Lithofacies and sedimentation of the Badenian (Middle Miocene) gypsum in the northern part of the Carpathian foredeep, Southern Poland

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Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (1993), vol. 63: 33 -8 4 PL ISSN 0208-9068

LITHOFACIES AND SEDIMENTATION

OF THE BADENIAN (MIDDLE MIOCENE) GYPSUM IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE CARPATHIAN

FOREDEEP, SOUTHERN POLAND

Alicja Kasprzyk

Państwowy Instytut Geologiczny, Oddział Świętokrzyski, ul. Zgody 21,25-953 Kielce

Kasprzyk, A ., 1993. Lithofacies and sedimentation o f the Bndenian (M iddle M iocenc) gypsum in the northern part o f the Carpathians Foredecp, southern Poland. Ann. Soc. G col. P olon., 63: 33 - 84.

A b s t r a c t : The Badenian sulphate sediments are represented by primary gypsum (crystalline selenitic gypsum, m assive gypsum, and clastic gypsum ), secondary gypsum and anhydrite. Great variety o f lithofacies and sedimentary structures is characteristic o f the primary gypsum . The studied .sedim ents were laid down in changing conditions - from subaqueous (deep-water to shallow-water) to subaerial, in salinas, and in sabkhas on a gently inclined (< 1°) evaporite ramp o f distinct relief.

The sequence o f lilhofacies - a through r - distinguished in the gypsum sections, is indicative o f a general regression, and it includes 6 sedimentary cycles.

M anuscript received II M arch 1991, revised accepted 28 O ctober 1993

INTRODUCTION

S tu d ies on m o d e m e v a p o rite en v iro n m e n ts enhan ced the in te rp retatio n o f d ep o sitio n al and d ia g en e tic processes in a n cie n t su lp h ate sed im e n ts su ch as the M essin ian sed im en ts o f the M ed iterran e a n area (D ronkert, 1985; S c h re i

ber, 1986, 1988; W arren, 1991 and references therein). T h e s e s ed im en ts - w h o se in te rp re ta tio n re m a in e d c o n tro v e rs ia l fo r m a n y years (see W arren, 1989) - rep resen t very v ariable sed im en ta ry en v iro n m e n ts, from d e e p - w a te r to su b ae ria l (e.g. S c h re ib e r et a /., 1976; Orli C abo & S h earm an , 1977; G a rri

son e t a i , 1978; R ouchy, 1982; D ronkert, 1985; Schreiber, 1986). B ad e n ia n s u lp h ate sed im en ts o f the Paratelh y s also a ttract increased in terest in the re

c e n t years b ecause o f th e ir g re a t lithological variability and a rich a sse m b lag e o f sed im en ta ry stru ctu res. T h e studies on M io cen e sulphate sed im en ts in the C arp ath ian F o red e e p c o n tin u e fo r m ore than o n e hund red years (sec re v iew s b y K w ia tk o w sk i, 1972; G arlicki, 1979; K ubica, 1992). T h e m a in goal o f the a u t h o r ’s studies w as to restore the histo ry o f depo sitio n and d iag en esis o f M io c e n e sulphate sed im en ts in the north ern part o f the C arp ath ian fored eep

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LITHOFACIES A N D SEDIMENTATION OF THE B A D E N IA N G Y PSU M

35

(Fig. I A) based o n a c o m p a riso n to w ell studied - as a resu lt o f (lie last d e c a d e ’s re sea rc h - m o d e m ev ap o rite enviro n m en ts.

T h e studied area o f a b o u t 1,100 k m 2 (Fig. 1) is situated so u th o f the G ó ry Ś w ię to k rz y s k ie (in s o m e g e o lo g ic a l pap ers referred to as the H o ly C ross M o u n tain s) and it includes fo u r sectors w ith n u m e ro u s e x p o su res o f g y p su m and a d e n se n e tw o rk o f b o re h o le s (Fig. IB ): the N ida river area, S ta szó w area (see K a sp rz y k , 1989a), O siek area, and the W sc h o d n ia riv e r area. T h e m o st detailed w o rk w as co n ce n tra te d in th ese fo u r areas.

