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Back to

the Beckett text

series between.pomlędzy

Gdańsk/Sopot 2012

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Reviewer Jerzy Jarniewicz Volume edited by

Tomasz Wiśniewski Proofreading and editing

Marta Nowicka Language consultant

David Malcolm Cover and tide page design Jaroslaw Czarnecki/Elvin Flamingo

www.elvinflamingo.com Cover image by Kasia Swinarska

This publication is part of the work of the

International Literary Festival and Conference organised by the Art Foundation

Financial support for this publication comes from:

© Copyright by Uniwersytet Gdanski Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego

ISBN 978-83-7326-886-9

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego ul. Armii Krajowej 119/121, 81-824 Sopot

tel./fax: (58) 523-11-37; 725-991-206 http://wyd.ug.gda.pl, e-mail: wyd@ug.gda.pl

B A C K 2

S O P O T

Ministerstwo

Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego

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between, pomiędzy

is a series of publications produced under the aegis of the Textual Studies Research Group of the University of Gdansk and the BACK 2 Interna- tional Literary Conference/Festival. T h e series contains both themed collections of essays and monographs. Books may be in Polish or in English. Its aim is to make accessible scholar- ship that addresses important issues in modern and contem- porary English-language literature, and also scholarship that deals with substantial theoretical issues that are of interest to specialists in other fields of literary study.

Publications in the "between, pomiędzy" series are partic- ularly focused on form, as conceived in a broad sense, but the series remains open to scholarship that approaches literature in different but complementary ways.

T h e overall name of the series "between.pomiędzy" indi- cates its commitment to work that looks at texts on the bor- ders between genres and kinds, between historical periods and movements, and between national and linguistic cultures.

For further information, see: www.back2.pl T h e series includes the following studies:

1. Samuel Beckett. Tradycja-awangarda., ed. Tomasz Wiśniewski (in Polish, 2012).

2. Back to the Beckett Text, ed. Tomasz Wiśniewski (in English, 2012).

Future publications include:

3. Poeci współcześni. Poeci przeszłości, ed. Monika Szuba and To- masz Wisniewski (in Polish).

Series editors: David Malcolm, Monika Szuba, Tomasz Wisniewski.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.E. Gontarski

Back to the Beckett Text? 11 TEXTUAL DETAIL

Tomasz Wiśniewski Beckett's Voice and its Meaning 27

Sławomir Studniarz

An Attempt at a Phonosemantic Analysis

of Samuel Beckett's Stirrings Still 41 APPROACHES TO COMPANY

Antoni Libera

Introduction to the Discussion of Company 57 Antonia Rodriguez-Gago

Space, Voice, and Body: Company on the Screen 65 BETWEEN T H E LANGUAGES

Monika Szuba

"Of course he has no story": Textes pour rien /

Texts for Nothing 83 Maria Jose Carrera

"handicapped by my ignorance of Spanish": Samuel Beckett's

Translations of Mexican Poetry 93 BETWEEN T H E MEDIA

Anna Suwalska-Kołecka

Stillness and Movement in Embers by Samuel Beckett I l l Lea Sinoimeri

Beckett, Comment c'est and the "Modern Discovery

of Orality" 123

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Sławomir Studniarz

University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland

AN ATTEMPT AT

A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL BECKETT'S STIRRINGS STILL

It seems that critical attention has been focused too much on the psychological and philosophical dimensions of Sam- uel Beckett's prose, while its intricate and rigorous artistic ordering, manifest especially in his late short fiction, has not received its due recognition. Taking as an example Stir- rings Still, it becomes evident upon closer scrutiny that it dis- plays many features of a poetic text. These striking features comprise rhythmic regularity of passages, dense patterning of verbal material, suggestiveness and polysemy. Conse- quently, any analysis of the text's meaning should proceed from its phonological and lexical patterns, but in the case of Stirrings Still it must be stated that although Beckett's text invites and requires interpretative effort, at the same time it tantalizingly resists the clarification of its meaning. The no- tion of "clarification" has been introduced by Antoine Ber- man to explain one of the deforming tendencies that occur during literary translation process. According to Berman, clarification particularly concerns the level of "clarity" per- ceptible in words and their meanings: where the original has no problem moving in the indefinite, the literary language of the translation tends to impose the definite (289). Clarifica- tion, as Berman argues, aims to render "clear" what does not

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4 2 Sławomir Studniarz wish to be clear in the original; the movement from polysemy

to monosemy is one mode of clarification, while paraphras- ing in translation is another (289). These remarks seem espe- cially pertinent in the context of critical attempts to explicate the deliberately ambiguous, elliptical and oblique late fiction of Beckett.

