Central European Review of Economics & Finance Vol. 18, No. 2(2017), pp. 31–48.
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PUBLIC FINANCE SECTORS CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
AND IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
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relative values (versus GDP) and in absolute values (per capita). This served as the grounds for an at- WHPSWWRLGHQWLI\JHQHUDOGLUHFWLRQVRIWKHSXEOLFÀQDQFHSROLFLHVIROORZHGE\FRXQWULHVLQWKH&HQWUDO
and Eastern Europe and in selected highly developed countries.
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Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to identify interdependencies between the model of a state and the volume and structure of the public sector expendi- WXUH7KHHFRQRPLFFULVLVZKLFKVWDUWHGZLWKWKHÀQDQFLDOFULVLVLQ²
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Additionally, historically motivated experiences of the anti-crisis and anti- cyclical policies were pointed at as, to a major extent, they involved increas- LQJWKHSXEOLFVSHQGLQJ7RSXWLWVLPSO\LWFRPHVGRZQWRDGLFKRWRPRXV
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Economics.
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in social and economic life. The second section of this paper analyses data UHODWHGWRKLJKO\GHYHORSHGFRXQWULHVDQG&((VWDWHV7KLVDQDO\VLVFRYHUV
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that international comparisons directly depend on statistical systems follow- LQJYDULRXVUXOHVLQGLIIHUHQWVWDWHV6WDQGDUGLVDWLRQDWWHPSWVKDYHEHHQ
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Contemporary Public Sector in Various System Models
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the rest of the analysed countries, and therefore, they have not been taken into account in this paper.
an optimal relation between active and liberal economic policies that would DOORZUHDFKLQJVWDEOHORQJWHUPHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWDQGDWWKHVDPH
time, satisfy the needs of the part of society which for various reasons is not DEOHWRSURVSHULQDPDUNHWHFRQRP\HQYLURQPHQW %XFKDQDQ0XVJUDYH
2005). The European Union member countries most often implement the welfare state model.
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was employed by countries of the real socialism while the other extreme was represented by South American countries, where the role of the state was FRQVWUDLQHGDVPXFKDVSRVVLEOHOHDGLQJWRVLJQLÀFDQWVRFLDOVWUDWLÀFDWLRQ
Japan, which applied a balanced model of cooperation between the state and „the invisible hand of the market”, is an example of a country where the free market is supported by state actions.
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obtain similar results of their studies. They reveal domination of: the liberal PRGHOLQ$QJOR6D[RQFRXQWULHVWKHLQWHUYHQWLRQLVWPRGHOLQ1RUWK&HQWUDO
and Eastern Europe, the intermediate model in Mediterranean countries and another type of custom models in Asian and South American countries. In the OLWHUDWXUHRQHPD\ÀQG *âDG\V-DNyELNSS²
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the lowest debts were observed in post-communist countries (Poland, Slova- kia, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Estonia) and in the Scandinavian countries.
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DVZHOODVDQG LQDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\ZKLFKPHDQVWKH\IDOO
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Table 1. ([SHQGLWXUHRI&HQWUDODQG/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW,QVWLWXWLRQV·6HFWRU3HU&DSLWDLQ86'YHUVXV*URVV3XEOLF'HEWDV3HUFHQWDJHRI*'3 ([SHQGLWXUH Debt<10 00010 001– 12 00012 001– 14 00014 001– 16 00016 001– 18 00018 001– 20 00020 001– 22 00022 001– 24 00024 001– 26 000>26 001 2009 <<40(6721,$Luxembourg 41–50LATVIA6/29$.,$ CZECH R.6/29(1,$SwitzerlandFinland SwedenDenmarkNorway 51–6032/$1' 61–70SpainIrelandNetherlands 71–80GermanyUKAustria 81–90HUNGARYUSA 91–100PortugalFrance >>101JapanItaly GreeceBelgium 2013 <<30(6721,$ 30–40Norway Luxembourg 41–50LATVIASwitzerland*Sweden 51–60CZECH R.Denmark 61–70
32/$1' 6/2Finland 9$.,$ 71–806/29(1,$Netherlands 81–90GermanyAustria 91–100HUNGARYUK Spain France >>101PortugalJapanItalyIrelandBelgium USA Greece QRGDWDDYDLODEOHGDWDZDVWDNHQIRUDQDO\VLV 6RXUFH 2ZQDQDO\VLVRQWKHEDVLVRI2(&'GDWDEDVH²KWWSV VWDWVRHFGRUJLQGH[DVS["TXHU\LG
3DUDGR[LFDOO\WKHÅKHDOWKLHVWµSXEOLFÀQDQFHV\VWHPVZHUHREVHUYHGLQWKH
Central and Eastern Europe countries.
