The Oświno struc ture (NW Mid-Polish Trough)
— salt diapir or in ver sion-related compressional struc ture?
Piotr KRZYWIEC
Krzywiec P. (2002) — The Oświno struc ture (NW Mid-Polish Trough) — salt diapir or in ver sion-related compressional struc ture? Geol.
Quart., 46 (3): 337–346 .Warszawa.
In ter pre ta tion of seis mic data from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Polish Trough (MPT) shows that this part of the MPT evolved in Me so zoic times as a de coup led sed i men tary ba sin. Re gional-scale de coup ling was caused by the thick Zechstein salt layer. De tailed tec - tonic and seismostratigraphic anal y sis of seis mic data from the vi cin ity of the Oświno IG 1 well al lowed for sig nif i cant re in ter pre ta tion of the Oświno struc ture, which was pre vi ously in ter preted as partly pierced salt diapir. This struc ture de vel oped in Tri as sic to Ju ras sic times as a listric nor mal fault zone de tached above the salt layer, re sult ing from ac tiv ity of a mas ter fault pres ent within the pre-Zechstein base - ment. Two pulses of in creased ex ten sion could be in ferred for Oświno fault zone: Late Tri as sic and Mid-Late Ju ras sic. The Oświno fault zone was reactivated in the Late Cre ta ceous due to the com pres sion re spon si ble for in ver sion of the MPT. In ver sion-related up lift of the ax ial part of the MPT cre ated a mor pho log i cal gra di ent and the in creased pres sure of up lifted over bur den rocks di rected to wards its flanks that also con trib uted to re ac ti va tion of the Oświno fault zone. This fault zone, to gether with the Drawno-Człopa salt diapiric struc - ture and graben sys tem of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, have de vel oped due to de coup led evo lu tion of the Mid-Polish Trough.
Piotr Krzywiec, Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute, Rakowiecka 4, PL-00-975 War saw, Po land; e-mail: krzywiec@pgi.waw.pl (re ceived: Feb - ru ary 12, 2002; ac cepted: April 24, 2002).
Key words: Mid-Polish Trough, Me so zoic, ex ten sion, in ver sion, salt struc tures, de coup led evo lu tion, syn-tectonic sed i men ta tion.
INTRODUCTION
It has been for long re cog nised that rock salt, due to its spe - cific bulk prop er ties, is one of the most im por tant com po nents of sed i men tary bas ins, and for ma tion of salt struc tures has long been the sub ject of de tailed stud ies (Jack son et al., 1995; Alsop et al., 1996). Salt struc tures form and evolve both in extensional and in compressional tec tonic set tings. Salt is of key im por tance dur ing de vel op ment of var i ous compressional struc tures within thrust-and-fold belts, as salt lay ers of ten form pre ferred lev els of de tach ments (Da vis and Engelder, 1985;
Letouzey et al., 1995; Cot ton and Koyi, 2000). Within the sed i - men tary bas ins, salt flow leads to the for ma tion of var i ous struc tures such as salt diapirs, pil lows and walls (Boldreel, 1985; Geil, 1991; Koyi et al., 1995; Koyi, 1998; Sorensen, 1998). For ma tion of salt struc tures is of ten trig gered by tec - tonic ac tiv ity within the ba sin’s base ment, such as ex ten sion or in ver sion (Erratt, 1993; Korstgard et al., 1993; Koyi and Petersen, 1993; Koyi et al., 1993; Penge et al., 1993;
Christensen and Korstgard, 1994; Bishop et al., 1995; Stew art
and Cow ard, 1995; Schulz-Ela and Jack son, 1996; Clark et al., 1998; Al-Zoubi and Ten Brink, 2001).
Dur ing ba sin ex ten sion, very im por tant struc tures such as extensional forced folds (i.e. forced folds that form above nor - mal faults) may form (Withjack et al., 1990; comp. Cosgrove and Ameen, 2000). Due to the pres ence of a duc tile layer such as salt, the de vel op ment of a mas ter nor mal fault within the base ment is, apart from the de vel op ment of extensional forced folds, re lated to de vel op - ment of sec ond ary de for ma tions such as pla nar or listric nor mal faults de tached within the salt layer (Fig. 1). Such de tached sec ond ary de for - ma tions can be lo cated at var i ous dis tances from the mas ter base ment nor mal fault and have dif fer ent geo met ric char ac ter is tics, de pend ing on var i ous pa ram e ters such as the thick ness of the duc tile layer, the thick - ness of over bur den, the amount and rate of dis place ment along the mas ter fault etc. (Withjack and Calloway, 2000). The ac tiv ity of se - condary faults dur ing de po si tion of the post-salt suc ces sion leads to in - creased thick ness of the syn-tec tonic suc ces sion de pos ited above the hangingwall. Such syn-tec tonic de pos its are typ i cally char ac ter ised by a di ver gent seis mic pat tern and sig nif i cantly in creased thick ness close to the fault plane (Prosser, 1993). Re sults of an a logue mod el ling of ac tive fault ing be neath a salt layer showed that the pres ence of a salt layer above a base ment de formed in brit tle fash ion might sig nif i cantly mod -
ify the depositional pat tern of a post-salt se quence de pos ited dur ing base ment ex ten sion and lead to a gen er ally more gen tle stra tal pat tern of the sed i men tary infill (Withjack and Calloway, 2000).