In Stirrings Still rich verbal patterning on the phonological level, manifesting itself in alliteration, repetition, parallelism, and rhythmic organization, foregrounds the phonetic ele- ment as an entity in its own right. Proper response to the re- sulting visibility of sound, as one might call it, requires "over- riding the normal procedures of language whereby the sound functions, in Saussure's vocabulary, entirely as a differential entity and not as a positive term" (Attridge 1124). T h e vis- ibility of sound obstructs the ordinary process of receiving information conveyed by a spoken or written utterance. This process is referred to in cognitive linguistics as "phonetic coding". According to Reuven Tsur, phonetic coding consists in substituting an abstract phonetic category for the acoustic information that is transmitted, and the message, reduced purely to its content, divorced from the sounds that carry it, is passed through strings of abstract phonetic categories (57).

T h e precategorical acoustic information that carries these categories is normally disregarded or shut out of conscious- ness, but as Tsur points out, "rhyme delays the special pro- cess that strips away all auditory information" (58). Rhyme represents just one particular instance of rich phonetic pat- terning, which can achieve the same effect, namely that of bringing to immediate perception various acoustic events.

A similar strategy of foregrounding the sound dimension seems at work in Beckett's text and the present article con- tends that Stirrings Still, though written in prose, by virtue of its organization of the linguistic material moves into the realm of poetry. It is logical then to adopt an appropriate method of investigating its poetic ordering. A useful model of analysis is proposed by Andrzej Zgorzelski, who himself has called his approach "phonosemantic". It is, as Zgorzelski puts it, "an analysis of poetry which attempts to view indi-

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AN ATTEMPT AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 4 3

vidual poems as sound-and-sense structures," and structure

"is understood here as a complicated network of relations - in a poem the network of sound patterns, stress regulari- ties, compositional divisions and syntactical linguistic units"

("Sound and Sense" 335). He calls this method "phonose- mantic" because it duly recognizes that sound phenomena

"are - for a given utterance - the only possible ways to ex- press the poem's message" and "sound elements have both semantic and semiotic functions in the creation of the text's meaning" ("Sound and Sense" 336).

Beckett's short prose work Stirrings Still seems to be gov- erned by the lyrical mode, which is revealed not only by the poetic organization of the linguistic material, but also by the dominant mechanism of creating meaning - indirectly, through implication. Indirection, suggestion and implica- tion are, as Zgorzelski elsewhere observes, "the methods of lyrical expressing, in contradistinction to the epical telling, which proceeds in the categories of direct and simple denota- tion, or quasi-denotation" ("Syncretic nature" 166-7). Texts governed by the lyrical mode are thus unique sound and sense structures, in which these two dimensions, semantics and sonority, are inextricably bound with each other, and the extent to which Beckett's work exploits the characteristic strategies of a poetic utterance is signaled already by its title Stirrings Still. T h e pairing of words that share initial conso- nant cluster ST, hence sound alike but have opposite mean- ings, is an instance of the device called by Roman Jakobson

"paronomasia". Paronomasia exploits sonic similarity to sug- gest semantic similarity or contrast. As Jakobson points out,

"In a sequence, where similarity is superimposed on contigu- ity, two similar phonemic sequences near to each other are prone to assume a paronomastic function. Words similar in sound are drawn together in meaning" (48). Thus parono- masia binds semantically words that are close phonetically and establishes relations that contribute to the unique sound and sense organization of a literary text.

In the title of Beckett's work paronomasia exploits the similarity of sound between "stir" and "still" to emphasize the

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4 4 Sławomir Studniarz semantic contrast between their lexical meaning, between

movement and life on one hand, and stasis and death, on the other hand, the contrast delivered here by the opposi- tion of two phonemes: ST.R versus ST.L. However, the sec- ond meaning of "still," with its connotations of duration and persistence, gives another twist to the phrase rendering its meaning as "persistent and continuous movement". There is also the third meaning of "still," "in spite of everything,"

which further complicates the meaning of the phrase "stir- rings still," endowing it with some heroic undertones.

