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NCG

Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie Netherlands Geodetic Commission

3D Cadastre

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Publications on Geodesy 57 ISBN 90 6132 286 3 ISSN 0165 1706

Published by: NCG, Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie, Netherlands Geodetic Commission, Delft, The Netherlands

Printed by: Optima Grafi sche Communicatie, Optima Graphic Communication, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Cover illustration: Axel Smits

NCG, Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie, Netherlands Geodetic Commission P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The Netherlands

T: +31 (0)15 278 28 19 F: +31 (0)15 278 17 75 E: ncg@lr.tudelft.nl W: www.ncg.knaw.nl

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Acknowledgements

I could never have finished this work without the support of a group of very pleasant people and I feel privileged that I was able to work with them. I would like to thank all the people who contributed either directly or indirectly to this work. However, there are a few people who I would like to specifically mention here.

First of all I would like to thank Peter van Oosterom. His enthusiasm stimulated me to do this research with great enjoyment and our discussions were very inspiring for me. Hendrik Ploeger contributed largely to this thesis by discussing my findings using his juridical expertise. I would like to thank Sisi Zlatanova because we collaborated (from my side with great pleasure) on different topics of this thesis. Wilko Quak and Theo Thijssen were indispensable during my research because they were always available assisting me in all kinds of technical issues (they never said ‘no’, ‘maybe’ or ‘later’). Marian de Vries supported me in the Internet part of my research. I cooperated with Ben Gorte on the terrain modelling issues. I am grateful to Jitkse de Jong for giving me supervision on juridical matters. Axel Smits assisted me in preparing the illustrations in this thesis, he also designed the cover.

I would like to thank all other members of the section GIS technology as well as the members of the section Geo-information and Land Development because they con-tributed to the motivating environment in which I was able to perform this research. The Kadaster cooperated in this research by providing me with data and by discus-sions on data models and on research developments. I am grateful to the following persons of the Netherlands’ Kadaster: Auke Hoekstra, Zacharias Klaasse, Martin Salzmann, and Berry van Osch. Piet Beekman from the cadastral office in Zuid-Holland was very valuable because he provided me with all the cadastral information needed for the Dutch case studies.

I worked with people from the Danish cadastre (KMS) in Copenhagen and the Centre for 3D GeoInformation in Aalborg on the case study in Denmark.

The following persons provided me with useful comments about the contents of this thesis: Elfriede Fendel, Hans-Gerd Maas and Jaap Zevenbergen.

Rod Thompson of the Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy (Queens-land Government) provided me with data sets needed for the Queens(Queens-land case study. Moreover, Rod did a great job because he gave me advice on the English text of this thesis. Also George Sithole: thanks for your suggestions on the English text.

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me advice on technical issues.

I appreciate the contribution of the NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij), the project-team of the HSL-Zuid and the Bouwdienst van Rijkswaterstaat because they provided me with 3D data on physical constructions for the case studies. AGI (Ad-viesdienst Geo-informatie en ICT) provided me with point heights of case study areas. Calin Arens, Friso Penninga and Erik van Nieuwburg contributed to several issues in this thesis (respectively the polyhedron implementation, the effective filtering of a TIN and the Internet application to query a database) as part of their MSc programme, Friso the last few months as a colleague.

Finally there are a number of people who supported me in finishing this thesis in a more indirect way. To have these people around me give me the possibility to explore and experience the things in life that are essential to me. First of all I would like to thank Riet, Roel, Suzan and Marije (my family). They gave me the possibility in the first place to start my education and study and they always support me in doing what I find important to do. Secondly, I would like to thank all my inspiring friends who I either meet frequently or rarely. These contacts were very important to me during my research. There are two people who I like to mention specifically. Madeleine was essential for me during this period because of our spiritual discussions, her stimulation, and laughter. Finally, Gerbert, my soulmate, was of great importance to me because of his practical and mental support, his encouragement and understanding.

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Contents

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Need for a 3D cadastre . . . 3

1.2 Research scope . . . 7

1.2.1 Topics within the scope of this thesis . . . 7

1.2.2 Topics outside the scope of this thesis . . . 9

1.3 Research approach . . . 9

1.3.1 Research objectives . . . 9

1.3.2 Research methods . . . 10

1.4 Previous and related research . . . 11

1.4.1 Related research on 3D cadastres . . . 11

1.4.2 Related research on 3D tools and 3D modelling . . . 11

1.5 Contribution of the work . . . 12

1.6 Organisation of the thesis . . . 13

I

Analysis of the background

17

2 Current cadastral registration of 3D situations in the Netherlands 19 2.1 Different types of cadastral registrations . . . 20

2.2 The Netherlands’ Kadaster . . . 24

2.2.1 Organisation of the Netherlands’ Kadaster . . . 24

2.2.2 Public Registers and cadastral registration . . . 25

2.2.3 Cadastral model . . . 25

2.2.4 Mapping real world objects . . . 26

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2.3.1 Right of ownership . . . 27

2.3.2 Right of superficies . . . 30

2.3.3 Right of long lease . . . 31

2.3.4 Right of easement . . . 31

2.3.5 Apartment right . . . 32

2.3.6 Joint ownership . . . 34

2.4 3D registration and Public Law . . . 34

2.4.1 Belemmeringenwet Privaatrecht . . . 35

2.4.2 Law on Monuments . . . 37

2.4.3 Law on Soil Protection . . . 38

2.5 Other relevant aspects of cadastral registration . . . 38

2.5.1 Underground objects in the cadastral registration . . . 38

2.5.2 Parcels and part parcels . . . 39

2.5.3 Frequency of types of cadastral recordings . . . 40

2.6 Conclusions . . . 41

3 Current practice of 3D registration: case studies 45 3.1 Building complexes . . . 46

3.1.1 Case study 1: Building complex in The Hague . . . 46

3.1.2 Case study 2: The Hague Central Station . . . 47

3.1.3 Case study 3: Apartment complex . . . 49

3.2 Subsurface infrastructure objects . . . 51

3.2.1 Case study 4: Railway tunnel and station in urban area . . . . 52

3.2.2 Case study 5: Railway tunnel in rural area . . . 54

3.2.3 Case study 6: Utility pipelines . . . 55

3.3 Conclusions . . . 57

4 3D cadastre abroad 59 4.1 3D cadastral registrations abroad . . . 59

4.2 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in the Netherlands . . . 62

4.3 Denmark . . . 63

4.3.1 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in Denmark . . . 64

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CONTENTS

4.4.1 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in Norway . . . 67

4.5 Sweden . . . 68

4.5.1 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in Sweden . . . 70

4.6 Queensland, Australia . . . 70

4.6.1 Restricted, building and volumetric parcels . . . 71

4.6.2 A case study in Queensland . . . 73

4.6.3 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in Queensland . . . 74

4.7 British Columbia, Canada . . . 76

4.7.1 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in British Columbia . . . 77

4.8 Israel . . . 78

4.8.1 Evaluating 3D cadastral issues in Israel . . . 79

4.9 Conclusions . . . 80

5 Needs and opportunities for a 3D cadastre 83 5.1 Current cadastral registration of 3D situations in the Netherlands . . . 84