In this pa per re sults of seis mic data in ter pre ta tion from the NW Mid-Polish Trough are pre sented. They doc u ment the de - vel op ment of a com plex struc ture that evolved both dur ing ba - sin ex ten sion and in ver sion. Its evo lu tion is dis cussed in the con text of ba sin-scale de coup ling and re lated de tach ment be - tween pre-salt and post-salt sed i men tary suc ces sions.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Mid-Pol ish Trough (MPT) be longed to the sys tem of epicontinental depositional bas ins of west ern and cen tral Eu - rope and formed the SE ax ial part of the Dan ish-Pol ish Ba sin (Ziegler, 1990; Michelsen, 1997; Van Wees et al., 2000). The MPT was lo cated along the NW–SE trending Torn - quist-Teisseyre Zone and stretched from the pres ent-day Bal tic Sea to wards the SE (Pożaryski and Żytko, 1981; Kutek, 1994;
Dadlez, 1997; Hakenberg and Świdrowska, 1997). It de vel - oped from Perm ian to Cre ta ceous times and was filled with sev eral kilo metres of sed i ments, mainly siliciclastics and car - bon ates (e.g. Pożaryski and Brochwicz-Lewiński, 1978, 1979;
Dadlez, 1997; Dadlez et al., 1998b). One of the ma jor prob lems con cern ing the evo lu tion of the MPT, es pe cially its parts char - ac ter ised by thick Zechstein de pos its, is the re la tion ship between the re gional depositional and the tec tonic pat tern of the syn-extensional Tri as sic-Lower Cre ta ceous suc ces sion and the tec tonic ac tiv ity within the pre-Zechstein base ment. Within the cen tral and NW part of the MPT, an im por tant part of the its sed i men tary infill com prises thick Zechstein evaporites (Wag - ner, 1998), and dur ing ba sin de vel op ment com plex sys tem of salt struc tures evolved (Fig. 2; Sokołowski, 1966, 1972;
Dadlez and Marek, 1969, 1974; Pożaryski, 1977; Dadlez et al., 1998a) that formed the di rect con tin u a tion of a sys tem of salt struc tures known from the North-Ger man Ba sin (Trusheim, 1960; Kockel, 1996; Kossow et al., 2000). Anal y sis of tectonic sub si dence curves re vealed that three ma jor pulses of in creased sub si dence could be dis tin guished (Zechstein-Scythian, Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian and early Cenomanian) su per im - posed on a more grad ual ther mal sub si dence pat tern (Dadlez et al., 1995). A slightly dif fer ent sce nario for the MPT’s sub si -
dence was pro posed by other au thors (Świdrowska and Hakenberg, 1999), es pe cially for the Cre ta ceous in ter val (in - creased Turonian in stead of Cenomanian sub si dence) us ing the re sults of re gional anal y sis of palaeothickness maps. The NW and cen tral parts of the MPT con tain ing thick evaporites are char ac ter ised by an ap par ent lack of extensional de for ma tion within the Me so zoic sed i men tary cover re lated to tec tonic phases of ba sin de vel op ment (Dadlez, 1997; Stephenson and Narkiewicz, 1999; Van Wees et al., 2000). The Me so zoic suc - ces sion is char ac ter ised by grad ual thick ness changes and a gen tle re gional depositional pat tern (Dadlez, 2001).
The MPT was in verted in Late Cre ta ceous-Paleocene times, at which time its ax ial part was strongly eroded. In its SE part Palaeozoic and older MPT up lifted base ment rocks are pres ently ei ther ex posed at the sur face or cov ered by Mio cene de pos its re lated to de vel op ment of the Carpathian foredeep ba -
B A S E ME NT S A L T
P R E -E XT E NS I ONA L INF IL L S Y N-E XT E NS IONA L INF IL L
Fig. 1. Model of de vel op ment of a listric nor mal fault within post-salt de pos its due to de coup led fault ing within the base ment, based on re sults of an a logue mod el ling (af ter Withjack and Calloway, 2000, mod i fied); note lo cal thick ness in crease of syn-extensional de pos its above the hangingwall to wards the listric fault (cir cle), and re gional thick ness in crease of syn-extensional de pos its to wards ba sin cen tre
Oś wino IG 1 Re s ko 1
Chociwe l 2 Chociwe l 3
Ba nie 1
Bia łoga rd 5
Fig. 2. Dis tri bu tion of the salt struc tures in the Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Polish Trough
Pat terned area — sub-Ce no zoic subcrops of Ju ras sic and older de pos its along the axis of the Mid-Pol ish Swell (on shore part only), light grey — salt pil lows, dark grey — salt diapirs (af ter Dadlez and Marek, 1998, sim pli fied and mod i fied), black line — lo ca tion of re gional seis mic pro file from Fig. 3
sin. The prob lem of the MPT in ver sion was dis cussed by nu - mer ous au thors (e.g. Dadlez and Marek, 1969; Pożaryski, 1977; Pożaryski and Brochwicz-Lewiński, 1978, 1979;
Dadlez, 1997); most of these pa pers how ever dealt mainly with the deep crustal pro cesses re spon si ble for ba sin in ver sion. Only for the SE and NW (off shore) parts of the MPT, pub lished in - ter pre ta tions in cluded anal y sis of in ver sion-related de for ma - tion within the Me so zoic sed i men tary cover (see e.g.