:KDWLVFKDUDFWHULVWLFLVWKHIDFWWKDWLQWKHGHEWLVZHDNHQHGÅJR- LQJµDORQJWKHVRXWKZHVWD[LV 3RUWXJDO6SDLQ WRZDUGVQRUWKZHVW )LQODQG
6ZHGHQ(VWRQLD/DWYLD²FRPSDUH7KHPDWLF0DSQR
:KDWGHVHUYHVVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQLVWKHPHDVXUHVZKLFKVKRZGHÀFLWDQG
SXEOLFGHEWYDOXHVREVHUYHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHFULVLV LQ DQGLQ
WKHODVW\HDUIRUZKLFKIDLUO\FRPSOHWHGDWDDUHDYDLODEOH ²FRPSDUH
7DEOH
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describe the condition of the public sector in individual countries do not pro- YLGHDWUXHSLFWXUHRIWKHVLWXDWLRQ7KXV7DEOHSUHVHQWVFRUUHODWLRQVRIWKH
SXEOLFGHEWDVSHUFHQWDJHRI*'3DQGWKHSXEOLFVSHQGLQJSHUFDSLWDLQ86'
6XFKFRPSDULVRQVKDYHEHHQSUHSDUHGIRU DQG4. The presented GDWDDOORZIRUPXODWLRQRIWKHIROORZLQJIDFWV
– EHWZHHQ DQGLQWKHJURXSRIWKHDQDO\VHGFRXQWULHVWKHUH
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– DUHODWLYHO\KLJKOHYHORISXEOLFGHEWLVQRWDQREVWDFOHIRULQFUHDVLQJSXEOLF
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– DPRQJWKHH[DPLQHGFRXQWULHVERWKLQ DQGDOOWKHH[DP- ined EU member states from Central and Eastern Europe (Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia) invariably demonstrated WKHORZHVWSXEOLFGHEWYHUVXV*'3DQGWKHORZHVWSXEOLFH[SHQGLWXUHSHU
FDSLWDLQ86'+XQJDU\GLYHUJHGIURPWKDWJURXSWRDQDUURZH[WHQW7KLV
situation proves those countries maintained public expenditure discipline GHVSLWHKDYLQJWKHORZHVWVSHQGLQJDPRQJWKHH[DPLQHGFRXQWULHVFDOFX- lated in absolute values per capita.
Tasks directly or indirectly accomplished by the public sector institutions PXVWEHGLUHFWO\UHÁHFWHGLQWKHYROXPHVDQGVWUXFWXUHRISXEOLFH[SHQGLWXUH
)DLUO\DGYDQFHGDUHDWWHPSWVWRLGHQWLI\²WKURXJKLQGLFDWLRQDQGSUHFLVH
GHÀQLWLRQ²ÀQDQFLDOLQYHVWPHQWVZKLFKGHÀQHWKHVFRSHRIWKHVWDWH·VIXQc-
4 The choice of years (just like in Table 2) has been dictated by the availability of fairly com- plete statistical data.
WLRQV7KLVLVVXSSRUWHGE\&2)2*5 developed within the System of National
$FFRXQWVRU61$6XFKFODVVLÀFDWLRQKDVDQXPEHURISRWHQWLDOVWUHQJWKV
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satisfactory comparability between countries and comparability in time are also hardly achievable. This particularly applies to the structure of public LQFRPHDQGVSHQGLQJLQLQGLYLGXDOFRXQWULHV'HVSLWHWKHPLVVLQJLWHPV&ODV- VLÀFDWLRQRIWKH)XQFWLRQVRI*RYHUQPHQWRU&2)2*DOORZVPDNLQJFRPSDUL- VRQVLQWLPHDQGEHWZHHQFRXQWULHV2QWKHEDVLVRIUHFXUULQJDQDO\VHVRQH
may observe that within different „types” of social-economic states in the (8 ERWKKLJKO\GHYHORSHGDQGSRVWFRPPXQLVWFRXQWULHV WKHUHLVDVLPLODU
share of consolidated investments6RIWKHFHQWUDODQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWLQ- VWLWXWLRQVYHUVXV*'3
7KHPDWLF0DSVQRDQGQR )LJXUH SUHVHQWLQWKHVDPHUDQJHVRI