T h e seq u e n c e o f B a d e n ia n sedim ents in the area o f this stu d y begins w ith lith o lo g ica lly d iversified s eq u e n c e o f the so called B a ra n ó w B eds (P aw ło w sk i et a l., 1985; Fig. 1C). T h e s e are follo w ed by c h em ica l sed im en ts w h ic h in the n o rth ern , p erip h eral p a it o f the C arp ath ian F o red e c p in clu d e g y p s u m and c a r b o nates. T h e th ick n ess o f g y p su m w ith clay ey and carb o n ate in te rcalatio n s attains 60 m in local d e p re ssio n s (P aw ło w sk i, 1965; K ub ica, 1992). T h e area o f g y p su m o c c u rre n c e is a W -E trending zone up to so m e tens o f k ilo m etres wide. T o w a rd s the south, w ith increasin g d e p th o f its o c c u rren c e , g y p su m is replaced by an h y d rite (d epths 5 0 0 - 2 ,5 0 0 m) w h ic h o c cu p ie s the cen tral part o f the C a rp ath ian F o rc d e e p (K ubica, 1972). Salt d ep o sits o c c u r in the s o u th ern part o f the foredeep, w h ere the ev ap o rite sed im en ts attain th e ir m a x im u m th ick n ess o f m o re than 600 m (N ey et al., 1974; G arlicki, 1979).

T h e m e th o d s o f study and the classification o f sed im en ta ry stru ctu res w ere based m ain ly on the pap ers by K w ia tk o w sk i (1972), D ro n k e rt (1985), C iarapi- ca e t al. (1985) and the te x tb o o k by G rad ziń sk i et al. (1986). T h e p é tro g ra p h ie c lassificatio n by C iarap ica e t al. (1 985) w as used for the stru ctu res o f p rim ary g y p su m , the classific atio n o f m ic ro stru ctu res pro p o sed by Orti C ab o (1 977) and Orti C abo & R o se ll-O rtiz (1982) was used for se c o n d a ry g y p su m and anhydrites; n o m e n c la tu re o f M aik iem et al. (1969) was applied in the d e s c rip  tion o f an hydrite textures.

GYPSUM LITHOFACIES

T h e lithological v arieties o f g y psum (Table 1; Figs. 2-6) reflect its d iv e rs i

fied origins; they m a y be classified in tw o m ain groups: (1) p rim ary (c ry s ta l

line selenitic, m assive, and clastic g y p su m ) (Pis. I-IX: 1, 3; Pl. X: 1) and (2) s e c o n d a ry gypsum (PI. X: 2). T h e crystalline selenitic g y p su m in clu d es the fo llo w in g lithofacies: glassy, sabre-like, skeletal, and b an d ed w ith selenite horizons. T h e oth er varieties include those o f m assiv e g y p su m - w ith c ry s ta l

line aggreg ates, stro m ato litic, lam in ated (h o rizontal o r w av y ), flaser, a la b a s trine and nodular, and those o f clastic gypsum - g y p so o lites, g ip so p clites, g y p saren ite s and g y p sorudites.

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Table 1 Sedim entary structures in the M iocene gypsum south o f the G óry Ś w iętok rzysk ie

Sedimentary structures Description

Occur

rence in lithofa

cies

Position in litho- stratigra-

phical sequence*

Giant blocky crystalline inter- growths

symmetrical vertical asymmetrical vertical assymetrical

inclined

i

Blocks o f parallel subcrystals;

flanks o f intergrowths sym m e

trical/asymmetrical to verti

cal/inclined intergrowth surface

sz a

Sabre-like selenite

crystals

f

Strop.gly elongated prismatic crystals with curved upper sur

face delimited by faces (111), (101), (102)

sa sk

S- r n ,f

Split selenite crystals

f

Bundles o f sabre-like crystals joined at base

sa, sk cl, si

}!’ i* n1' b, < ij: r

Related to crystal growth

Skeletal selenite crystals

Framework o f rod-like prisma

tic crystals chaotically arran

ged and intergrown

sk f

Grass-like selenite

horizons H i l l

Palisade-like and columnar ho

rizons o f prismatic crystals oriented perpendicular to beds

si, St, sk, sa,

sz, cl

b, il, e, m, I J J . r, a

C avoli-type selenite crystals

Domal through cauliflow er-li- ke clusters o f prismatic crystals arranged in radial bundles

si, st, cl b, (1, ni, e, j , /, /. k

Crystal growth bands

Streaks o f impurities (clay, car

bonate, organic matter) parallel to (he (120) prism faces

sz, sa,

sk, st ni, c

Crystalline intergrowths X Sabre-like crystals, interpene

trated or terminating at contact sa g, /, ni

Gypsum domes

D om al-like structures, up to 12 in in diameter, up to 4 in high, built o f radially arranged sabre- like crystals