Hakenberg and Świdrowska, 1997; Krzywiec, 2002a, for more de tailed dis cus sion). The gen eral role of re gional compressional stresses in the MPT in ver sion was con sid ered (e.g. Dadlez, 1980;
Dadlez et al., 1995). How ever, in these mod els, com pres sion was act ing at a lower crustal level, and was linked to phase changes that re sulted in iso stat i cally-driven ver ti cal move ments, en tirely re spon si ble for MPT in ver sion (Dadlez, 2001).
An other prob lem re lated to evo lu tion of the MPT that re - ceived rel a tively lit tle at ten tion is the re la tion ship be tween base ment tec tonic pro cesses and the de vel op ment of var i ous salt struc tures. Nu mer ous au thors have ad dressed this is sue (Sokołowski, 1966, 1972; Dadlez and Marek, 1969, 1974;
Pożaryski, 1977), but only a gen eral link be tween in ferred base ment tec tonic ac tiv ity and salt move ments was sug gested.
DATA
Over sev eral tens of years of ex plo ra tion for hy dro car bons within the MPT, num ber of seis mic re flec tion sur veys have been com pleted within this sed i men tary basin. Ad di tionally, nu mer ous re search wells drilled by the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti - tute, and ex plo ra tion wells drilled by the Pol ish Oil and Gas Com pany are lo cated in this area. Re cently, well logs from PGI re search wells have been dig i tised and re pro cessed, and to - gether with seis mic pro files can be used for de tailed stud ies of var i ous as pects of MPT de vel op ment.
The Oświno struc ture is crossed by a re gional seis mic pro - file as sem bled from seis mic lines ac quired in the 70’s and 80’s, and re cently re pro cessed. The Oświno IG 1 re search well drilled by the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute in mid-60’s is lo cated above the crest of this struc ture (Jaskowiak, 1966). For this well, re pro cessed well logs to gether with check-shot ve loc ity data were avail able, en abling a fairly pre cise tie be tween seis -
mic and well data. For in ter pre ta tion pre sented in pre vi ous pa - pers (Krzywiec, 2000, 2002a) only orig i nal check-shot data were used. Re cently, re pro cessed digit ised ve loc ity data be - came avail able, and these slightly dif fer from the orig i nal data.
In par tic u lar, they sug gest that syn-ki ne matic Cre ta ceous de - pos its are not lim ited to the Cenomanian-Turonian in ter val but that Coniacian de pos its are also in cluded (see also be low). This age es ti mate have still to be tested against the very de tailed ve - loc ity model cre ated for this area tak ing into ac count check-shot data and sonic logs from other wells drilled in this re gion. The Oświno IG 1 well pen e trated Ce no zoic, Cre ta ceous and (partly) Ju ras sic suc ces sions. The seis mic in ter pre ta tion was sup ported by cor re la tion with other deep wells such as Chociwel 2, Chociwel 3, Banie 1 and Resko 1 (Figs. 2 and 3).
The com pleted in ter pre ta tion of seis mic data was fo cused on the over all tec tonic style of de for ma tion and on the de tec tion of lo cal un con formi ties and sub tle thick ness changes, as these of ten point to var i ous tec tonic move ments within the ba sin, ei ther ex - ten sion- or in ver sion-related (comp. Cart wright, 1989, 1991).
OŚWINO STRUCTURE — INTERPRETATION OF SEISMIC DATA
The pres ent-day large-scale con fig u ra tion of the Pom er a nian seg ment of the MPT is clearly dom i nated by in ver sion-re lated pro cesses. Its ax ial part is strongly up lifted and eroded, and forms the Mid-Pol ish Swell (MPS; Fig 3). Be cause of the low qual ity of seis mic data from be neath the Zechstein salt layer, no di rect ev i - dence for the struc tural style of this up lift is avail able. How ever, tak ing into ac count the over all ba sin ge om e try ob served on seis - mic data and com par i son with the ad ja cent Bal tic seg ment of the in verted MPT where the Zechstein cover is ab sent or very thin and it is pos si ble to ob serve re verse faults re lated to ba sin in ver sion (Schlüter et al., 1997; Krzywiec, 2000, 2002a), it was as sumed that re gional up lift of the Pom er a nian seg ment of the MPT was caused by ma jor base ment re verse faults de vel oped within the pre-Zechstein base ment (Krzywiec, 2000, 2002a, b). The area of pres ent-day up lift (i.e. area of the MPS) is char ac ter ised by in - creased thick ness of Zechstein and Tri as sic de pos its. Pres ently, Zechstein de pos its are slightly thin ner in the most ax ial part of the MPS (Fig. 3), but this ge om e try could be at trib uted to lat eral salt
P R E - Z E C H S T E I N B A S E M E N T P z
J Cr
T
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S W Ba nie 1 Oś wino IG 1 Re s ko 1 Bia łoga rd 5 NE
Chociwe l 2 Chociwe l 3
Fig. 3. Geo log i cal cross-sec tion based on an in ter preted re gional seis mic pro file from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Pol ish Trough;
lo ca tion — see Fig. 1
Pz — Zechstein, T — Tri as sic, J — Ju ras sic, Cr — Cre ta ceous; black frame— en larged por tion of seis mic pro file shown on Fig. 4; TWT— two-way traveltime, approx. 4 x depth ex ag ger a tion; due to the low qual ity of seis mic data from be neath of the Zechstein in ter val, ma jor re verse faults drawn within the base ment should be re garded only as hy po thet i cal fault zones re spon si ble for ba sin in ver sion
out flow to wards the SW and NE sides of a sig nif i cantly up lifted ax - ial part of the MPT dur ing ba sin in ver sion. As a re sult of this out - flow, salt pil lows lo cated above in ferred base ment re verse faults might have formed (Fig. 3). Their de vel op ment could also be at least partly re lated to syn-depositional Late Perm ian extensional ac - tiv ity of base ment faults and a lo cally in creased thick ness of the Zechstein suc ces sion (see also be low). Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous suc - ces sions, due to up lift and ero sion, have been nearly en tirely re - moved from the ax ial part of the MPS, and for this re gion it is dif fi - cult to es ti mate their ini tial thick ness and in ter nal depositional ar chi - tec ture. How ever, the di ver gent pat tern of Ju ras sic and Lower Cre - ta ceous re flec tors on both sides of the up lifted MPS sug gest that also these se ries had their depocenter within the MPT’s ax ial part.
