slight influence (2.03) while men – that it had great influence, namely 4.16), character differences (average appraisal made by men – 4.48 and women – 3.18), an

other values and objectives defined by women and men (4.42 and 3.27 respectively).

Examining the factors influencing discrimination against women on the labour market referring to enterprises, employers and employees, women considered the following factors the most significant: actions taken and beliefs held by immediate superiors (4.87), criteria adopted while selecting job applicants (4.8), relations with friends and social relations (4.3) as well as employers’ beliefs about women’s fitness for particular professions (4.5). On the contrary, men chose criteria adopted while selecting job applicants (4.68), relations with friends and social relations (4.66) as well as employers’ beliefs about women’s fitness for particular pro

re

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Table 6. The structure of answers (in %) given by the respondents while stating the reasons underlying worse situation of women on the labour market – factors on a micro scale referring

enterprises, employers and employees EN

to

M WOMEN

1 2 3 4 5 Average 1 2 4 5 3 Average

L 0 4 6 17 73 4.59 0 5 6 23 66 4.5

Ł 7 50 0 12 1 3 2.5 5 52 30 11 2 2.53

M 0 0 7 18 75 4.68 0 0 1 18 81 4.8

N 1 1 24 19 55 4.26 0 0 1 11 88 4.87

O 1 10 8 10 1 7 3 3 12 68 12 5 3.04

P 0 0 6 22 72 4.66 0 2 12 17 69 4.53

Commentary:

1 – no influence; 2 – slight influence; 3 – considerable influence; 4 – great influence; 5 – chief influence licants

crimination – relations with friends and social relations (existing and potential ones)

ource: own compilation based on the results of the questionnaire survey Table 7 shows the remaining factors on a micro scale.

nderlying worse situation of women on the labour market – the remaining factors on a micro scale

EN WOMEN

L – employers’ beliefs about women’s fitness for particular professions;

Ł – organization of labour in an enterprise; M – criteria adopted while selecting job app N – actions taken and beliefs held by immediate superiors; O – pure pay dis

P

S

Table 7. The structure of answers (in %) given by the respondents while stating the reasons u

M

4 5 Average 4 5 Average

1 2 3 1 2 3

Q 18 43 39 0 0 2.21 17 35 48 0 0 2.31

R 70 30 0 0 0 1.3 46 33 18 3 0 1.78

S 5 8 42 21 24 3.51 0 0 40 49 11 3.71

Commentary:

1 – no influence; 2 – slight influence; 3 – considerable influence; 4 – great influence; 5 – chief influence Q – actions taken by labour unions; R – actions taken by political parties; S – actions taken by husbands

ource: own compilation based on the results of the questionnaire survey

y husbands (weight attached – 3.71) a major factor. Men attached

on (4.51) and division into female and male

omen placed the greatest importance on this factor (i.e. 4.66) while en gave it only 3.51.

S

As shown in Table 7, analyzing the remaining factors on a micro scale, women considered actions taken b

3.51 weight to this factor.

Taken factors on a macro scale into consideration, women attached considerable weight to stereotypes created (4.66), cultural values and norms (4.61), differences in socialization (4.58) as well as division into female and male activities (4.36). As for men, they paid attention to differences in socializati

activities (4.1) which was shown in Table 8.

The most profound difference was observed in the case of weight attached to stereotypes created as w

m

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Table 8. The structure of answers (in %) given by the respondents while stating the reasons nderlying worse situation of women on the labour market – factors on a macro scale

EN u

M WOMEN

Average 2 Average

1 2 3 4 5 1 3 4 5

T 11 12 42 20 15 3.16 0 0 22 65 13 3.91

U 11 12 38 24 15 3.2 0 0 85 15 0 3.15

V 4 3 35 54 4 3.51 0 21 60 19 0 2.98

W 17 41 25 14 3 2.45 9 64 14 5 8 2.39

X 3 2 15 42 38 4.1 0 0 2 60 38 4.36

Y 1 0 7 31 61 4.51 0 0 7 28 65 4.58

Z 10 7 27 34 22 3.51 0 4 1 20 75 4.66

Ź 8 5 28 37 22 3.6 0 4 1 25 70 4.61

Commentary:

1 – no influence; 2 – slight influence; 3 – considerable influence; 4 – great influence; 5 – chief influence

– differences in socialization of girls and boys; Z – stereotypes created; Ż – cultural values and norms

mpilation based on the results of the questionnaire survey onclusion

, and finally employers’ beliefs

mic roles performed by women (4.46) as well as values determining discrimination against women on the

men attach considerable eight to stereotypes created (4.66) (weight placed by men – 3.51).

T – political system and legislation; U – social policy; V – women’s health and safety at work W – economic and fiscal policy of a state; X – division into female activities and male activities Y

Source: own co C

To sum up, manageresses consider the following factors the main reasons underlying discrimination against women on the labour market: actions taken and beliefs held by immediate superiors (4.87), criteria adopted while selecting job applicants (4.8), stereotypes created (4.66), division of responsibilities among family members (4.64), cultural values and norms (4.61), differences in socialization (4.58), other than economic roles performed by women (4.54), relations with friends and social relations (4.53)

about women’s limited fitness for particular professions (4.5).

On the contrary, managers attach the greatest importance to such factors as criteria adopted while selecting job applicants (4.68), existing and potential relations with friends and social relations (average appraisal – 4.66), employers’ beliefs about women’s fitness for particular professions (4.59), women’s characteristics (4.48), differences in socialization of girls and boys (4.51), other than econo

cherished by women and men (4.42).

Chart below presents a collation of factors labour market as stated by the respondents.

Besides, it is worth mentioning that men pay attention to differences in talents (4.16) and characteristics (4.48) as well as different systems of values and objectives held by women and men (4.42). In women’s opinion, differences in talents are not so important (2.03), and differences in characteristics are quite important as far as its influence on worse situation of women on the labour market is concerned (3.18). By contrast, wo

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1 2 3 4 5

1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18

19 20

Men W omen

Commentary:

A – improper professional qualification held by women;

B – women’s professional preferences C – women’s broken employment record;

D – limited spatial mobility;

E – other than economic roles performed by women

F – division of responsibilities among family members (unequally distributed housework) G – biological differences between sexes ;

H – differences in talents shown by women and men I – character differences between women and men

J – women’s beliefs about the division into female and male activities as well as social roles K – other values and objectives defined by women and men

L – employers’ beliefs about women’s fitness for particular professions Ł – organization of labour in an enterprise

M – criteria adopted while selecting job applicants N – actions taken and beliefs held by immediate superiors;

O – pure pay discrimination;

P – relations with friends and social relations (existing and potential ones) Q – actions taken by labour unions; R – actions taken by political parties S – actions taken by husbands; T – political system and legislation U – social policy; V – women’s health and safety at work

W – economic and fiscal policy of a state;

X – division into female activities and male activities Y – differences in socialization of girls and boys;

Z – stereotypes created; Ż – cultural values and norms

Chart 2. Factors determining discrimination against women on the labour market as stated by the respondents

Source: own compilation based on the results of the questionnaire survey

The respondents consider actions taken by political parties, social and fiscal policy of a state as well as actions taken by labour unions as factors determining professional discrimination against women to the smallest extent. Furthermore, organization of labour in enterprise and biological differences between sexes also have slight influence according to the respondents.

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