sa, sk ' J

D eposi- tional

H om ogenous clastic structure

H om ogenised sediment with grain-supported or matrix-sup

ported framework

g“ + gP ^{it, I, I}

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LITHOFACIES A N D SEDIM ENTATION OF THE B A D E N IA N G Y P SU M

37

Occur

rence in lithofa-

cies

Position in litho- stratigra-

Millimetric, horizontal/

inclined lamination

Alternations o f parallel lam i

nae, 0.03-1 cm thick, differing in mineral com position, colour or grain-size

la, ga, gr, sa, cl, al

n ,p , //, k, U m, g, Î

Centiinctric horizontal

lamination —

Horizontal, parallel laminae, 0.3-1 cm thick, of: gypsum and pclite, pclite, and sandy marl

ga. st k, /, n, m, o, p , /, r

W avy lamination

Alternating wavy laminae o f different mineral com position and colour

la, si, st, sk, cl, sa

I, k, n, m, j> <?. b,

d , f , o

D eposi-

Lenticular lamination 'X = *

Isolated, irregular and lenticu

lar inserts o f laminated gypsum in gypsarenite or politic groundmass

H. la,

ga, cl h, k, o, m

tional

Flaser lamination —

D iscontinuous laminae o f va

riable thickness, irregular stre

aks o f politic sediment

fl, la, ga. gr, st, cl, al

h, k, 1, ni, c, g, r , b ,

j ' °

Ripples

Sm all clim bing ripples up to 5 mm high (angle of clim bing ca.

3 0 “), asymmetrical - symmetry index 4-10

la, ga, fl, st, si

k, i, m, 1, h , j , r, b

Cross-lamination

Gypsum and clayey-carbonate laminae in sets o f flat or her

ring-bone cross-lam inae - angle o f dip 15-20'

ga, gr o, p, k, h

Grading

normal reverse

1: 1

Gradual or discrete changes in grain size from 0.01 to 1.0 mm within laminae

la, ga, gr, si, st,

fl, al, sk, cl

It, k, m , j , n, p , c, c,

>\ (1, b, ,q

Erosio- nai

Erosion and (or) d issolu  tion surfaces

«^VSA

Flat and slightly wavy surfaces o f discontinuity, often accentu

ated by a dctritic laminae -co  vered by selenite horizon or partly obliterated by syntaxial crystal growth

sz, sa, sk, si, st, la, fl,

al, ga+gp

a, c\ i,f, b , (1, m, j,

I, h, n

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Occur

cies

Position in Iitho- straligra-

Erosio- nal

Erosional channels —

Depressions 1-1.6 cm deep and up to 8 cm wide, trough-like in cross-section; erosion or defor

mation base; channels filled with gypsum and claystone clasts and clay

ga C.

Pocket-like infillings o f clastic sediment

D epressions between corroded and (or) eroded tops o f selenite crystals, filled with clastic gy

psum or siliciclastic sediment

sa, si, sz a, g, i, ni, b, d

Sabre-like crystals in re

versed position

Strongly elongated sabre-like crystals lying with their curved upper surface down

sa i

Distorted bedding

z

Contorted and broken beds;

angular blocks and rick frag

ments chaotically distributed in fine matrix

gr.

ga+gp, st, si

n, p , k, o, h, 1, j, m

Deformation slices o Arcuate fragments o f layers

and laminae st, gr rti, k, I, n.

It, 1, o, p

Defor-

Turbidite sequence Tabcd

Bouina sequences, usually in

com plete, devoid o f upper d iv i

sions, repeatedly occurring in section; often sharp bases and gradational tops

ga + gP u, p

matio-

nal Escape structures

A

Anticlinal or diapiric sw elling o f laminated packets with a sy  stem o f vertical joints

st, si, la d, e, It, ni, r

D essication-cracks

Network o f polygonal cracks in gypsum or clayey-gypsum laminae

si, st, al b, c , j

Deformations o f laminae below /above selenite

crystals -vLr

Bending and steepening o f la

minae above and beneath sabre

like crystals

si, sa, cl, st, sk

g, i, m, d, j , b, e, I,

h , f

Nucléation cone-type

load structures

#

Deformation o f laminae beneath selenite clusters;