All these fea tures are in agree ment with ear lier con clu sions that the max i mum sub si dence of the MPT was lo cated in its ax ial part (cf.
Pożaryski, 1957; Dadlez and Dembowska, 1959; Kutek and Głazek, 1972; Dadlez et al., 1998b).
The Oświno struc ture is lo cated close to the SW flank of the MPS (Fig. 2 and 3). This struc ture is lo cated close to the in - ferred base ment re verse fault zone, re spon si ble for in ver sion and up lift of this part of the MPT. The Oświno struc ture has
been in ter preted by other au thors as a partly pierced salt diapir with nearly ver ti cal walls (comp. Dadlez, 2001). De tailed anal y - sis of its in ter nal struc ture sug gests that it should be re-in ter - preted as an imbricated fan of blind re verse faults (thrusts) and re lated fault-prop a ga tion folds (Fig. 4; comp. Mitra, 1986;
Dunne and Ferill, 1988). The folded hinge zone of the Oświno struc ture is clearly vis i ble al ready at the level of the LateTriassic suc ces sion, across which the NE wall of the Oświno salt diapiric struc ture was drawn in an other in ter pre ta tion (Dadlez, 2001).
Sig nif i cant thick ness changes in the Tri as sic, Ju ras sic and Cre ta - ceous de pos its ob served within the hinge zone of the Oświno struc ture (Fig. 4) are of par tic u lar im por tance for anal y sis of the evo lu tion of this struc ture, as they point to dif fer ent phases of its syn-depositional tec tonic ac tiv ity.
The hinge zone of the Oświno fault-prop a ga tion fold is char ac ter ised by an in creased thick ness of the up per most Up - per Tri as sic (not drilled by Oświno IG 1 well) and Mid dle to Up per Ju ras sic (approx. Bajocian-Tithonian) suc ces sions. This in creased thick ness, re lated to a di ver gent seis mic pat tern, is sig nif i cantly asym met ri cal, with a greater thick ness ob served close to the fault plane (Fig. 4). A slight thick ness in crease in
4 km 0
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OŚ WINO IG 1 CHOCIWEL 2
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T1 P z T2 T3 J
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Fig. 4. Part of re gional seis mic pro file from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Polish Trough showing de tails of the Oświno compressional struc ture:
A — uninterpreted, B — in ter preted
Pz — Zechstein, T1 — Lower Tri as sic (Buntsandstein), T2 — Mid dle Tri as sic (Muschelkalk), T3 — Up per Tri as sic, J — Ju ras sic, Cr1 — Lower Cre ta - ceous, Cr2 — Up per Cre ta ceous; patterned area within the Up per Cre ta ceous de pos its — syn-kinematic de pos its char ac ter ised by a thick ness de crease to - wards the Oświno struc ture and to wards the up lifted MPS; thin lines within Up per Tri as sic and Mid dle-Upper Ju ras sic de pos its high light syn-extensional de po si tion, thin lines within Up per Cre ta ceous de pos its high light syn-compressional de po si tion; TWT — two-way traveltime, approx. 2 x depth ex ag ger a - tion; over all data qual ity for this pro file is good, though within the SW part of the Oświno fault zone seis mic re flec tors (es pe cially for Tri as sic in ter val) are less con tin u ous, and in this re gion the in ter pre ta tion should be re garded as ap prox i mate (see text for fur ther ex pla na tion)
the Up per Tri as sic de pos its is ob served also in the vi cin ity of a sec ond ary thrust fault lo cated to wards the SW from the main Oświno struc ture (Fig. 4), al though seis mic data in this re gion is of sig nif i cantly lower quality. A sig nif i cantly in creased thick ness of Mid dle and Up per Ju ras sic suc ces sions in re la tion to the re gional thick ness pat tern was stressed im me di ately af ter the Oświno IG 1 well was drilled (Jaskowiak, 1966).
The Ju ras sic de pos its are cov ered by a Lower Cre ta ceous suc ces sion of gen er ally uni form thick ness. A dif fer ent stra tal ge om e try is ob served for autor the Up per Cre ta ceous de pos its.