5.2 Complexities of current cadastral registration . . . 85

5.2.1 Complexities of current Dutch cadastral registration . . . 86

5.2.2 Locating infrastructure objects in the current cadastre . . . 88

5.3 Basic needs for a 3D cadastre . . . 89

5.4 Opportunities for a 3D cadastre . . . 91

5.5 3D applications outside the cadastral domain . . . 92

5.6 Conclusions . . . 94

II

Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations

97

6 Theory of spatial data modelling 99 6.1 Data models . . . 99

6.1.1 Data models in GIS . . . 101

6.1.2 Design phases in modelling . . . 103

6.2 Conceptual model . . . 103

6.3 Logical model . . . 104

6.3.1 Relational model . . . 104

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6.3.3 Object relational model . . . 107

6.4 Physical model . . . 108

6.5 UML . . . 109

6.6 Spatial data modelling and DBMS . . . 112

6.7 Standardisation initiatives . . . 113 6.7.1 OpenGIS Consortium . . . 114 6.7.2 ISO TC/211 . . . 117 6.7.3 CEN/TC 287 . . . 119 6.8 Conclusions . . . 119 7 Geo-DBMSs 121 7.1 Geometrical primitives in DBMSs . . . 122 7.1.1 2D geometrical primitives in DBMSs . . . 122 7.1.2 3D geometrical primitives in DBMSs . . . 124 7.2 Topological structure in DBMSs . . . 127

7.2.1 OGC, ISO and planar partition topology . . . 128

7.2.2 User-defined DBMS implementation of 2D topological structure 129 7.2.3 Commercial DBMS implementation of 2D topological structure 138 7.2.4 User-defined DBMS implementation of 3D topological structure 139 7.3 Spatial analyses in DBMSs . . . 141

7.3.1 2D spatial analyses using geometrical primitives . . . 142

7.3.2 3D spatial analyses using geometrical primitives . . . 144

7.3.3 Spatial analyses using the topological structure . . . 145

7.3.4 Case study: topological structure or geometrical primitives? . . 146

7.4 Implementation of a 3D geometrical primitive in a DBMS . . . 148

7.4.1 Definition of 3D primitive . . . 149

7.4.2 Validation . . . 152

7.4.3 Spatial indexing in 3D . . . 156

7.4.4 3D functions . . . 158

7.5 Conclusions . . . 159

8 3D GIS and accessing a 3D geo-DBMS with front-ends 163 8.1 3D GIS . . . 164

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CONTENTS

8.1.1 Organisation of 3D data . . . 164

8.1.2 3D data collection and object reconstruction . . . 165

8.1.3 Visualisation and navigation in 3D environments . . . 166

8.1.4 3D analyses and 3D editing . . . 168

8.2 Accessing a geo-DBMS with a CAD front-end . . . 168

8.3 Accessing a geo-DBMS with a GIS front-end . . . 173

8.4 Accessing a geo-DBMS using Web technology . . . 177

8.4.1 VRML and X3D . . . 177

8.4.2 Prototypes . . . 180

8.5 Conclusions . . . 186

9 Integrating 2D parcels and 3D objects in one environment 189 9.1 Absolute or relative coordinates . . . 190

9.2 Introduction of a case study . . . 191

9.2.1 Description of data sets . . . 191

9.2.2 Combining point heights and 3D objects . . . 192

9.2.3 Assigning height to parcels . . . 192

9.3 Integrated TINs of point heights and parcels . . . 195

9.3.1 Unconstrained TIN . . . 195

9.3.2 Constrained TIN . . . 197

9.3.3 Conforming TIN . . . 198

9.3.4 Refined constrained TIN . . . 200

9.4 Analysing and querying parcel surfaces . . . 202

9.5 Generalisation of the integrated TIN . . . 203

9.5.1 Detailed-to-coarse approach . . . 204

9.5.2 Coarse-to-detailed approach . . . 204

9.5.3 Integrated height and object generalisation . . . 204

9.6 Generalisation prototype . . . 206

9.7 Conclusions . . . 209

III

Models for a 3D cadastre

211

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10.1 Introduction of possible solutions . . . 213

10.2 A 2D cadastre with 3D tags . . . 216

10.3 The hybrid approach . . . 217

10.3.1 Registration of 3D right-volumes . . . 217

10.3.2 Registration of 3D physical objects . . . 220

10.4 A full 3D cadastre . . . 222

10.4.1 Combined 2D/3D alternative . . . 222

10.4.2 Pure 3D cadastre . . . 224

10.5 Evaluating the conceptual models . . . 225

10.5.1 Solutions seen from a cadastral point of view . . . 225

10.5.2 Solutions seen from a technical point of view . . . 226

10.5.3 The optimal solution for a 3D cadastre . . . 228

10.6 Conclusions . . . 229

11 Logical model for a 3D cadastre 231 11.1 3D right-volumes in the DBMS . . . 232

11.1.1 Spatial data model . . . 232

11.1.2 Administrative data model . . . 234

11.1.3 Data collection . . . 236

11.1.4 Querying . . . 236

11.2 3D physical objects in the DBMS . . . 237

11.2.1 Spatial data model . . . 237

11.2.2 Administrative data model . . . 238

11.2.3 Data collection . . . 239

11.2.4 Fundamental issues when linking GIS and CAD . . . 241

11.2.5 Querying . . . 242

11.3 Volume parcels in the DBMS . . . 242

11.3.1 Spatial data model . . . 243

11.3.2 Administrative data model . . . 244

11.3.3 Data collection . . . 244

11.3.4 Querying . . . 245

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CONTENTS

11.4.1 History for 3D right-volumes . . . 246

11.4.2 History for 3D physical objects . . . 246

11.4.3 History in a full 3D cadastre . . . 246

11.5 Conclusions . . . 247

IV

Realisation of a 3D cadastre

249

12 Prototypes applied to case studies 251 12.1 Prototypes of the hybrid cadastre . . . 252

12.1.1 Case study 1: Building complex in The Hague . . . 252

12.1.2 Case study 2: The Hague Central Station . . . 254

12.1.3 Case study 3: Apartment complex . . . 259

12.1.4 Case study 4: Railway tunnel in urban area . . . 261

12.1.5 Case study 5: Railway tunnel in rural area . . . 263

12.1.6 Evaluation of hybrid cadastre . . . 266

12.2 Prototype of the full 3D cadastre . . . 268

12.2.1 The Gabba Stadium in Queensland . . . 268

12.2.2 Evaluation of full 3D cadastre . . . 271

12.3 Conclusions . . . 274

13 Summary, conclusions and further research 277 13.1 Analysis of the background . . . 277

13.1.1 Current registration practise of 3D property units . . . 278

13.1.2 Cadastral and juridical constraints for a 3D cadastre . . . 280

13.1.3 Needs and requirements for a 3D cadastre . . . 281

13.2 Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations . . . 282

13.2.1 2D and 3D geo-objects in geo-DBMS . . . 282

13.2.2 3D GIS . . . 284

13.2.3 Accessing spatial information organised in a DBMS . . . 284

13.2.4 2D parcels and 3D geo-objects in one 3D environment . . . 285

13.3 Models for a 3D cadastre . . . 286

13.3.1 Conceptual solutions for a 3D cadastre . . . 286

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13.4 Realisation of a 3D cadastre . . . 288