knobby protrusions on the base o f selenite layers

sz, sa, si, cl

(

^1, ^{i, b,}

d, m ,j

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39

Occur

cies

Position in litho- straligra-

Broken crystals

ł

Fractured or broken crystals with translated or rotated frag

ments

sa, sk, si, St

g , f. n i , f e, il

Defor- matio- nal

C onvolute lamination

—

Packets o f deformed laminae, with deformation gradually d y  ing out upwards or sharply truncated at top and overlain by non-disturbed laminae

ga + gP<

la

>h p j , h, ni

Load casts i r

Deformations o f boundary sur

faces o f gypsum and gypsum - clayey or marly laminae

la 1>

Cyanobaclerial Iaminitcs

Parallel lamination, horizontal or wavy; alternation o f lam i

nae: gypsum, 0.2-0.8 mm thick, and organic-rich clayey or carbonate, 0.1-0.4 mm thick

st, si, la, al, no, fi, gp- Sr

i \ "i J , /, o, r, c, (1, It, sp.ig gipsów

B ioge

Domal stromatolites S \ J \

Packets o f gypsum laminae;

white - microcrystalline and brownish-grey - granular or amoeboidal, bent in dom e-like fashion; isolated small, loaf

shaped forms, 2-5 mm high, 3- 10 mm wide

st, si, al, la, cl

c, m , j , /, r, (1, h, k

nic

Columnar stromatolites 0

Columns 1.0-7.2 cm high and 0.8-3.6 cm wide; vertical cross- section - cylindrical or

reversed cone, transverse cross-section - circular or ova

te; laminae rectangular or convex

st, si j , /, m

Columnar and branching

stromatolites

n

Parallel branching colum ns

( a style) st rn

C oalescing columnar stromatolites

Two colum ns covered by one

with gently convex laminae st rn

Dia-

genetic Nodular

o

Isolated spherical and ellip so i

dal nodules 0.5-2 cm in diam e

ter, embedded in clayey- carbonate matrix

sec, no, al, si, st, gr. ga

rn, o, r, b, c, c1, /, n,

e, i inne

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Occur

rence in lithofa

cies

Position in lilh o

stratigra

Nodular m osaic and

mosaic ° 8 Aggregated sulphate nodules

no, sec, st, si, al,

gr

a, b , c, d, c, m , /,

o

Vertically aligned

nodular m osaic Gq

Sulphate nodules, vertically or subvcrtically elongated, several centimetres in diameter, outli

ned by bituminous clay

sec a

Layered nodular m osaic <XC 3

Horizontally elongated gypsuin nodules aggregated into nodu

lar layers

no, al, sec, st, si, 11

m , o , j , k, b, a

Distorted nodular

m osaic (enterolithic) s i n

Aggregates and layers o f sul

phate nodules, closely packed and strongly deformed

sec p

D ia

genetic Crenulated lamination S 7 T L

Packets o f finely crenulated la

minae with streaks o f clayey- organic material

al, st, si, la

c , b , £’, k, ni, o

Corroded crystals Gypsum crystals o f irregular outlines

sa, sk, sz, si, st,

cl, gr

A g, i, «, m , <7, r, b ,

k, n

Rosettes o f prismatic cry

stals

\\L - Radial- or chaotic-prismatic aggregates o f anhydrite laths

la, sec, a, st, al, si, sa,

sk, i inne

//, o t a, c\ (I, c9 / , /

i inne

Pseudomorphs after

gypsum crystals 4

Pseudomorphs built o f replaci- vc calcite, anhydrite or m ic

rocrystalline secondary gypsum

sec, sz, st, la, no

a , k, n i innc

Pseudomorphs after

halite crystals m Gypsum pseudomorphs with

cem ent-like fabric la, n, st m , r, o

* - Lithofacies sym bols arranged in order o f decreasing frequency

T h e distin g u ish ed lith o facies build u p a p e rsiste n t seq u e n c e o f e ig h te en lith o stra lig rap h ic a l units, labelled a through r (K asp rzy k , 1991; Fig. 7). T h e lith o stra tig rap h ic a l d iv isio n is based on that pro p o sed by W ala (1979, 1980) fo r g y p s u m sed im en ts in the N id a river area (cf. K asp rzy k , 1991 - Table).

U nits a - V have th e ir e q u iv alen ts also in those sections w h e re g y p su m is partly replaced by an h y d rite an d sec o n d a ry g y psum (area o f the W sc h o d n ia riv e r - Figs. 5, 6; K a sp rz y k , 1991).