For this in ter val, within the hinge zone of the Oświno fault-prop a ga tion fold, sig nif i cant thick ness vari a tions are ob - served (Fig. 4). These thick ness vari a tions char ac ter ise the Cenomanian-Turonian and most prob a bly also the Coniacian suc ces sion (see de scrip tion of data used for this in ter pre ta tion pre sented above). To wards the limbs of the Oświno fault-prop - a ga tion fold, the up per most part of these syn-ki ne matic de pos - its are char ac ter ised by a di ver gent seis mic pat tern and in - creased thick ness. To wards the ax ial part of the MPS, the up - per most part of the syn-ki ne matic Up per Cre ta ceous in ter val is again char ac ter ised by re duced thick nesses (Fig. 4). A sub tle an gu lar un con formity de vel oped within the top most part of the syn-ki ne matic suc ces sion sug gests that the ax ial part of the Oświno fault-prop a ga tion fold was eroded and un con form ably cov ered by youn ger (Santonian- Campanian) Up per Cre ta ceous de pos its. This succesion is also folded and forms the up per part of the Oświno struc ture. It is char ac ter ised by a rather uni form thick ness, hence it was as sumed that dur ing the time of its de - po si tion the Oświno struc ture was not ac tive. The fold ing ob - served sug gests that the Oświno struc ture was re ac ti vated dur - ing the later stages of MPT in ver sion. It must be stressed, how - ever, that this fold ing could be also at trib uted at least partly to the for ma tion of a drape anticline.
All the fea tures de scribed above are char ac ter is tic for in - verted listric faults, which tec tonic ac tiv ity was con tem po ra ne - ous with sed i men ta tion, both dur ing ex ten sion and com pres - sion-related in ver sion (comp. Bu chanan and McClay, 1991;
McClay and Scott, 1991).
DISCUSSION
Iden tified thick ness changes within the Oświno struc ture to gether with the con fig u ra tion of the pre-Zechstein base ment pro vided a ba sis for con struc tion of a model of its Me so zoic tectono-stratigraphic evo lu tion. Two main stages of evo lu tion of this struc ture were iden ti fied, re lated to de vel op ment of the MPT and its in ver sion.
DECOUPLED MESOZOIC EVOLUTION OF THE MID-POLISH TROUGH — REGIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In ter pre ta tion of seis mic data from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the MPT sug gests that its Me so zoic de vel op ment was con - trolled by base ment ex ten sion, and char ac ter ised by ba sin-scale de coup ling be tween the pre-Zechstein (pre cisely be tween pre-Stassfurt salt) base ment and the Me so zoic sed i men tary infill (comp. Krzywiec, 2000, 2002a, b). Due to such ba -
sin-scale de coup ling caused by thick Zechstein evaporites, base ment nor mal faults did not cut through post-Zechstein de - pos its, and the Me so zoic infill is char ac ter ised by rather smooth thick ness changes and a re gional di ver gent seis mic pat tern.
The re sults of an a logue mod el ling of ac tive fault ing be - neath the salt layer show that the pres ence of a thick salt layer above a base ment de formed in brit tle fash ion strongly mod i - fies modes of de for ma tion of the post-salt cover se quence (Withjack and Calloway, 2000; see also Pas coe et al., 1999).
Me chan i cal de coup ling be tween two brit tle lay ers (pre- and post-salt suc ces sions) leads to a gen er ally more gen tle depositional pat tern of the sed i men tary infill — grad ual thick - ness changes, di ver gent seis mic pat tern, gen tle over step ping of youn ger sed i ments, etc. (comp. Withjack and Calloway, 2000 and their fig. 14). This is par tic u larly true for a rel a tively thick vis cous salt layer. Dur ing such de coup led extensional evo lu tion, ma jor nor mal fault ing is pri mar ily re stricted to the base ment, and only sec ond ary nor mal faults and as so ci ated de for ma tions such as extensional forced folds or salt struc - tures de velop within the sed i men tary infill (Withjack et al., 1990; Koyi et al., 1993; Koyi and Petersen, 1993; Withjack and Calloway, 2000). Within the ax ial part of the MPT, up to 1.5 km of Zechstein evaporites with a to tal thick ness of salt of the or der of 1km were de pos ited (Wag ner, 1998), hence it can be as sumed that due to the pres ence of thick salt the MPT evolved as a de coup led sed i men tary ba sin. This is ev i denced by dis tinct but grad ual thick ness in crease to wards the ba sin cen ter ob served for the Tri as sic, Ju ras sic and Lower Cre ta - ceous suc ces sions (Fig. 3).
EVOLUTION OF THE OśWINO STRUCTURE
A model of de coup led evo lu tion of the MPT pro vided the ra tio nale for in ter pre ta tion of the Oświno struc ture as a zone of sec ond ary faults de vel oped in con nec tion with the ac tiv ity of the mas ter base ment nor mal fault re spon si ble for re gional sub - si dence of the MPT. Tri as sic and Ju ras sic phases of its de vel op - ment are given in Fig ure 5. The Oświno faults show typ i cal fea - tures of listric faults: a curved fault plane shallowing with depth, and as so ci ated roll-over anticline (Shelton, 1984; Wil - liams and Vann, 1987; Ellis and McClay, 1988; Xiao and Suppe, 1992; Maudit and Brun, 1998). They lack de for ma tions within the hangingwall such as hangingwall-vergent backthrust (comp. Bu chanan and McClay, 1991; McClay and Scott, 1991), but this could be pos si bly ex plained by the rel a - tively small de gree of to tal short en ing re lated to faults in ver sion.