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VSHQGLQJRIWKHGLVFXVVHGJURXSPHDVXUHGLQWKLVPDQQHUTXLWHVLJQLÀFDQWO\
LQFUHDVHGLQQHDUO\DOORIWKHDQDO\VHG2(&'PHPEHUVWDWHV%RWKLQ
DQGUHODWLYHO\ORZHVWH[SHQGLWXUHVZHUHREVHUYHGLQ&((FRXQWULHV,W
PXVWEHSDUWLFXODUO\VWUHVVHGWKDWXQOLNHWKHGHÀQLWHPDMRULW\RIWKHFRXQWULHV
XQGHUH[DPLQDWLRQUHODWLYHYDOXHVRISXEOLFVSHQGLQJLQ3RODQGDQG+XQJDU\
GURSSHGEHWZHHQDQG
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*'3GRHVQRWDOORZGHÀQLQJWKHUHDOOHYHORIWKLVVSHQGLQJ7KHUHIRUH7D- EOHVHSDUDWHO\IRU DQGFRUUHODWHVWKHJRYHUQPHQWH[SHQGLWXUH
SHUFDSLWDLQ86'ZLWKWKLVVHFWRU·VLQWHQVLÀHGLQYROYHPHQWLQWKHVSKHUHRI
direct expenditures of the „social” nature. Such expenditures include seven RXWRIWHQ&2)2*JURXSVRIIXQFWLRQDOVSHQGLQJQDPHO\VSHQGLQJRQ HQ- YLURQPHQWDOSURWHFWLRQ KRXVLQJDQGFRPPXQLW\DPHQLWLHV KHDOWK UHFUHD- WLRQFXOWXUHDQGUHOLJLRQ HGXFDWLRQ DQGVRFLDOSURWHFWLRQ)RUHDFKRIWKH
DQDO\VHGUDWLRVDOOWKHH[DPLQHGFRXQWULHVZHUHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHJURXSV
E\DJLYHQPHDVXUHLHWKHPD[LPXPWKHDYHUDJHDQGWKHPLQLPXP7KH
PD[LPXPOHYHOZDVDVVLJQHGZHLJKWWKHDYHUDJH²ZHLJKWDQGWKH
5&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRIWKH)XQFWLRQVRI*RYHUQPHQW
6Å&RQVROLGDWHGLQYHVWPHQWVRIWKHFHQWUDODQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWLQVWLWXWLRQVµUHSUHVHQWWKH
QHWVXPRIH[SHQGLWXUHVDQGSXUFKDVHVRIQRQÀQDQFLDODVVHWVDIWHUHOLPLQDWLQJLQWUDDQG
inter-institutional transfers.
PLQLPXP²ZHLJKW,QWKLVUDQNLQJPHWKRGWKHUDQNYDOXHVZHUHVXPPHG
XSIRUHDFKRIWKHH[DPLQHGFRXQWULHV7KLVGHÀQHGWKHÅSURVRFLDOµSURÀOH
RIWKHSXEOLFVHFWRU·VVSHQGLQJDQGKHOSHGDUUDQJHWKHPIURPWKHKLJKHVW
to the lowest involvement of public expenditure in the social sphere. The UHVXOWLQJKLHUDUFKLFDOOD\RXWRIWKHFRXQWULHVZDVFRUUHODWHGLQDPDWUL[ZLWK
WKHVSHQGLQJRIFHQWUDODQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWLQVWLWXWLRQV·SUHVHQWHGLQ86'
SHUFDSLWD7KLVOHGWRWKHHVWLPDWLRQRISXEOLFÅSURVRFLDOVSHQGLQJµLQWKH
analysed countries.
:KHQFRPSDULQJGDWDLQ7DEOHIRUWKH\HDUVRI DQGRQHPD\
VHHORZHULQWHQVLW\RIÅSURVRFLDOVSHQGLQJµ²LQ ORZLQYROYHPHQWLQWKLV
H[SHQGLWXUHJURXS UDQNV² ZDVREVHUYHGLQFRXQWULHVZKLOHLQ
UDQNV² ²LQFRXQWULHV,WPXVWKRZHYHUEHVWUHVVHGWKDWDPRQJWKH
FRXQWULHVDQDO\VHGKHUHWKHUHDUHJUHDWHUWKDQWZRIROGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKH
H[SHQGLWXUHRIWKHVHFWRUFRXQWHGLQ86'SHUFDSLWD7KXVERWKLQ DQG
WKLVW\SHRIH[SHQGLWXUHVE\ÅULFKµDQGÅOHVVDIÁXHQWµFRXQWULHVDUHQRW
VLPLODUGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWERWKWKHVHJURXSVGHPRQVWUDWHGVLPLODUVKDUHV
RIÅSURVRFLDOVSHQGLQJµLQWKHSXEOLFVHFWRU·VWRWDOVSHQGLQJ,QSDUWLFXODU
one must point out that CEE countries (Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia, +XQJDU\WKH&]HFK5HSXEOLFUHSRUWLQJDYHUDJHLQYROYHPHQWLQÅSURVRFLDO
VSHQGLQJµVSHQGWRWLPHVOHVVSHUFDSLWDWKDQWKHKLJKO\GHYHORSHG
countries.