T h e paronomastic chain generated by the configurations of the consonants L, R, S and T surfaces in the fourth para- graph in the two phrases: "at rest after all they [the hands]

did" and "to rest it [his head] too". "Rest" contains the pat- tern of three consonants, R.ST, which obviously connects it with "stirrings" from the title, but on the semantic level "rest"

is closely associated with "still," which clearly brings out the principle of paronomasia as exploring both similarity and contrast in meaning. T h e lexical network composed of "stir,"

"still," and "rest" becomes enriched by the incorporation of two words that emphasize the mental condition of Beckett's unnamed protagonist, namely "lost" and "solitude," based on the variations of the crucial consonants, L, S and T, which occur in the phrase "his solitude as lost to suffering he sat at his table" (Beckett 16).

T h e consonantal cluster ST, signaling the crucial net- work of signification initiated by "stirrings still" from the title, recurs in the final two paragraphs of the text. T h e first instance is found in the phrase "stop dead and stand stock still". It is built on the striking alliterative sequence, which establishes equivalence between the verbs indicating the ab- sence of movement, "stop" and "stand stock still," and the adjacent adjective "dead," the paronomastic bond between them fastened by the common ending of "stand" and "dead".

Furthermore, the verb "stayed," referring to the position of Beckett's character at the beginning of the final paragraph, is not only semantically related to the verb "stood"; the two lexical units share the initial consonants S and T. In addi-

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AN ATTEMPT AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 4 5

tion, through the final consonant D, both verbs, "stand" and stayed," echo the key adjective "dead". T h e central parono- masia recurs in the phrase "stir no more" repeated twice in the final section1.

Another notable example not merely of alliteration, but of a richer sonic similarity, involves the phrase "remains of rea- son," based on the consonantal patterns R.N.Z and R.Z.N, and enclosed by "bring" and "bear," sharing the consonants B and R: "bring what is more his remains of reason to bear".

A striking variation on this pattern is found in "Bringing to bear on all this his remains of reason". Also, the leitmotif of the final paragraph - "So on unknowing and no end in sight"

- is the phrase richly orchestrated with the patterns of the consonants S, N, and the diphthong /eu/.

In addition to the phonetic orchestration and paronoma- sia, the poetic quality of Stirrings Still is enhanced by frequent rhythmic regularity of its passages. T h e first striking exam- ple involves the elliptical sentence in the second paragraph, the sentence which easily lends itself to verse division:

So again and again disappeared again only to reappear again at another place again. (9)

T h e passage epitomizes the idea of discrete, discontinu- ous movement, indicated only by the change of place, re- veals its rhythmic regularity. It is broken down into four verse-like units containing two stressed syllables (the first two lines) and three stressed syllables (the third and the fourth line). In addition, the recurrence of "again" in the fixed po- sition marking here the end of each line provides a closure and enhances the rhythmic quality of the passage. T h e very repetition of the word "again" (five times) as well as its fi- nal position underscores its lexical meaning. Thus the pas- sage is governed by the iconic principle, which results from the correspondence, "diagrammatic resemblance" between

1 This is a Shakespearean echo, as Brater points out, an allusion to the dirge f r o m Cymbeline: "Fear no m o r e the heat o'th' sun" (Brater 154).

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4 6 Sławomir Studniarz

the organization of the verbal material and the concept of cyclical return. T h e "iconic mode" of signification is under- stood in its basic sense as the one in which the signifier is perceived as resembling in some aspect the signified (Nanny and Fischer). T h e achieved effect is not only that of poet- ic heightening. The patterning of the linguistic material in the passage reveals its semantic function, iconically illustrat- ing the concept embodied in "again". The phrase "another place," which by virtue of its association with "again" carries the suggestion of recurrence and cyclical rhythm, is juxta- posed with "the same place and table," which by contrast, im- plies the idea of sameness and stasis, the absence of rhythm.

In addition, the phrase "same place and table" /selm plels 'n teibel/ is a sequence composed of words sharing the same vocalic nucleus /ei/, and its repetition iconically conveys the idea of sameness.

Like a refrain or leitmotif, "again" recurs in another high- ly organized passage in the third paragraph, which can be easily divided into three distiches:

Till so many strokes and cries since he was last seen that perhaps he would not be seen again.

Then so many cries since the strokes were last heard that perhaps they would not be heard again.