Their syn-depositional ac tiv ity is doc u mented by the di ver gent pat tern of syn-extensional de pos its (comp. Cart wright, 1991;
Prosser, 1993). The thick ness in crease of the Up per Tri as sic and Mid dle to Up per Ju ras sic de pos its in the vi cin ity of the Oświno fault zone de picts two main phases of its extensional ac tiv ity.
Dur ing Tri as sic ex ten sion (Fig. 5A) all three Oświno nor mal faults were ac tive and ad ja cent syn-extensional suc ces sions de - pos ited above the hangingwall are char ac ter ised by a di ver gent seis mic pat tern. To wards the NE, to wards the re con structed MPT depocenter, Tri as sic de pos its also show a slight but reg u lar di ver gent pat tern. Dur ing Ju ras sic ex ten sion (Fig. 5B) only the main (north-east ern most) Oświno listric fault was ac tive and ad - ja cent syn-extensional de pos its pres ent above its hangingwall
are char ac ter ised by a di ver gent seis mic pat tern. Above two other faults of the Oświno struc ture, Ju ras sic de pos its are char ac - ter ised only by grad ual thick ness changes, pos si bly re lated to e.g.
compactional ad just ment of the fault zone. Be cause of the rel e - vance of extensional ac tiv ity of the Oświno fault zone to extensional ac tiv ity of the base ment mas ter nor mal fault it could be pos tu lated that ac tiv ity of Oświno faults also — al though in - di rectly — dates base ment ex ten sion. A very sim i lar sce nario with grav ity-driven ex ten sion of the post-salt suc ces sion re lated to salt with drawal with the top salt sur face act ing as a de tach ment plane was for ex am ple pro posed for de vel op ment of salt-re lated Plio cene struc tures within the Dead Sea ba sin (Larsen et al., 2002). It must be how ever ac knowl edged that apart from the tec - tonic mech a nism, salt dis so lu tion may at least be partly in voked to ex plain the ob served stra tal pat tern of the post-salt (Tri as - sic-Ju ras sic) cover se quence. A re cent study of the Forth Ap - proaches Ba sin in the North Sea showed that ba sin-scale dis so lu - tion has greatly con trib uted to the for ma tion of lo cal Tri as sic minibasins in this area, and some of these bas ins re sem ble re - mark ably the re con structed Oświno struc ture (comp. Cart wright et al., 2001, and their figs. 5c and 8c). Tak ing into ac count the lo - ca tion of the Oświno struc ture close to the in verted mar gin of the MPT it is how ever pos si ble to as sume that salt dis so lu tion might have acted only as a sec ond ary mech a nism dur ing de vel op ment of this struc ture, while the tec tonic mech a nism pre sented above played a dom i nant role.
Dur ing ba sin in ver sion, nor mal base ment faults may be re - ac ti vated as re verse faults and cause up lift of pre vi ously sub -
sided base ment blocks (Wil liams et al., 1989; Bu chanan and McClay, 1991). Up lift of par tic u lar base ment blocks of ten leads to for ma tion of compressional-forced folds (John son and John son, 2002) sim i lar to the extensional-forced folds de - scribed above. Such up lift and fold ing leads to local ised re duc - tion of ac com mo da tion space above the crestal part of the fold, and re lated thin ning of syn-tectonic de pos its (comp. Hardy et al., 1996; Bernal and Hardy, 2002). Pro gres sive ro ta tion of the backlimb ac com pa nied by sed i ment progradation from an up - lifted source area re sults in for ma tion of lo cal an gu lar un con - formi ties. All these fea tures are also very com mon in fron tal parts of fore land fold-and-thrust orogenic belts, where fron tal thrusts are bur ied be neath wa ter, older de pos its of foredeep bas ins be come in volved in thrust ing move ments and are cov - ered by youn ger foredeep de pos its (comp. Burbank and Verges, 1994; Hardy et al., 1996; Krzywiec, 2001; Verges et al., 2002). Sim i lar fea tures may also be ob served above base - ment blocks re ac ti vated, up lifted and ro tated dur ing ba sin in - ver sion (Cart wright, 1989).