13.4.1 Full 3D cadastre . . . 288

13.4.2 Hybrid cadastre . . . 289

13.5 Future directions for a Dutch 3D cadastre . . . 291

13.6 Further research . . . 293

13.6.1 Institutional aspects of 3D cadastral registration . . . 293

13.6.2 Geo-Information Infrastructure . . . 293

13.6.3 3D in the new generation GIS architecture . . . 293

13.7 Main results of this thesis . . . 296

Bibliography 297

A Visualising attributes in VRML 315 B XSLT stylesheet to transform XML to X3D 317 Nederlandse samenvatting 321 Curriculum Vitae 327

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Chapter 1

Introduction

During the last two centuries population density has increased considerably making land use more intense. This trend has caused a growing importance of ownership of land, which has changed the way humans relate to land. This changing relationship necessitated a system in which property to land is clearly and indisputably recorded. In this thesis such a system is referred to as a ‘cadastre’ although many systems with different names are instituted world-wide, which fulfil (more or less) similar tasks, such as cadastral registration, cadastral system, land registry, land registration, land administration, property register and land book.

No unique form of a cadastre exists. In [34] it was noted that:

“It is impossible to give a definition of a Cadastre which is both terse and comprehensive, but its distinctive character is readily recognized and may be expressed as the marriage of (a) technical record of the parcellation of the land through any given territory, usually represented on plans of suitable scale, with (b) authoritative documentary record, whether of a fiscal or proprietary nature or of the two combined, usually embodied in appropriate associated registers.”

In principle, this thesis follows the description of a Cadastre as it is given in the FIG (International Federation of Surveyors) Statement on the Cadastre [53]:

“Cadastre is normally a parcel based, and up-to-date land information system containing a record of interests in land (e.g. rights, restrictions and responsibilities). It usually includes a geometric description of land parcels linked to other records describing the nature of the interests, the ownership or control of those interests, and often the value of the parcel and its improvements. It may be established for fiscal purposes (e.g. valu-ation and equitable taxvalu-ation), legal purposes (conveyancing), to assist in the management of land and land use (e.g. for planning and other adminis-trative purposes), and enables sustainable development and environmental protection.”

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Although the aim of this thesis is not to focus on one Cadastre in particular, the Dutch Cadastre, which will be described extensively in chapter 2 and 3, will be used as the basic starting point. In the Netherlands the Cadastre, which is the responsibility of the Netherlands’ Cadastre and Land Registry Agency (Kadaster), comprises both the cadastral registration and the land registration. The land registration (in the Nether-lands) is a Public Register in which documents describing interests in land are kept. In some countries the land registration refers to the ordered and recorded legal docu-ments as in the Netherlands, also called a deed registration, while in other countries the land registration refers to a property register, also called a title registration. The cadastral registration in the Netherlands is a record of the rights that are reg-istered on land. In the cadastral registration essential information from documents recorded in the land registration is linked to a location (parcel). Cadastral registra-tion (or cadastre) as used in this thesis refers to both the active process of registraregistra-tion and the result of registration (also called register).

Basic entities of the cadastral registration are ‘real estate’, ‘real property’ or ‘property’ and ‘subject’. In general land and buildings on the land are referred to as real estate, while various rights associated with land are called real property (or property) [53]. The subjects are persons or organisations that are entitled to real estate through property rights.

Originally, cadastral registration was often introduced to assist in land taxation. To-day cadastral registration also provides relevant information for land transactions and helps to improve the efficiency of those transactions and security of tenure in land in general. It provides governments at all levels with relevant information for taxation and regulation. Cadastral registration is increasingly used by both private and public sectors in land development, urban and rural planning, land management and envi-ronmental monitoring and is no longer related to cadastral surveying and mapping alone [53, 212].

To be able to meet all these requirements, the main tasks of current cadastres can be defined as:

• to register the legal status of and governmental restrictions on real estate: the persons who have interests in land; what the interests are (nature and dura-tion of rights, restricdura-tions and responsibilities); on what land the interests are established (information on parcels such as location, size, value);

• to provide information on the legal status of and governmental restrictions on real estate.

In order to perform these tasks adequately, cadastral registration needs to maintain correct and consistent information, consisting of a complete set of cadastral parcels as well as a record containing interests on the parcels. Moreover cadastral registration has to be organised in such a way that the legal status of real estate becomes clear when querying the cadastral registration.

Individualisation of property started originally with subdividing the surface into pro-perty units using 2D boundaries. For this reason the basic entity of current cadastral maps is the ‘parcel’, which makes the cadastral map a 2D map. To ensure complete-ness and consistency, 2D parcels may not overlap and gaps may not occur (forming a

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1.1. Need for a 3D cadastre

planar partition). Although parcels are represented in 2D, someone with a right to a parcel always has been entitled to a space in 3D, i.e. a right of ownership on a parcel relates to a space in 3D that can be used by the owner and is not limited to just the flat parcel defined in 2D without any height or depth. If the right of ownership only applied to the surface, the use of the property would be impossible. Consequently, from a juridical point of view cadastral registration always has been 3D. The question can be posed if traditional cadastral registration, which is based on the concept of a 2D parcel, is adequate for registering all kinds of situations that occur in the modern world or does cadastral registration need to progress to a 3D approach.

The FIG Bathurst Declaration [55] concluded that “most land administration sys-tems today are not adequate to cope with the increasingly complex range of rights, restrictions and responsibilities in relation to land”. Since many existing cadastres are still based on a paradigm that has its origin centuries ago, this paradigm needs to be reconsidered and adjusted to today’s world. This thesis reconsiders the central paradigm of cadastral registration with respect to the issue of dimensions (2D and 3D).

This chapter presents the topic of this thesis and sets the outlines of the research described in this thesis. The chapter starts with a description of the need for a 3D cadastre (section 1.1). In section 1.2 the scope of this research is presented, while in section 1.3 the research objectives and the research methods that were used to reach the objectives of this research are described. Related research to this thesis is presented in section 1.4. The contribution of this work is described in section 1.5. This chapter ends with an overview of this thesis.

1.1

Need for a 3D cadastre

Pressure on land in urban areas and especially their business centres has led to over-lapping and interlocking constructions (see figure 1.1). Even when the creation of property rights to match these developments is available within existing legislation, describing and depicting them in the cadastral registration poses a challenge. This is not surprising when looking at the FIG description of a Cadastre in which the parcel is the basic entity. The challenge is how to register overlapping and inter-locking constructions when projected on the surface in a cadastral registration that registers information on 2D parcels. Although property has been located on top of each other for many years, it is only recently that the question has been raised as to whether cadastral registration should be extended into the third dimension. The growing interest for 3D cadastral registration is caused by a number of factors:

• a considerable increase in (private) property values;

• the number of tunnels, cables and pipelines (water, electricity, sewage, tele-phone, TV cables), underground parking places, shopping malls, buildings above roads/railways and other cases of multilevel buildings has grown considerably in the last forty years;

• an upcoming 3D approach in other domains (3D GIS (Geographical Information Systems), 3D planning) which makes a 3D approach of cadastral registration technologically realisable.