Then such silence since the cries were last heard that perhaps even they would not be heard again. (13) The passage is built on striking parallelisms and repeti- tions, displaying also a clear rhythmic pattern. In addition, it is heavily orchestrated with the consonants S and N, culmi- nating in the sequence "such silence since," where "silence"

and since" besides the alliterated S share the same final con- sonant cluster NS. The recurring combination of the nega- tive particle "not" and "again" suggests the termination of the cycle, thus contradicting the idea of the previously analyzed passage based on the heavily foregrounded "again". T h e jux- taposition of the two passages underscores the opposition be- tween "again" and "not again". The opposition "again or not

again '" seems to be Beckett's version of Hamlet's existential

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AN ATTEMPT AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 4 7

dilemma "to be or not to be". It encapsulates the crucial dis- tinction drawn in the text between "the end which is no more than a mere lull," a temporary cessation of things, and "the one true end to time and grief and self". T h e cyclical pattern of collapse and restoration, destruction and restitution, "dis- appear and reappear again," becomes thus the anticipation of the irreversible and total annihilation, "disappear and not reappear again".

In addition to the phonological and rhythmic pattern- ing, in Stirrings Still the insistent deployment of repetition and parallelism results in its meticulous ordering also on the level of syntactical and linguistic units. Words and phrases form the underlying network of signification, the network which involves focusing motifs that carry the main seman- tic thrust of the story. T h e compositional division of the text into paragraphs and the recurrence of unifying motifs cor- respond to the stanzaic construction of a poem and the use of the refrain. T h e focusing element of the first paragraph is the unchanging light coming from the window. As the narra- tor explains, it replaces the light "from the days and nights when day followed hard on night and night on day"; "the faint unchanging light" makes the distinction between night and day impossible, and the impossibility of differentiating between day and night is already hinted at in the second sen- tence: "One night or day". If one cannot tell day from night, then one cannot orient oneself in the passage of time, so the result is not only the blurring of the fundamental dichotomy between night and day, and light and dark, but also temporal disorientation, the confusion of the mind trying to grapple with the flow of time and with the external reality, as suggest- ed by image of the u n n a m e d protagonist mounting the stool and watching "through the clouded pane the cloudless sky".

T h e efforts of the man concentrate on reaching the exter- nal world, "seeking the way out of the dark". He is left in the dark because the outer light, "the faint unchanging light,"

went out. T h e narrative description plays on the ambiguity of the phrase "to be in the dark," activating its idiomatic mean- ing: "to be ignorant," "to lack knowledge". And on the epis-

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4 8 Sławomir Studniarz

temological level, the image of the man sitting in his room in the dark and "seeking the way out" is the metaphor of the cognitive process of the mind trying to achieve some grasp on reality, to establish some fundamental distinctions. A pos- sibility of cognizing the external reality, or at least of measur- ing its temporal aspect, arises thanks to the clock striking the hours and half-hours, and the cries coming from the outside, too. T h e strokes of the clock and the cries, "now faint now clear," establish a rhythm; the changing level of their clarity or loudness is the only indication of change. But one may suspect that the distinction "now faint now clear" ultimately is a fake one, just as the distinction applied to the otherwise identical ticking of the clock, tick-tack, as the means of estab- lishing a fundamental rhythm of existence, indicating a dif- ference and thus the flow of time.

T h e recurring "strokes" and "cries" function in the text as leitmotifs, gathering to themselves a wealth of meanings.

They are the only signs of the external reality, of the spatio- temporal realm with respect to which the protagonist orients himself. "The strokes" represent here the metonymy of time, whereas "the cries" as expressions of grief point, index-like, to life. Hence the reiterated phrase "the strokes and cries"

acquires the meaning of the passing of time and the crying of people, the temporal process of living and suffering, in ef- fect becoming the metonymy of the h u m a n condition. Living means suffering since "cries" are the only symptoms of life heard by the unnamed protagonist of Beckett's story.

However, the "strokes and cries" not only seem to map out the external reality, but serve as important markers of move- ment and change as well. Movement in the fictional reality of Stirrings Still depends here on disappearing in one place ad reappearing in another place, a different one: "Disappear and reappear at another place. Disappear again and reap- pear again at another place again. Or at the same. Nothing to show not the same" (12). But if one cannot tell whether one appears in the same place or another, since there is nothing to show the distinction, "nothing to show not the same," then

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AN A T T E M P T AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 49

the whole idea of movement and its function as the determi- nant of space collapse.