On the ba sis of the re la tion ship be tween styles of de for ma - tion within the MPT’s pre- and post-salt suc ces sions caused by its de coup led evo lu tion, it has been also as sumed that the struc - tural style of in ver sion tec ton ics was sig nif i cantly in flu enced by the pres ence of a vis cous salt layer. Dur ing Late Cre ta ceous in ver sion of the MPT, both the post-Zechstein sed i men tary cover as well as the pre-Zechstein base ment were sub jected to com pres sion, and this led to the de vel op ment of var i ous tec - tonic struc tures at both lev els. Com pres sion act ing di rectly on
Fig. 5. Model of Late Tri as sic (A) and Late Ju ras sic (B) configuration of the Oświno struc ture based on the seis mic pro file from Fig ure 4 flat tened on top of Tri as sic and top of Ju ras sic re spec tively
Approx. 2 x depth ex ag ger a tion; note sig nif i cantly in creased thick ness and di ver gent seis mic pat tern of Up per Tri as sic and Mid dle-Up per Ju ras sic deposits above the hangingwall of the listric nor mal fault; re stored salt thick ness should be re garded as qual i ta tive only; other ex pla na tions as in Fig. 4
post-Zechstein sed i men tary cover led to re ac ti va tion and in ver - sion of the Oświno fault zone, and lo cal up lift of the tip of its hangingwall. Be cause of its ear lier extensional ac tiv ity, the Oświno fault zone formed the pre ferred site for the first stage of the in ver sion-related tec tonic move ments, there fore its di rect re ac ti va tion in a compressional tec tonic re gime could be re - garded as a first pre cur sor of ba sin-scale in ver sion. Up lift of the hangingwall led to local ised re duc tion of ac com mo da tion space and a re lated thick ness decrease of syn- kinematic (i.e.
syn-inversion) de pos its, clearly vis i ble onthe seis mic data.
Com pres sion act ing within the sub-salt base ment led to re - ac ti va tion of in ferred base ment mas ter nor mal faults that were sub se quently trans ferred into re verse faults (Krzywiec, 2000, 2002a, b). Along these faults, the ax ial part of the ba sin was sig nif i cantly up lifted. Zechstein de pos its of lo cally in creased thick ness, caused by pos si ble Late Perm ian extensional ac tiv - ity of base ment mas ter nor mal faults, have been trans ferred into salt pil lows lo cated above an up lifted hangingwall (comp. Krzywiec, 2000 and his fig. 7). Ex am ples of such salt pil lows lo cated along the in verted SW and NE mar gins of the MPT, es pe cially within its NW part, have been doc u mented on nu mer ous maps and seis mic lines (e.g. Dadlez et al., 1998a; Dadlez and Marek, 1998; Dadlez, 2001). They can also be ob served on re gional seis mic pro files from the Pom er - a nian seg ment of the MPT, on both sides of the up lifted cen - tral part of the ba sin (Fig. 3). Up lift of the MPT’s ax ial part was most prob a bly re corded by lo cal depositional sys tems with a cer tain time-lag. It could be hy poth es ised that, dur ing the ear li est stages of ax ial up lift, only local ised re duc tion of ac com mo da tion space took place within the ba sin’s cen ter, and at the same time the flanks of the ba sin were sites of con - tin u ous de po si tion re flected in the di ver gent seis mic pat tern.
Be cause of strong ero sion within the ax ial part of the up lifted MPT, that re moved the en tire Cre ta ceous and nearly all of the Ju ras sic sec tions, no ev i dence re mains re gard ing the ex act struc tural style and tim ing of this ax ial up lift. In ver sion-re - lated base ment up lift also in flu enced the struc tural style of the Oświno struc ture as it re sulted in the cre ation of a mor pho log - i cal gra di ent and in creased pres sure of over bur den rocks di - rected to wards the south-west. This pres sure most prob a bly sig nif i cantly con trib uted to Late Cre ta ceous re ac ti va tion of the Oświno struc ture. Re ac ti va tion was due to lat eral com - pres sion caused by up lift of the ax ial part of the MPT. The mech a nism of for ma tion of the Oświno compressional struc - tures was there fore to cer tain de gree prob a bly sim i lar to the mech a nism re spon si ble for the for ma tion of grav ity-driven fold belts on pas sive mar gins (Cobbold and Szatmari, 1991;
Trudgill et al., 1999; Ro wan et al., 1999, in press). Along pas - sive con ti nen tal mar gins, contractional fold belts de velop as a re sult of mor pho log i cal gra di ents re lated to the con ti nen tal slope, and in creased pres sure of over bur den rocks re lated to up-slope de po si tion and sed i ment progradation (Koyi, 1996).
Ma jor de tach ment sur faces are re lated to ei ther salt lay ers or overpressured shales. The pre sumed in ver sion and up lift of the MPT is doc u mented by a slight thick ness de crease in the up per most part of the syn-ki ne matic (= syn-in ver sion) de pos - its to wards the NE, i.e. to wards the up lifted ax ial part of the MPT (Fig. 4). It can be there fore as sumed that, be tween the
ax ial part of the up lifted MPS and the Oświno compressional struc ture, a small ba sin equiv a lent to ponded slope-bas ins known from pas sive mar gin set tings formed dur ing this stage of ba sin in ver sion (comp. Hooper et al., 2002).
The Oświno struc ture forms the north ern most part of a sys - tem of tec tonic de for ma tions ex tend ing from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the MPT to wards the Fore-Sudetic Monocline (Dadlez et al., 1998; Dadlez and Marek, 1998; Kwolek, 2000).