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(a) Underground metro, Rotterdam, the Nether-lands

(b) Subsurface shopping mall, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

(c) Business district La Defense in Paris, a road and a metro in the subsurface intersect buildings and plazas

Figure 1.1: Examples of complex property situations.

The core terms used in this thesis are 3D cadastre, 3D property unit, 3D (property) situation and parcel. A 3D cadastre is a cadastre which registers and gives insight into rights and restrictions not (only) on parcels but on 3D property units. A 3D property unit, also abbreviated to ‘3D property’ in this thesis, is that (bounded) amount of space to which a person is entitled by means of real rights. In fact the traditional parcel, with only one person using the parcel, is also a 3D property unit (often not explicitly bounded). However this has never caused any problems with

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1.1. Need for a 3D cadastre

respect to the third dimension, since current cadastral registration is adequate to give insight into these traditional property situations. The problems arise in 3D property situations.

3D property situations (in this thesis also abbreviated to ‘3D situations’) refer to situations in which different property units (with possibly different types of land use) are located on top of each other or constructed in even more complex structures, i.e. interlocking one another (see figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Example of 3D property situation.

In this thesis 3D property situations are also referred to as stratified properties. In 3D property situations several users are using an amount of space (volume), which is bounded in three dimensions. These volumes are positioned on top of each other, either all within one base parcel (the volumes are located in the same parcel column defined by the boundaries on the surface) or crossing base parcel boundaries. Real rights are established to entitle the different persons to the different volumes. A parcel is a separated piece of land, to which a person (or persons) is (are) entitled with a real right, such as right of ownership. Although, the ownership of land is not explicitly bounded in the third dimension, in most countries the ownership reaches as far as the owner has possible interest, while other persons are allowed to use space above and below a parcel as long as the user cannot reasonably object to this use (see figure 1.3).

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Consequently, the geological subsurface may be very important for the factual demar-cation of the third dimension of ownership. In areas with a solid geological subsurface, e.g. in most Scandinavian countries, a tunnel twenty-five meters below the surface will not cause any inconvenience to the owner of the surface parcel. Therefore such a con-struction may be allowed according to the concept of the right of ownership, while in countries with a ‘soft’ subsurface the space below the surface may be of much more interest for the owner of the surface parcel since subsurface activity may damage surface property.

To register 3D property situations in current cadastres, the legal status of 3D sit-uations has to be translated in such a way that it can be registered in the current cadastral registration (see figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: How to register 3D situations in a 2D cadastral registration? FIG Commission 7 (Cadastre and Land Management) produced a vision of where cadastral registrations might be in 2014 taking current trends into account, such as the changing relationship of humankind to land, the changing role of governments in society, the impact of technology on cadastral reform, the changing role of surveyors in society and the growing role of the private sector in the operation of the cadastre [54]. The study resulted in the following six statements on Cadastre 2014 based on a four-year process involving input from many countries world-wide:

• Cadastre 2014 will show the complete legal situation of land, including public rights and restrictions.

• The separation between ‘maps’ and ‘registers’ will be abolished. • Cadastral modelling will take over cadastral mapping.

• Paper-and-pencil cadastre will disappear.

• Cadastre 2014 will be highly privatised and public and private sector will work closely together.

• Cadastre 2014 will be cost recovering.

Although the statement on Cadastre 2014 does not mention 3D cadastre explicitly, the report emphasises that cadastres in the future will no longer be based on or re-stricted to (2D) cadastral maps. Future cadastres will show the complete (thus also in

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1.2. Research scope

all dimensions) legal situation of land, including public rights and restrictions. Also demands from practise will get growing influence on cadastral registration in the fu-ture. These aspects motivate the study of the 3D issues of cadastral registration in a broad, integrated view. The result of such a broad integrated approach is that all rights, restrictions and responsibilities related to land, often overlapping, are consid-ered. This include many more aspects than would traditionally be of interest of and be recorded in a cadastral registration [212].

The Netherlands’ Kadaster has the responsibility for cadastral registration in the Netherlands. Until now the Netherlands’ Kadaster has been able to register 3D situ-ations within current registration possibilities. Are these registration-methods suffi-cient to fulfil the main tasks of a cadastral registration, i.e. to register the legal status of real estate and to provide insight into the legal status of real estate?

Since a few situations have occurred (and more are expected in the future) which could not be registered unambiguously and clearly in the cadastral registration, the discussion started on what to do with 3D situations. To support this discussion the Netherlands’ Kadaster and the TU Delft took the initiative to start a research on 3D cadastral registration to study the needs, constraints and possibilities of a 3D cadastre. This thesis is the result of this research which was carried out at TU Delft in collaboration with the Netherlands’ Kadaster.

1.2

Research scope

The scope of research on 3D cadastre is demarcated by three frameworks which de-termine the needs, constraints and possibilities for 3D cadastral registration. These frameworks are linked to each other in a hierarchical order:

• Juridical framework: how can the legal status of stratified properties be estab-lished? how to establish property boundaries other than traditional 2D parcel boundaries? what rights can be used and how can these rights be used? • Cadastral framework: once the legal status of property in 3D situations has been

established and described in deeds and in field works that are archived in the land registration, the next issues are how to register the rights and restrictions to property (bounded in three dimesnions) in the cadastral registration and how to provide information on the legal status of 3D property situations?

• Technical framework: what system architecture (computer hardware, software, data structures) is needed to support cadastral registration in 3D situations? what architecture is technologically possible?

This thesis will focus mainly on the cadastral and technical framework.

1.2.1

Topics within the scope of this thesis

Several fundamental considerations outline the scope of this thesis as follows: • Current cadastral registration (in combination with current land registration)

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in today’s society based on long history. It is therefore not feasible to think of a 3D cadastre totally outside the current juridical and cadastral framework. This does not mean that (feasible) adjustments in the framework cannot lead to improvements. Therefore the precondition of this thesis is to start with the current cadastral registration and to see where this registration suffices and where it needs improvements (extensions) in case of 3D situations. This precondition imposes special demands on this research to 3D cadastre, since the 3D cadastre should fit to some extent within the current juridical, cadastral and technical framework.

• Although generalities on 3D registration are addressed, this thesis focuses on cadastral registration in particular.

• Disseminating information via the Internet is important in today’s society. Therefore the cadastral registration that is considered should fit in a Geo-Information Infrastructure (GII).

• This thesis focuses in the first place on cadastral registration in the Netherlands. Since cadastral registration abroad has similar fundamental characteristics, the main conclusions drawn in this thesis are extendible in (a limited way) to other cadastral registrations. However, it should be noted that many minor differences are present between cadastral registrations in different countries due to different legislation and different implementation history.