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LITHOFACIES A N D SEDIM ENTATION OF THE B A D E N IA N G Y PSU M

41

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new q u a r r y

B o r k ó w

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Fig. 2 Lithological-sedim entological colum ns o f gypsum deposits in selected exposures in the Nida area (sections Gacki - new quarry and Borków). 1 - gypsum, 2 - anhydrite, 3 - sulphate rocks in general, 4 - lim estones, 5 - dolom ites, 6 - carbonate rocks in general, 7 - clays, clay- stones, mudstones; sz - glassy gypsum, sa - sabre-like gypsum, sk - skeletal gypsum, si — banded gypsum with selenite horizons, st — stromatolitic gypsum, cl — m assive gypsum with crystalline clusters, la - laminated gypsum, fl - flaser gypsum, al - alabastrine gypsum, no - nodular gypsum, oo - gypsoolite, gp - gypsopelite, ga - gypsarenite, gr - gypsorudite, sec - secondary gypsum, a - anhydrite, do - dolom ite, c - clay, claystone, s - mudstone, 1 - lim e

stone, lb - brecciated limestone, (k) - karstic void. For other explanations sec Tabic 1

3 — Annales Sodct.

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Crystalline selenitic gypsum

T h e m a in c o n stitu en t o f cry stallin e selenitic g y p su m are selenite crystals, o f variab le form and size, d e p en d in g on their g ro w th co n d itio n s. T h e specific fo rm s o f c ry stallin e ag g re g ate s (blocky intergrow ths, g rass-lik e ag g re g ate s or cavoli) and the sed im en ta ry structures - d isso lu tio n and ero sio n su rfa ce s (PI.

I: 2, 3), load structures (Pl. I: 2), p o c k et-lik e infillings w ith d elritic m aterial, detritic lam inae, and stro m ato litic structures (Pl. IV) - su g g est a p rim ary orig in o f g y p su m , in a sh allo w su b aq u e o u s e n v iro n m e n t o f hig h ly c o n c e n trated brine (W arren, 1982; S c h re ib e r et al., 1982; Orti C abo e t al., 1984;

Schreiber, 1986; B abel, 1986, 1987 and references therein). T h in in te rc ala tions o f m assiv e o r clastic g y p su m indicate ep isodic ch an g e s in the c o n d itio n s o f c ry stallizatio n and sed im en tatio n .

G la s s y g y p s u m (sz - s z k lic a g y p s u m in P o lish ) is d istin g u ish ed a m o n g the selenitic g y psum varieties by its s p e c ta c u la r cry stal form (K w ia tk o w sk i, 1972, 1974; Wahl, 1979; K ub ica, 1985; B abel, 1984; 1987; K a sp rz y k , 1989a).

It is built o f g iant (up to 3.5 m high) b locky crystalline in terg ro w th s Pl. I-1I.

T h e ag g reg ates o f p arallel in tergrow n crystals arc a rran g ed sy m m e tric ally on the o p p o site sides o f a vertical o r subvertical cleavage surface, w h ic h is also the c o m p o sitio n su rfa ce o f crystal intergrow th (B abel, 1987, 1990; Pl. II: 1).

T h e crystals in both flanks o f the intergrow th m aintain the basic features o f sele n ite g ro w th , su ch as: sp littin g , b e n d in g o f u p p e r su rfa c e s, and z o n al g ro w th o f p rism faces (120) d elineated by streaks and la m in a e o f m in e ra l and organ ic inclusions (clay and calcite aggregates, c y an o b a c terial filam ents). T h e c lay e y -c a rb o n a te streak s distributed along the cu rved su rfaces o f the split c ry stallin e seg m en ts rep resen t the sed im en t that was p re feren tially trap p ed and a ccu m u lated on the surfaces w hich p assively participated in the p ro c e ss o f crystal gro w th (cf. Orti C abo e t a l., 1984).