T h e same indeterminacy is extended to the flow of time, where the very possibility of distinguishing one moment from another becomes questioned. The two dimensions, spatial and temporal, are conflated in the concept of "where never," es- tablished in the text as the shorthand for the spatio-temporal continuum or rather as its negation (also because movement and time are presented as discrete, discontinuous). As a new semantic unit, "where never" phonetically resembles "when- ever" and "wherever," it comes across as their phonetic con- catenation, but on the semantic level it yields the negation of both, because the meaning of "where never" comprises the opposite of "wherever" and the opposite of "whenever," thus it stands for "nowhere and never". And with this near-impos- sibility of any spatio-temporal determination, of any measure of change, the only markers on which the protagonist can rely are "the strokes" and "the cries": "Disappear and reap- pear in another where never. Nothing to show not another where never. Nothing but the strokes. T h e cries" (13).

T h e "strokes" and the "cries" unify the inner world, the protagonist's room, and the external world. And his final emerging into the outer world stands in the implied contrast with his previous condition, the confinement in the room, logically corresponding to being locked in one's subjectivity.

As the narrator puts it, he emerged into the outer world "in the guise of a more or less reasonable being" (15). T h e pro- tagonist now as a rational being starts to wonder if he is in his right mind because, to his alarm, he realizes that there is no distinction between his previous condition ("inside his room, within its four walls") and the outside. This lack of distinction between the inner and the outer world is indicated by the fact that the "strokes of the clock," the only perceptible indi- cators of reality, are "no clearer now". They sound the same, while they should be louder than "when in principle muffled by his four walls". T h e same is true of the other sound, of the "cries," ironically called "sole enlivener of his solitude"

(only signs of grief bring life to his solitary condition). Fur-

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5 0 Sławomir Studniarz

thermore, the origin of the sounds, too, is just as mysterious as it was during the time of his confinement within the four walls of his room. Where the strokes and cries come from is as impossible to determine as it was when he was inside his room: "Of their whenceabouts that is of clock and cries the same was true that is no more to be determined now than as was only natural then" (16). Gradually all points of distinc- tion between the indoors and the outdoors, between the in- ner world and the external world become obliterated. T h e two realms prove to be indistinguishable, a n d the resulting epistemological confusion carries horrifying ontological im- plications, suggesting the solipsistic vision of a mind that only dreams about reality external to it.

T h e sense of hearing as a means of orienting oneself in space proves futile: "So all ears from bad to worse till in the end he ceased if not to hear to listen and set out to look about him" (17). His subsequent attempt to rely on sight is equally frustrating, he cannot determine the limits of the field in which he stands. There are no customary boundaries which determine space, no "fence or other manner of bourne from which to return"2. In addition, "sameness of grass" suggests no differentiation between here and there, there is no center and periphery either. T h e r e is nothing to indicate his posi- tion in space. If the sense of hearing establishes the succes- sion of events, then it is intimately related to the perception of time, while the sense of sight delineates space. T h e two dimensions of time and space, so insistently evoked in the text by the recurrent motifs and metonymies, distinctly recall Kant's epistemology and his argument that space and time are but modes of cognition, mental categories ordering real- ity, and they do not belong to "things in themselves," which subsist outside time and space (Kant).

If we adopt Kant's epistemological scheme, his division into two realms: the realm of appearances, of things as they are mediated by the senses and represented to conscious-

2 Brater notices here, in the phrase "other manner of bourne," the allu- sion to death, from Hamlet's famous soliloquy: "The undiscover'd country from whose bourn No traveller returns".

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AN ATTEMPT AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 5 1

ness, and the realm of "things in themselves," then in Beck- ett's Stirrings Still, the room in which the protagonist is ini- tially located, the indoors, would correspond to the realm of sensory experience, to his mind, that is subjectivity, whereas the outer world would stand for the world of things in them- selves, objectivity. After the poignant failure to determine his spatio-temporal position with the use of hearing and sight, the protagonist's last resort is reflection: "So all eyes from bad to worse till in the end he ceased if not to look (about him or more closely) and set out to take thought" (18). This reliance on the rational faculty recalls Kantian dictum on the role of the intellect: "the understanding intuits nothing, but only reflects" (Kant 38). This stage of reflection comes after the process of perception, which is prior to it. In Beckett's sto- ry the protagonist brings to bear on his epistemological pre- dicament "his remains of reason," he seeks help in thought, in reflection, but reasoning is useless. His memory, measuring his present against the remembered past, is of no use either.