• Cadastral registrations in other countries will be considered in order to examine the need for 3D registration in other countries, to see if and how other countries solve the problem of 3D cadastral registration and to come to more general (not only valid for the Dutch situation) conclusions.

• Both cadastral and technical issues will be addressed. Cadastral issues deal with the main tasks of the cadastre in 3D situations and technical issues determine how these cadastral issues can be implemented.

• Since a DBMS (DataBase Management System) is an essential part of the archi-tecture that is capable of maintaining large amounts of (spatial) data such as in cadastral registration, a main issue of this thesis is how to model 3D geo-objects (topologically and geometrically) in a DBMS.

• The cadastral registration must provide access to a wide spectrum of users (citizens, real estate agents, notaries, GIS/CAD specialists). Therefore another major issue is how the cadastral DBMS can be made accessible for users. • With respect to 3D GIS, efficient methods for geometric construction, data

structuring, organisation of 2D and 3D data in one environment, database cre-ation and updating have yet to be developed. This thesis will give considercre-ations and preliminary solutions for these issues.

• The main focus of this thesis is to give technical solutions and technical rec-ommendations to implement a 3D cadastre. For this purpose the needs for a 3D cadastre in general are studied and translated into technical needs. Current (commercially available) techniques are tested to evaluate if they are able to meet these needs. If fundamental solutions are not provided by commercially available techniques, concepts are designed which are tested by translating the concepts into prototypes.

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1.3. Research approach

1.2.2

Topics outside the scope of this thesis

Topics that are not within the scope of this thesis can be described as:

• It is not the aim of this thesis to provide solutions for 3D registration for any cadastre outside the Netherlands, although cadastres in other countries can use the findings of this thesis that address general issues of cadastral registration in 3D situations.

• Juridical issues will be addressed in this thesis, but will be merely used as preconditions. It is not the aim of this thesis to give recommendations on (major) changes of the legal system in the Netherlands. However the experiences and findings in this thesis may lead to recommendations for developments and further research on juridical issues.

• This thesis does not intend to develop an operational 3D cadastral registration, since this is not considered feasible at this stage, in which many issues still need to be resolved and in which choices need to be made on where to go to. This thesis firstly aims at a clear definition of the problem, a development of concepts and validation and evaluation of the concepts by prototyping key aspects. • Functionality of 3D cadastral registration is the main topic of this research.

Performance testing and benchmarking with respect to 3D cadastral registration or other information systems are therefore not part of this research.

• This thesis addresses cadastral registration in particular and will therefore not address topographical or other registrations.

1.3

Research approach

In this section the research objectives and the research methods that were used to achieve these objectives are explained.

1.3.1

Research objectives

The main objective of this thesis is to answer the question how to record 3D situations in cadastral registration in order to improve insight into 3D situations. The emphasis of this thesis is on the technical aspects of cadastral registration. To realise this objective, this thesis concentrates on four different topics:

• Analysis of the background. This part focuses on identifying problems of current cadastral registration concerning 3D situations, both in the Netherlands and abroad, in order to get insight into the needs and requirements for 3D cadastral registration and in order to structure the national and international discussion on 3D cadastre.

• Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations. In this part techniques are explored that are needed for a 3D cadastre:

– How to model 2D and 3D geo-objects in a DBMS which is the core of the new generation GIS architecture?

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– How to access and analyse 3D geo-objects organised in a geo-DBMS? – How to combine 2D parcels and 3D geo-objects in one environment? • Models for a 3D cadastre. In this part conceptual models are designed

based on current registration and based on available techniques in order to improve 3D cadastral registration. Also considerations are given for translating the conceptual models of a 3D cadastre into logical models.

• Realisation of a 3D cadastre. The proposed conceptual models are eval-uated by translating conceptual alternatives into prototype implementations using techniques explored and developed as part of this thesis and by perform-ing functional tests. Performance tests are not part of this thesis.

1.3.2

Research methods

To answer the research questions, the following research methods are used. Analysis of the background

“What are the actual needs for 3D registration?” is the first important topic of this research. To answer this question a literature study will be carried out to come to a list of types of cadastral recordings with a possible 3D component. To conclude on the actual complications of current registration of 3D situations in the Netherlands, six (national) case-studies will be carried out. To get insight also into the needs for cadastral registration abroad, the question will be addressed “how are 3D situations internationally registered and do other countries meet the same problems?” To answer these questions an international workshop on 3D cadastres was organised. Knowledge obtained during this workshop supplemented with literature study will be presented. During a working visit to Aalborg, Denmark, the Danish cadastral registration in case of 3D situations has been examined. In collaboration with Queensland Government, Australia, also a case study in Brisbane, Queensland has been carried out. The results of both case studies will be described.

Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations

How geometrical primitives and topology structure can be modelled both in 2D and 3D in a DBMS and what is the current state-of-the-art of 3D GIS are the next topics. The description of the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS is a result of literature study. Answer to the first question is basically a result of carrying out experiments with current DBMSs and with new developments designed and implemented as part of this research. The same approach will be followed to find out how 3D information stored in a geo-DBMS can be accessed by front-ends. Experiments will also be carried out to explore fundamental issues of combining 2D parcels and 3D geo-objects in one environment. Models for a 3D cadastre.

The main question in this research is how can current cadastral registration be im-proved in case of 3D situations? To answer this question conceptual modelling for 3D cadastre will be carried out based on the findings of the analysis of the background and of the analysis of the technological possibilities of modelling 2D and 3D situations. Realisation of a 3D cadastre.

The conceptual models will be translated into prototype implementations. In exper-iments in which the prototype implementations will be applied to the case studies,

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1.4. Previous and related research

the conceptual models for a 3D cadastre will be evaluated. The experiments with the prototypes will also lead to conclusions on how to realise an effective 3D cadastre.

1.4

Previous and related research

Related research to this thesis, which focuses on cadastral and technical aspects of a 3D cadastre, can be divided into research on 3D cadastral registration and research on 3D tools and 3D modelling.

1.4.1

Related research on 3D cadastres

Israel is one of the countries which faces high pressure on the use of land. This has promoted developments for a 3D cadastre. Therefore in Israel for the past five years several studies have started on 3D cadastres [9, 57, 58, 63, 64] (see also section 4.8). Mid European countries such as Ukraine [116], Hungary [161], Czech Republic [81] and Slovenia [170] are in the phase of examining the current cadastre for potential registration of 3D property units, including apartments.

International marine cadastres traditionally have a 3D approach, as the use of the marine environment is volumetric by nature and involves rights to the surface, water column, seabed and subsoil. The University of New Brunswick (Canada), Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering is developing a 3D marine cadastre to support effective and efficient decision making associated with marine governance [126, 232]. In [60] the framework issues are discussed that must be considered in the development of marine cadastral data and the use of these data in a marine information system for the United States. In this discussion 3D aspects are also addressed.

Some other countries and states have already solved part of 3D cadastral registration (Norway, Sweden, Queensland and British Columbia), as will be seen from the study on 3D cadastral registration abroad (chapter 4).