T h e in terg ro w th su rfa ce has a relief related to the blocky stru ctu re o f the in te rg ro w th flanks (Pl. II: 1). A sy m m etrical intergrow lhs up to 1.5 m high, w h o se interg ro w th su rface is slightly o r stro n g ly inclined, o c c u r in the u p p e r part o f the g lassy g y p su m c o m p lex . T h e ir upper, b e tter d e v elo p e d Hanks o fte n in clude a seco n d g en eratio n o f s m aller intergrow lhs (up to 0.5 m high) (Pl. II:

2, 3). T h e y sh o w irre g u la r z ig -zag contact surfaces and reduced w id th s o f th eir flanks due to c o m p etitiv e grow th. Su rfaces o f disso lu tio n an d (or) ero sio n (Pl. I: 2, 3) correlate o v e r a d istan ce o f m o re than ten k ilo m etres, in d icatin g p a la e o re lie f o f the u p p e r su rface o f the selenite layer at a certain stag e o f its g ro w th (cf. W arren, 1982; B ąbel, 1984, 1987).

F lat-w alled in tercry stallin e voids, often co vered w ith fine le n tic u la r c ry s tals up to 2 cm in d iam eter, o c cu r w ithin the intergrow lhs, e sp ecially at their tops and in the o u te r parts o f their Hanks. T h e sh ap es o f th ese v o id s indicate th eir s y n se d im e n ta ry origin.

T h e g ia n t b lo ck y crystalline intergrow lhs grew at the basin bo tto m (cf.

B ąbel, 1987); the g ro w th has taken place u n d e r relatively stable co n d itio n s o f

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43

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45

terg ro w th s co n tro lled the d e v e lo p m e n t o f the vertical a sy m m etrica l fo rm s (PI.

II: 2, 3). T h e inclined in terg ro w th s g re w as isolated fo rm s u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f in creased w a te r d y n a m ic s. In th e inclined position, the g ro w th o f the u p p e r fla n k w as fav o u re d and o f the lo w e r o ne - hindered.

S im ila r structu res o c c u r in e x tre m e ly co arse-cry stallin e selenitic g y p su m in m o d e rn c o a s ta l salin as o f so u th e rn A u stra lia (G oto, 1968; W arren, 1982, 1983; K e n d a ll & W arren, 1988). T h e re the m id d le p a rt o f g y p su m sed im e n ts includes crusts o f g re a t (up to 2 m high) vertically oriented selenite c ry stals w ith irregular, m illim etric lam in atio n . T h e s e g reat crystals, related to sh allo w (less than 10 m ) w aters o f p e rio d ically c h an g in g salinity, are a m o d e m e q u i

v a len t o f the B ad e n ia n g la ssy gypsum .

S a b r e - l i k e g y p s u m (sa) is d istinctive by the presence o f stro n g ly e lo n g ated sabre-lik e crystals (P aw ło w sk a, 1962; K w iatk o w sk i, 1974; Wala, 1979;

K ubica, 1985; B abel, 1986; K asprzyk, 1989a, b; Pl. III: 1-3). T h e sab re-lik e selenite crystals are 15 - 90 cm lo n g and show c h aracteristic features: sp litting (Pl. Ill: 2), reg u lar g ro w th zo n es, and c u rv a tu re o f the u p p e r su rfaces (Pl. Ill:

2, 3) d ue to a torsion o f the c ry stallin e lattice (Babel, 1986). C ry stals w ere d e fo rm e d du rin g th e ir g ro w th on the bottom in the p re sen c e o f o rgan ic m a tte r (cf. Cody, 1976; Orti C abo & S h e a rm a n , 1977; Schreiber, 1986). O rg an ic and m in eral im purities h a m p ered the g ro w th o f crystals on the cu rved surfaces.

T h e sab re-lik e selen ite crystals grew c o m p etitiv ely by e x p an sio n o f prism faces (120) o r clusters o f p arallel in terg ro w n rod-like p ris m a tic crystals (Orti C abo e t al., 1984; B ąbel, 1986), w h ic h d e term in e d the elo n g ated form and the c h aracteristic g ro w th structures.

T h e sab re-lik e cry stals are vario u sly distributed in the rock. T h e m o s t c o m m o n ly , e sp ecially in the u p p e r part o f the g y p su m seq u en ce, they have uniform o rie n tatio n (Pl. III: 3). In the N ida river area th eir in clination to the north and n o rth e a st w as reco rd ed in m ost ex posures a lo n g a line sev e ra l k i