:KHQDQDO\VLQJWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGGLIIHUHQWLQYROYHPHQWVRILQYHVWPHQW
JURXSVRIWKHGLVFXVVHGVHFWRUYHUVXV*'3JHQHUDWHGLQLQGLYLGXDOFRXQWULHV
one must remember that these differences are multiplied by disproportions LQSHUFDSLWD*'3LQWKHDQDO\VHGREMHFWV
Figure 3. TKHPDWLF0DSQRDQGQR ([SHQGLWXUHVRI&HQWUDODQG/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW,QVWLWX- WLRQVDVRI*'3LQDQG
6RXUFH 2ZQ DQDO\VLV RQ WKH EDVLV RI 2(&' GDWDEDVH ² KWWSV VWDWVRHFGRUJLQGH[
DVS["TXHU\LG 7KHPDSGRHVQRWLQFOXGHWKH86$DQG-DSDQZLWKYDOXHVRI DV
ZHOODVDQGDVZHOODVLQDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\²ZKLFKPHDQVWKDW
WKH\IDOOLQWRORZVSHQGLQJUDQJHV
Table 2. ([SHQGLWXUHRI&HQWUDODQG/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW,QVWLWXWLRQV·6HFWRU3HU&DSLWDLQ86'YHUVXV6KDUHRIÅ3UR6RFLDOµ6SHQGLQJLQ7R- WDORI7KLV6HFWRU·V6SHQGLQJ USD Weigh<10 00010 001-12 00012 001-14 00014 001-16 00016 001-18 00018 001-20 00020 001-22 00022 001-24 00024 001-26 000>26 001 2009 3Austria 4Greece 5Italy 6Switzerland Finland Sweden USA
Denmark 7(6721,$ LATVIACZECH REP. 6/29$.,$ HUNGARYPortugalGermanyBelgium 832/$1'Japan 6/29(1,$Norway 9Spain
France IrelandNetherlands UK 10Luxembourg 2013 2Greece 4Austria HUNGARY5IrelandUSA 6/2 632/$1'PortugalSpain
9(1,$ 8.
Germany
Finland Sweden
Denmark 7(6721,$ItalySwitzerlandBelgiumNorway 8LATVIA6/29$.,$CZECH REP.Japan 9France 10Luxembourg 11Netherlands 6RXUFH 2ZQDQDO\VLVRQWKHEDVLVRI2(&'GDWDEDVH²KWWSV VWDWVRHFGRUJLQGH[DVS["TXHU\LG
Conclusions
7KHFRXQWULHVZKLFKDIWHUWKH\HDU WUDQVIRUPHGEXLOWWKHLUHFRQRPLF
VRFLDODQGÀQDQFLDOV\VWHPVIROORZHGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRILQWHUQDWLRQDOÀ- QDQFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVLQFOXGLQJWKRVHIXQFWLRQLQJZLWKLQWKH(87KHVHUHFRP- mendations turn out to have been and still are, in majority of cases, followed LQSUDFWLFHZKLFKLVQRWWKHFDVHLQKLJKO\GHYHORSHGFRXQWULHV3DUDGR[LFDOO\
SRVWFRPPXQLVWFRXQWULHVLQPRVWFDVHVFRPSDUHGWRÅDIÁXHQWµFRXQWULHV
RI:HVWHUQ(XURSHPDLQWDLQSXEOLFÀQDQFHGLVFLSOLQHDQGVWDELOLVHRUHYHQ
OLPLWWKHLUVSHQGLQJWRFXUEWKHLUGHEWV
7KHVXPPDU\PXVWDOVRFRQWDLQWKHIROORZLQJFRQFOXVLRQV
– WKH&ULVLVLQFUHDVHGH[SHQGLWXUHRIWKHFHQWUDODQGORFDOJRYHUQ- PHQWLQVWLWXWLRQV7KLVWRRNSODFHSDUWLFXODUO\LQKLJKO\GHYHORSHG(8
VWDWHVQRWRQO\WKRVHXQGHUJRLQJVWUXFWXUDOGLIÀFXOWLHV 6SDLQ*UHHFHRU
,UHODQG
– the public sectors in Central and Eastern European countries, despite NHHSLQJWKHLUVSHQGLQJDWDQDYHUDJHOHYHOYHUVXV*'3DFWXDOO\VSHQG
²WLPHVOHVVWKDQWKRVHLQKLJKO\GHYHORSHGFRXQWULHVZLWKKLJK*'3