1.4.2

Related research on 3D tools and 3D modelling

3D registration deals with maintaining spatial and non-spatial information on 3D objects, which are core topics of 3D GIS. Therefore developments in 3D GIS are important when examining a 3D registration.

The main characteristic of researches on 3D models intended for 3D GIS and 3D geo-DBMSs, is that they are extensive and that the results of these researches are fragmented. Examples of 3D models intended for 3D GIS and 3D geo-DBMSs are [56, 94, 119, 168, 169, 184]. Implementations of 3D models in user-developed systems can be found in [19, 147, 181, 227].

Research on spatial querying and 3D visualisation of geo-objects using Web technolo-gies has resulted in several prototype systems [13, 31, 35, 96, 104, 240]. Research on spatial querying and 3D visualisation of geo-objects organised in a DBMS has not yet

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resulted in any publications, apart from publications that were written as part of this research.

Since developments in 3D GIS are important when studying the possibilities for a 3D cadastre, a section is included in this thesis which describes the current state-of-the-art of 3D GIS (section 8.1).

1.5

Contribution of the work

The main contributions of this work can be summarised as follows:

• Enabling a complex registration addresses many issues in a variety of disciplines (technical, cadastral, juridical, organisational). This thesis is the first extensive research on 3D cadastres in which the problem of registration in complex situa-tions has been studied using an integrated approach. Therefore this thesis has strong explorative characteristics resulting in a clear analysis as well as a dis-tinct definition of the essential problems of registering 3D situations in current cadastres taking all involved disciplines into account.

• This thesis structures the national and international discussion on the need for 3D cadastre by providing a universal overview of the basic and fundamental needs for a 3D cadastre, considered from different points of view (juridical, cadastral, technical) and by providing insight into country-specific aspects which influence the need for and possibilities of 3D cadastral registration.

• This thesis gives solution-directions for a 3D cadastre. Several models for a 3D cadastre will be introduced and translated into prototype implementations. Experience with the prototypes will result in concrete recommendations. Based on these recommendations, decision-makers will be able to base choices on if and how to implement a 3D registration on fundamental considerations. • In technical respect, the outcomes of this research contribute to 3D GIS in

general, i.e. how to model and maintain 3D geo-objects in a DBMS, how to access and query these objects by front-ends and how to combine 3D geo-objects and 2D geo-objects in one 3D environment. With respect to improving 3D GIS functionalities, an extension of a geo-DBMS has been built to support 3D primitives. Also a study was carried out to generate an appropriate integrated height model in a TIN (Triangular Irregular Network) structure based on both the 2D planar partition of parcels and point heights.

• This work contributes to supporting the demand for 3D geo-information in today’s society in general. Other organisations responsible for (spatial) reg-istrations and for spatial data sets can use the outcomes of this work to see the possibilities and constraints to extend their systems into the third dimen-sion (e.g. registrations for cultural heritage, for buildings, for zoning plans, for cables and pipelines, and databases of topographical mapping agencies).

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1.6. Organisation of the thesis

1.6

Organisation of the thesis

Chapter 1 (this chapter) presents the need for a 3D cadastre, specifies the objec-tives, the scope and the contributions of this research and describes related research. The main body of this thesis, apart from the introduction (chapter 1) and conclu-sions (chapter 13), is divided into four major parts corresponding with the four main research topics of this thesis as described in section 1.3.1.

1. Part I: Analysis of the background (chapters 2, 3, 4, 5)

2. Part II: Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations (chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9) 3. Part III: Models for a 3D cadastre (chapters 10 and 11)

4. Part IV: Realisation of a 3D cadastre (chapter 12)

Readers who are familiar with cadastral registration with respect to the 3D component and are less interested in a detailed study on needs for 3D cadastral registration may skip part I. Readers who are familiar with spatial modelling in DBMSs both in 2D and 3D and with accessing this information with front-ends or the reader who is not interested in technical issues of 3D cadastral registration may skip part II. The introduction and evaluation of new conceptual data models for 3D cadastral registration is described in part III and part IV.

Chapter 2 gives an overview of the types of cadastral recordings in the Netherlands with a potential 3D component. The aim of this chapter is to get a clear view on the cadastral domain on which the 3D cadastral research should focus. For what types of cadastral recordings should a 3D approach of registration be considered? Cadas-tral registration is in this chapter subdivided into cadasCadas-tral registration according to Private Law and cadastral registration according to Public Law. The chapter starts with a description of common alternatives of cadastral registrations, followed with an introduction into the cadastral registration of the Netherlands’ Kadaster.

Chapter 3 describes the results of six case studies which were carried out to indicate the complexities of registering 3D situations within the current Dutch cadastral reg-istration. Three case studies were selected based on multilevel building complexes in urban areas that interact with other land use, such as roads and railways. The other three case studies were selected based on subsurface infrastructure objects. The basic purpose of cadastral registration of building complexes is to provide insight into the property units within the building complex. The basic purpose of cadastral registration of infrastructure objects is to register the person who is responsible for the infrastructure object. The case studies resulted in findings which describe the limitations of current cadastral registration and the actual needs for a 3D cadastre. Chapter 4 presents the results of a study abroad. To see if this thesis can learn from international developments and to place this research in an international context, countries abroad were examined. Six countries and states in which the discussion on 3D cadastre has already started or that have solved (part) of the problem of 3D cadastral registration were examined: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Queensland (Australia), British Colombia (Canada), and Israel. The results of the study abroad are reported in chapter 4.

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Chapter 5 elaborates on the needs and opportunities for a 3D cadastre based on the findings described in chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Chapter 6 aims at clarifying some basic terms and concepts concerning spatial data modelling that are used and applied in this thesis. Data models and in specific characteristics of spatial models are described, followed by a description of the basic phases of data modelling. UML (Unified Modelling Language) is used in this thesis to describe the data models. The basic characteristics of UML are explained. How the relationship between spatial data modelling and DBMSs has evolved is also discussed. The chapter ends with a description of standardisation initiatives.

Chapter 7 discusses the state-of-the-art of DBMSs in the new generation GIS archi-tecture: how spatial objects can be maintained in a geo-DBMS using both a struc-ture of geometrical primitives and a topological strucstruc-ture. Spatial analyses on both structures are considered as well. The chapter also contains a section describing the implementation of a 3D primitive in a DBMS, a study which was carried out as part of this thesis.

As described in chapter 7, geo-DBMSs are the core of the new generation GIS archi-tecture. 3D GIS is a basic instrument to deal with 3D geo-information in general. Therefore the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS aspects other than geo-DBMSs is discussed in chapter 8. Chapter 8 reports also the results of a research that was carried out to access (query and visualise) 3D objects that are organised in a geo-DBMS. For this research three front-ends were studied: a CAD oriented system, a GIS system and a self-implemented system using Web based techniques.