To wards the south it is grad u ally re placed by the Drawno-Człopa salt diapiric struc ture, and fur ther to the south by a sys tem of halfgrabens. Ac cord ing to var i ous de tailed stu - dies these grabens were ac tive in Late Tri as sic and Ju ras sic times (Kwolek, 2000). It might be sug gested that all these structures were ini ti ated in Tri as sic and Ju ras sic times, and their de vel op ment was con trolled by de coup led evo lu tion of the MPT. The main dif fer ence in their pres ent-day struc tural style was caused by in ver sion of the MPT. The Oświno struc ture is lo cated in im me di ate prox im ity to an in verted mas ter fault in the base ment and therefore was sub jected to the most sig nif i - cant re ac ti va tion in flu enced by the up lifted ax ial part of the MPT. This re sulted in the for ma tion of a syn-depositional zone of re verse faults (thrusts). The Drawno–Człopa salt diapir might also have been ini ti ated in Tri as sic times due to salt in tru - sion along two con ju gate faults that de vel oped — as in the Oświno area — as sec ond ary de for ma tions within the post-salt cover se quence. Be cause of its more dis tal po si tion from the base ment mas ter fault, re verse faults (thrusts) did not de velop dur ing ba sin in ver sion. In stead, the ex ten sion-related diapiric struc ture was sub jected to com pres sion and dom i nated by ver - ti cal salt flow. The more south ern part of this sys tem of tec tonic de for ma tions lo cated within Fore-Sudetic Monocline has mostly pre served its orig i nal struc tural style formed dur ing Tri - as sic and Ju ras sic ex ten sion. In gen eral, all such struc tures within the Fore-Sudetic Monocline are bound by slightly ro ta - tional nor mal faults dip ping to wards the north-east, with an ti - thetic faults dip ping to wards the south-west (Kwolek, 2000).
They could be in ter preted as sec ond ary faults de vel oped due to ex ten sion within the pre-Zechstein base ment and de coup led ex ten sion within the post-salt suc ces sion, as in the Tri as - sic-Jurassic de vel op ment of the Oświno struc ture. Be cause of their more dis tal po si tion from the base ment mas ter nor mal fault zone, the nor mal faults bound ing graben struc tures of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline have a much less listric char ac ter than in the Oświno area. They were sub jected to ei ther lit tle or no inversion (Kwolek, 2000), pos si bly partly be cause of their greater dis tance from the strongly in verted ax ial part of the MPT which was char ac ter ised by sig nif i cant tec tonic ac tiv ity.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Polish Trough evolved in Me so zoic times as a de coup led sed i men tary ba sin with re gional de coup ling re lated to thick Zechstein salt.
2. The Oświno struc ture is in ter preted as a zone of secon - dary listric nor mal faults de vel oped due to Tri as sic-Jurassic ac - tiv ity of base ment mas ter nor mal fault (fault zone) re spon si ble
for ba sin sub si dence. This in ter pre ta tion of the or i gin of the Oświno structure is dif fer ent from pre vi ous in ter pre ta tions of this struc ture as a partly pierced salt diapir.
3. The sug gested de vel op ment of sec ond ary listric faults within the post-salt suc ces sion is in agree ment with re sults of an a logue mod ell ing of de for ma tion within the cover se quence dur ing de coup led ex ten sion.
4. Two pulses of in creased ex ten sion may be in ferred for the Oświno fault zone: Late Tri as sic and Mid- to Late Ju ras sic (approx. Bajocian-Tithonian).
5. The Oświno fault zone was re ac ti vated in the Late Cre ta - ceous (approx. Cenomanian-Turonian-Coniacian) dur ing inversion of the Mid-Polish Trough. Its fi nal shape was at tained dur ing later (post-Campanian) stages of MPT in ver sion.
6. Dur ing the Late Cre ta ceous, the evo lu tion of the Oświno fault zone was in flu enced by both (di rectly) com pres sion act ing within the post-Zechstein sed i men tary cover, as well as (in di - rectly) com pres sion act ing within the pre-Zechstein base ment.
Com pres sion ex erted di rectly on the hangingwall and footwall of Oświno struc ture led to its re ac ti va tion and in ver sion, while com pres sion within the base ment led to up lift of the ax ial part of the MPT and SW-directed lat eral com pres sion re lated to in - creased pres sure of over bur den rocks.
7. The Oświno fault zone, the Drawno-Człopa salt diapiric struc ture and the graben sys tem of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline
might have all de vel oped due to de coup led evo lu tion of the Mid-Polish Trough. Their pres ent-day dif fer ent struc tural style may be at trib uted to their dif fer ent dis tances from the ax ial part of the ba sin af fected by sub si dence and up lift.
Ac knowl edge ments. In ter pre ta tion of seis mic data from the Pom er a nian seg ment of the Mid-Polish Trough was sup - ported by the Com mit tee for Sci en tific Re search (KBN), PGI pro ject no. 6.20.9422.00.0. The Pol ish Oil and Gas Com pany is thanked for pro vid ing ac cess to seis mic data. Spe cial thanks are due to Prof. R. Dadlez (Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute, War saw) for nu mer ous lively dis cus sions on var i ous top ics re lated to the Mid-Polish Trough de vel op ment and in ver sion, in clud ing the evo lu tion of the Oświno struc ture. Dr. J. Świdrowska (Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences) and Dr. M. Jarosiński (Pol ish Geo log i - cal In sti tute) are thanked for con struc tive re views that greatly helped to fi nally shape this pa per; I re main how ever fully re - spon si ble for pre sented model of the Oświno struc ture. Thanks are also ex tended to par tic i pants of the ses sion “Pass the Salt Please: Global Ad vances in Salt Tec ton ics” held dur ing 2002 AAPG An nual Con fer ence, dur ing which this model of the Oświno struc ture was pre sented, for fruit ful dis cus sions and com ments.
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