Futility of reasoning causes him to move on, "resigned to un- knowing". He has one wish only - that the strokes and the cries would cease for good.

T h e conflation of inner and outer reality is finally con- firmed by the sound of "that missing word," which para- doxically comes to his ears "from deep within". It is a word, or rather the tantalizing, elusive acoustic specter of a word whose meaning eludes the protagonist. Whatever its mean- ing may be, its effect is "to end where never till then". T h e phrase expresses the dissolution of the temporal and spatial construction of reality by the mind, and of the self as well.

T h e futility of categorizing, of giving names to things as one aspect of mapping out reality, is underscored by the emphat- ic repetition of "so-called": "his mind so-called" and "self so-called". Names are arbitrary, man-made. Things are only

"so-called," hence they are only mental concepts, divorced from reality, which is unknowable. T h e hubbub in the pro- tagonist's mind drowns the word, which grows fainter and fainter, and its meaning is not revealed. Whatever promise or threat it carried, it is irretrievably lost. T h e only solution

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5 2 Sławomir Studniarz

to the predicament is "all to end": "No matter how no matter where. Time and grief and self so-called. Oh all to end" (22).

T h e presented phonosemantic analysis of Stirrings Stills, in keeping with its basic methodological principle, has given due attention to the sound dimension and the verbal pat- terning of the text, treating Beckett's fictional prose work as a self-contained poetic utterance whose meaning is en- coded in the relations between its constituent elements.

As such it stands in clear contrast to the approach taken by Andrew Renton in his essay "Disabled Figures: From the Re- sidua to Stirrings Still," where he argues that Stirrings Still is less a continuous text and more a series of texts which at- tempt to rewrite each other in turn, texts that are "almost entirely composed of echoes and reiterations of his previous work" (172). While this claim may well be valid, it was never- theless believed that valuable insights into Beckett's enigmat- ic text could be gained by attending to the organization of its linguistic material alone. In Stirrings Still, just like in a poetic text governed by the lyrical dominant, the foregrounding of the phonetic element and the concomitant paronomasia and iconicity, the underlying network of signification created by lexical repetitions, verbal echoes and focusing motifs, all contribute to the overall meaning of the text. However, this meaning, created largely by implication and suggestion, can never be fixed and grasped in its entirety. By virtue of its pervasive ambiguity, polysemy and ellipsis Beckett's text de- fies "clarification," it successfully resists rash critical attempts to reduce it to some paraphrasable content, forever inviting and frustrating interpretative efforts.

B i b l i o g r a p h y

Attridge, Derek. "Language as Imitation: Jakobson, Joyce, and the Art of Onomatopoeia." MLN Comparative Literature 99.5 (1984): 1116-40. Web. 4 Dec. 2009. <http:// www.jstor.org/sta- ble/2905403>.

Beckett, Samuel. Stirrings Still. London: Calder, 1999.

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AN ATTEMPT AT A PHONOSEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SAMUEL... 5 3

Berman, Antoine. "Translation and the Trials of the Foreign." Trans.

Lawrence Venuti. The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 285-97.

Brater, Enoch. The Drama in the Text: Beckett's Late Fiction. Oxford:

OUP, 1994.

Jakobson, Roman. "Linguistics and Poetics." Modern Criticism and Theory. Ed. David Lodge. Harlow: Pearson, 1988. 30-55.

Kant, Immanuel. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. Trans. James Fieser. Forgotten Books, 2008. Google Book Search. Web. 27 Dec.

2010.

Nanny, Max, and Olga Fischer, eds. Introduction. Form Miming Meaning: Iconicity in Language and Literature. Amsterdam: Ben- jamins, 1999. xv-xxxiii.

Renton, Andrew. "Disabled Figures: From the Residua to Stirrings Still." The Cambridge Companion to Beckett. Ed. John Pilling. Cam- bridge: CUP, 1994. 176-83.

Tsur, Reuven. "Rhyme and Cognitive Poetics." Poetics Today 17.1 Metrics Today II (1996): 55-87. Web. 4 Dec. 2009. <http://www.

jstor.org/stable/1773252 >.

Zgorzelski, Andrzej. "Sound and Sense: On the Phonosemantic Anal- ysis of Poetry." Perspectives on Literature and Culture. Eds. Leszek S. Kolek, et al. Lublin: Wydawnictwo UMCS, 2004. 334-44.

—. Born of the Fantastic. Gdansk: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, 2004.

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