Chapter 9 deals with the fundamental issue of combining 3D geo-objects (3D cadastral objects) and 2D geo-data (parcels) into one system: how to relate the two data sets in space. A case study was carried out to show possibilities and problems of integrating a 3D geo-object (pipeline) and surface parcels in one environment. TINs, representing integrated height models of point heights and parcels, that were created during this case study, are described together with their data structure and their results. The TINs are inserted in the DBMS which makes it possible to perform spatial analyses on height surfaces of (individual) parcels. In order to obtain a more effective height model, a generalisation method was developed and is described in this chapter. This method has partly been implemented in a prototype. The prototype selects only the significant TIN-nodes while removing the non-significant TIN-nodes. Results of the prototype are also reported.

Chapter 10 introduces three concepts for a 3D cadastre, each with different alter-natives, which were designed as part of this research. Based on both cadastral and technical considerations two of these three concepts were selected as most optimal solution for a 3D cadastre: a hybrid 3D cadastre (with two alternatives) and a full 3D cadastre (only one alternative).

Chapter 11 considers issues that come with translating the conceptual models that were introduced in chapter 10 into logical models: issues concerning the spatial data model, the administrative data model, as well as the process of data collection to obtain data that can be inserted into the spatial data models. Also 4D requirements of a 3D cadastre that need to be taken into account in the phase of logical modelling are considered.

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1.6. Organisation of the thesis

Chapter 12 evaluates the proposed conceptual models from chapter 10 by applying prototypes, which contain the key aspects of the conceptual and logical models, to the case studies introduced in chapter 3 and 4.

Chapter 13 summarises this thesis and concludes the major findings of this research. In this chapter it is concluded that a full 3D cadastre is a feasible solution to solve 3D cadastral issues at a fundamental level, taking juridical, cadastral as well as technical aspects into account and that such a cadastre is realisable. The chapter also contains recommendations for future research.

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Part I

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Chapter 2

Current cadastral registration

of 3D situations in the

Netherlands

Multilevel use of land is not new. In the Middle Ages cellars below roads along wharfs (werfkelders) already existed in Dutch cities (see figure 2.1), and for more than a century stores, workplaces, pubs and even houses, have been situated under railway viaducts. How are 3D situations like this recorded in the current cadastral registration; what are the complications of these recordings, and why has the question for a 3D cadastre only been raised recently? To answer these questions, first an inventory has been made of current cadastral recordings of the Netherlands’ Kadaster in which the 3D aspects of registration are considered. Results of this inventory will be described in this chapter. The aim of the inventory is to get a clear view on the cadastral domain on which the 3D cadastral research should focus.

Many types of cadastres exist based on country specific characteristics such as local cultural heritage, physical geography, land use, technology etc. The type of a cadastre (organisation, technical implementation etc.) influences needs as well as possibilities for 3D registration. Therefore this chapter starts with a short introduction of different classifications of cadastral registrations (section 2.1).

After an introduction into the registration of the Netherlands’ Kadaster (2.2), the types of cadastral recordings according to Dutch Private Law for which 3D aspects might be relevant are described (2.3), followed by a description of types of 3D cadastral recordings according to Dutch Public Law (2.4). Section 2.5 describes other aspects of cadastral registration in the Netherlands which are relevant for this thesis. The chapter ends with conclusions.

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Figure 2.1: Cellars below roads in Utrecht.

2.1

Different types of cadastral registrations

Traditionally, cadastral registrations consisted of a set of cadastral maps contain-ing cadastral parcels with (mostly) unique parcel numbers and a paper archive in which property information on parcels was maintained. Since the end of the last century cadastral registrations in developed countries have been converted from ana-logue cadastral registrations into digital registrations. Spatial information on parcels is no longer maintained on paper maps but in GIS and CAD or even more sophis-ticatedly in spatial DBMSs. Information on property and other information that is nowadays registered in cadastral registrations (mortgage, soil pollutions, monuments) is no longer (only) maintained in paper archives but in cadastral databases. A link is maintained between the digital cadastral map and the cadastral administrative database. The link provides the possibility to query the spatial part and administra-tive part of cadastral registration and combine the results. In more advanced systems it is possible to query the spatial and administrative part of cadastral registration in one integrated environment.

Cadastres can be classified in many ways, based on different criteria e.g. as proposed in [53]:

• primary function (e.g. supporting taxation, conveyancing, land distribution, or multipurpose land management activities);

• the types of rights recorded (e.g. private ownership, use rights, mineral leases, public law restrictions);

• the degree of responsibility in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data (e.g. complete state mandate, shared public and private responsibility); • location and jurisdiction (e.g. urban and rural cadastres; centralised and

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2.1. Different types of cadastral registrations

• the many ways in which information about the parcels is collected (e.g. ground surveys tied to geodetic control, uncoordinated ground surveys and measure-ments, aerial photography, digitising existing historical records, etc).

All these factors determine the required resolution and scale of spatial data, the type and characteristics of data recorded in both thematic and geometrical attributes, and the organisational and professional responsibility for managing the data. Conse-quently, these factors also influence the need for 3D cadastral registration in a specific country and how the 3D issue is or will be approached.

In [236] and [237] different classifications are proposed to describe most common alternatives for cadastral (and land) registration. These classifications are based on the most essential criteria. Since these classifications form a good overview of the differences that may exists between different cadastral registrations, the classifications are described below.

Deed versus title registration

The classification of deed registration versus title registration, is the most often used classification. The most basic difference is that “deed registration is concerned with the registration of the legal fact itself and title registration with the legal consequence of the fact” [73]. However, mostly also other factors are taken into account when distinguishing between titles and deeds. The complete definition given in [73] is: Deed registration A deed registration means that the deed itself, being a

docu-ment, which describes an isolated transaction, is registered. This deed is evi-dence that a particular transaction took place, but is in principle not itself proof of the legal rights of the involved parties and, consequently, it is not evidence of its quality. Thus before any dealing can be safely effected, the ostensible owner must trace his ownership back to a good root of title.

Title registration A title registration means that it is not the deed describing the transfer of rights that is registered but the legal consequence of that transaction, i.e. the right itself (title). So the right itself together with the name of the rightful claimant and the object of that right with its restrictions and charges are registered. With this registration the title or right is created.

In the deed registrations, (which is common in most of the countries in Western Eu-rope and many of their former colonies, the Unites States and countries in Latin America falling under Spanish/Portuguese law) the documents filed in the land reg-istration are the evidence of title. The regreg-istration itself does not prove title: it only records a transaction between parties. In the title registrations (common in the United Kingdom, most of the countries of the Commonwealth and many countries in Central Europe), the register itself serves as the primary evidence. The title is constituted by registration. The registration of title enables a title to be ascertained as a fact. A title registration is an authoritative record kept in a public office. The register is maintained and warranted by the state.

As concluded in [237] the debate on ‘title versus deeds’ is complicated, since no distinct definition can be given. Also technological developments have provided the

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instruments to decrease the former differences. Generally speaking, there are examples of good and bad title registrations and good and bad deed registrations. The real protection of land ownership is more dependent on the quality of information in the land and cadastral registration and not on the type of land and cadastral registration. In order to avoid making the 3D cadastral issue more complicated than necessary, this debate will be left out of this thesis. The classification based on titles versus deeds was mentioned here for completeness.