YDOXHVZKLFKLQGLUHFWO\WUDQVODWHVWKHUHLQWRKLJKSXEOLFH[SHQGLWXUHSHU
FDSLWDLQ86'
)ROORZLQJWKHDQDO\VLVRQHPD\GLVWLQJXLVKWKUHHJURXSV²6RXWK(XURSHDQ
FRXQWULHV *UHHFH6SDLQ,WDO\3RUWXJDO VXIIHULQJIURPVWUXFWXUDOGLIÀFXO- WLHVLQWKHSXEOLFÀQDQFHDUHD6LPLODUGHEWYDOXHVDUHREVHUYHGLQKLJKO\
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.LQJGRPWKH%HQHOX[FRXQWULHV0RVWRIWKHPKDYHKLJKOHYHOVRISXEOLFGHEW
DQGKLJKUHODWLYHDQGDEVROXWHOHYHOVRISXEOLFVSHQGLQJ$VHSDUDWHJURXSLV
here formed by „new” members of the European Union: Poland, the Czech 5HSXEOLF/DWYLD(VWRQLD+XQJDU\6ORYDNLD6ORYHQLDZKLFKKDYHUHODWLYHO\
ORZOHYHOVRISXEOLFGHEWDYHUDJHORZOHYHOVRISXEOLFH[SHQGLWXUHZKLOHLQ
WHUPVRISHUFDSLWDYDOXHVGHILQLWHO\VWDQGRXWDPRQJWKHUHVWRIWKH(8
KLJKO\GHYHORSHGFRXQWULHV,QWKLVJURXSRIFRXQWULHVRQHPD\KDUGO\LGHQWLI\
VLPLODUEHKDYLRXUVFRPSDUHGWRWZRSUHYLRXVO\PHQWLRQHGJURXSVRIKLJKO\
developed countries.
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*âDG\V-DNyELN - .U\]\V NDSLWDOL]PX ZDUWRŒFL HW\F]Q\FK F]\
ZVSyâF]HVQHM NXOWXU\" >,Q @ - 2VLĽVNL HG Kapitalizm czy kapitalizmy?
Anatomia i ewolucja formacji, OW SGH Warszawa.
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+DPSWGHQ7XUQHU &K 7URPSHQDDUV $ Siedem kultur kapitalizmu, 'RP:\GDZQLF]\$%&:DUV]DZD
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Warszawa.
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$UFKLGLHFH]MDOQHM:URFâDZ
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áDVNL. 6WUXNWXUDOQHSU]\F]\Q\NU\]\VXÀQDQVyZSXEOLF]Q\FKZ8QLL
Europejskiej6WXGLD(NRQRPLF]QHQU /;9,,,
/HRQ;,,, (QFRerum novarum/HRQLV;,,,30$FWD;,5]\P
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0DV]F]\N 3 Ewolucja modelu kapitalizmu w Polsce 1LHUyZQRŒFL
6SRâHF]QHD:]URVW*RVSRGDUF]\QU
0ROHQGRZVNL ( <HDUV RI 0HPEHUVKLS LQ WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ ²
3RODQGLQ&RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH9LVHJUDG*URXSFRXQWULHV, Central European 5HYLHZRI(FRQRPLFV )LQDQFH1R9RO
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5DSDFNL 5 3UyFKQLDN 0 :Sâ\Z UR]V]HU]HQLD 8QLL (XURSHMVNLHM
QD Z]URVW JRVSRGDUF]\ L UHDOQĉ NRQZHUJHQFMĘ NUDMyZ (XURS\ őURGNRZR
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VDPRU]ĉG]LHWHU\WRULDOQ\P V² :DUV]DZD 2:6*+
=LHOHQNLHZLF] 0 0LHMVFH NUDMyZ (XURS\ őURGNRZHM L :VFKRGQLHM
ZH ZVSyâF]HVQ\FK PRGHODFK NDSLWDOL]PX 3U]HJOĉG =DFKRGQLRSRPRUVNL
5R]SUDZ\L6WXGLD7RP;;9,,, /9,, ]HV]\WYRO
=LyâNRZVND: .RQWURZHUVMHZRNyâGâXJXVHNWRUDJHQHUDOJRYHUQPHQW
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