A centralised or decentralised cadastral registration

In every country the protection of rights to land is considered a governmental task. However, not every country has a strong national authority. In some cases financial and technical responsibility lies at regional or even local level. Therefore cadastral registration may be the responsibility of local governments while in others it is a state or national responsibility. Apart from the question of whether local or national government is responsible for cadastral registration, cadastral registration can be carried out at different levels (in a central database, in regional or local databases or at regional and local level while a centralised database is maintained). The question of the existence of a centralised cadastral database is dependent on three main aspects:

• State of the art of database technology. A cadastral registration consists of an administrative and a spatial part mostly maintained in databases. For decen-tralised systems many databases have to be maintained, which should be avoided since databases (especially the spatial part) requires expensive equipment and expertise. Technical development on the area of databases also motivates con-centration at national level, since DBMS technology favours an approach of one centralised DBMS in which all objects of interest for a specific application are maintained. A centralised DBMS is easier and cheaper to manage.

• State of the art of telecommunication by mobile telephones and Internet facili-ties. Decentralised systems were set up to bring cadastral information closer to end-users. With modern technologies of telecommunication and Internet it is no longer as relevant where cadastral information is maintained.

• The question whether to have a centralised or a decentralised cadastral system is dependent on the way a specific country organises its whole administration, since a cadastral system is part of the administration of a country.

The Ministry responsible for the cadastral registration also differs per country: • Ministry of Finance. This is mostly the case when a cadastral registration was

originally started as a fiscal cadastre.

• Ministry of Agriculture. In some countries this Ministry only has the respon-sibility for rural activities (land consolidation), while in other countries this Ministry has the responsibility for the whole national cadastre (e.g. Hungary). • Ministry of Housing or the Ministry of Public Works. This Ministry has the

responsibility for the urban cadastre.

• Ministry of Justice. The Ministry of Justice has the responsibility for cadastral registration since land registration originally has a legal nature. Registration takes place in local courts (Austria and Romania).

• Ministry of Interior (Poland).

• A separate authority is responsible to prevent the discussion of the ministerial responsibility.

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2.1. Different types of cadastral registrations

At what authority level and by which Ministry the 3D issue of cadastral registration is approached depends on the organisation of cadastral registration.

Land registration with separate or integrated cadastre

In several countries land registration and cadastral registration are handled by one organisation. This makes it easier to make the contents of both registrations identi-cal. In other countries the separation of land registration and cadastral registration has a historical background (e.g. Denmark, Austria, Bulgaria and Poland). In these countries the land registration and cadastral registration are also mostly the responsi-bility of different Ministries. Land registration has generally been the mandate of the courts and the legal profession. Mapping, parcel boundary delimitation and mainte-nance of parcel data for fiscal, land use control, and land redistribution purposes is traditionally the responsibility of the surveying profession [53]. In case of manual reg-istrations, it is hard to keep two separated registrations up-to-date and identical. In an integrated cadastre, land registration and cadastral registration are better geared to one other. Therefore, improvement of information supply in case of 3D situations can be achieved by the combined efforts of both land registration and cadastral reg-istration. In a separated system it will be harder to join the two registrations in order to achieve one common goal (i.e. improve insight in case of 3D situations). This goal cannot be achieved without a tight collaboration between land registration and cadastral registration.

Fiscal or legal cadastre

Very often cadastral registrations started as a fiscal cadastre for taxation, e.g. the ‘Napoleontic Cadastre’. Such cadastres were based on a full survey of the ownership parcels. After a few decades such fiscal cadastres were changed into legal cadastres. In some countries there are still problems with the old cadastral maps. For example in the Ardennes, in Belgium, the cadastral maps give the real area of the surface of land parcels that are located on the slope of hills. The transfer of this information to a cadastral map, which is a projection of the terrain onto a horizontal plane, is so expensive that a digital map in this country was never produced (note that this is a nice example of a 3D cadastral aspect). A fiscal cadastre is less complex than a legal cadastre. In the case of a fiscal cadastre a cadastre can be less accurate in maintaining geometry and other attributes if the property tax is based on valuation. In addition a fiscal cadastre needs an up-date every year (when following a yearly tax cycle), whereas a legal cadastre needs an up-date every day. A legal cadastre will therefore impose more conditions on the availability of information in case of 3D situations.

General or fixed boundaries

A parcel is defined by indicating its boundaries. General boundaries are boundaries which have to be visible features on the landscape. These features are supposed to coincide with the position of boundaries and can be mapped relatively easily because the features are easy to measure with surveying, with aerial photogrammetry or from topographic maps. Although these boundaries do not indicate the exact location of parcel boundaries, the parcel is reasonably defined and can be identified beyond doubt. In case of fixed boundaries all parties involved have to fully agree on the exact position of each boundary point (after which the position of parcel boundaries can be marked on the terrain). The demarcation, measuring and registration of fixed

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boundaries requires more time. Once 3D property units are defined within cadastral registration, the type of boundaries within the specific cadastral registration (general or fixed) will impose requirements for the boundaries demarcating 3D property units. Financed by government or cost-recovering

In general the maintenance of the cadastral registration is a regular task of the gov-ernment which means that normal cadastral activities are generally financed by the government. Cadastral registrations generate income from fees for registration of transactions, mortgages etc. and supply of information. The income generated by the cadastre goes straight to the State Treasury when the cadastre is a regular task of the national government. Consequently there is no link between the income and the expenses of the cadastral registration. The motivation to take care of user require-ments, e.g. to establish a 3D cadastre, is therefore limited [236] unless it is imposed by the government. The alternative is that a cadastre is an independent organisa-tion which is responsible for its own income and expenses forcing them to listen to changing user requirements.

2.2

The Netherlands’ Kadaster

In this section the Netherlands’ Kadaster and the basic principles of Dutch cadastral registration are described.

2.2.1

Organisation of the Netherlands’ Kadaster

The Netherlands has a deed registration, which is maintained together with the cadas-tral registration by one organisation: the Netherlands’ Kadaster. The national govern-ment (Ministry of Spatial planning, Housing and the Environgovern-ment) is responsible for the Cadastre, although the Kadaster is an independent organisation since 1994. The organisation is financially fully self-supporting. Till recently the cadastral registra-tion was maintained at regional level, but is now organised at one locaregistra-tion, although the actual registration is still performed at fifteen regional offices. The Netherlands’ Kadaster serves both fiscal and legal purposes. The Kadaster also supports land man-agement by registering legal restrictions dictated by Public Law such as soil pollution and monuments apart from real rights. Fixed boundaries are used in the Netherlands, which means that all persons involved have to fully agree on the location of parcel boundaries. Apart from the main cadastral tasks the Netherlands’ Kadaster has the following responsibilities:

• consolidation of land;

• maintaining the Large Scale Map of the Netherlands (GBKN) together with other parties;

• maintaining the Dutch Geometric Infrastructure together with the Survey De-partment (NAP) from the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Wa-termanagement;

• since January 2004 the Kadaster is responsible for the traditional tasks of the Dutch Topographic Service, since they merged with the Topographic Service.

Cytaty

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