lom etres long (B abel, 1986). T h e sab re-lik e crystals that build g y p su m d o m e s are o riented radially (Pl. Ill: 1, 2). T h e g y p su m dom es are m e g a s tru c tu rc s up to 12 m in d ia m e te r and up to 4 m high, e x p o sed in the N ida reg io n (B abel, 1986 and references therein). T h e structure o f the d o m es includes a d istinct core, up to 5 m across, built o f skeletal g y p su m and selenite clusters o f ca vo li type. T h e core is su rro u n d e d by d e fo rm e d layers o f sab re-lik e g y p su m , 0.3 - 0.5 m thick. T h e sab re-lik e crystals are strongly elongated (up to 90 cm ) and in tergrow n (Pl. Ill: 2). B e d d in g is o bliterated in the flanks o f the d o m e s by sy n tax ial g ro w th o f su b h o riz o n tally oriented elongated crystals. T h e g y p s u m d o m e s o c c u r isolated o r in groups. T h e ir origin is the su b ject o f a lo n g -la stin g discu ssio n . By the an alo g y o f th eir form to the g y p su m d o m e s th a t form c o n te m p o ra n e o u s ly in coastal salinas o f s o u th eastern Spain and so u th ern A us-

Fig. 4 Lilhological-sedim entological colum ns o f gypsum deposits in selected boreholes in the Osiek area. Explanations see Figs. 2 and 3

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tralia (W arren, 1982, 1983; Orti C abo et a l., 1984; K e n d all & W arren, 1988), they m a y be regarded as sy n sed im en tary structures fo rm ed on substrate e le v ations due to p re fe re n tia l g ro w th o f crystals.

T h e sp ace b e tw ee n the sabre-lik e crystals is filled w ith fin er selenites c r y s tals, up to 10 cm long. T h e y are oriented p erp e n d icu la rly and g e o p eta lly to the c u rv e d s u rfa c e s o f th e s a b re -lik e cry stals, o r d is trib u te d c h a o tic a lly in a c la y e y -c a rb o n a te -g y p s u m m a trix (Pl. Ill; 3) lo cally stro n g ly co n tam in ate d with o rganic matter.

S a b re -lik e g y p su m fo rm s a un it up to 5 m thick w ith distin ct intercalatio n s o f la m in a ted o r flaser g y p su m , clastic g y psum and pelitic interlayers. T h e s a b r e - lik e c ry stals lo a d -d e fo rm u n d e rly in g la m in a e u n d e rly in g (cf. B ąb el, 1986; K asp rz y k , 1989a). S im ilar load structu res are d e sc rib e d from g y p su m d e p o sits o f the M ed iterran e a n region as n u c léa tio n c o n es (D ro n k ert, 1976, 1985; Lo C icero & C atalan o , 1976) o r m a m ello n i (Vai & Ricci L u c c h i, 1977);

they w ere also reco g n ized in sec o n d a ry gypsum , p re serv in g p rim ary structu res o f selenite, in E o cen e o f C atalo n ia (B usquets e t a l., 1985). B en d in g and o v e r

stee p e n in g o f lam in ae o v e r the selenite crystals, o b serv ed in the B ad e n ia n g y p su m , is due to c o m p a c tio n (cf. H ardie & Eugster, 1971; D ro n k ert, 1985;

B ąbel, 1986). T h e elo n g ated crystals w ere esp ecially suscep tib le to b re a k d o w n d u rin g c o m p ac tio n and to p e n esy n d e p o sitio n al d isso lu tio n and m e c h a n ical ab rasio n (D ronkert, 1985; Schreiber, 1986). Sabre-lik e crystals in re v e r

sed po sitio n h av e b een ob serv ed in the top part o f unit z; they record a c h an g e in h y d ro d y n a m ic reg im e in the basin and term in ate the su b a q u e o u s s e d im e n tation o f selenite g y p su m (K asp rzy k , 1991).

S elenitic lithofacies w ith sabre-like crystals are k n o w n from m o d e m c o a s tal salinas o f so u th ea stern Spain and so u th ern A u stralia (W arren, 1982; Orti C abo e t al., 1984) w h e re they form d otnc-likc selenite crusts.

S k e le ta l g y p s u m (sk ) (P aw ło w sk a, 1962; K w ia tk o w sk i, 1972, 1974; K u b i

ca, 1985, 1992; Wala, 1974, 1979) is built o f rod-like to p rism a tic selen ite c ry stals up to 15 cm long, chaotically distributed and m u tu a lly in te rg ro w n (PI.

I ll: 4). T w in s a lo n g (1 0 0 ), a sy m m e tr ic a l w ith the lo w e r flan k poorly d e v elo p ed o r reduced, are co m m o n . T h e sp ace b e tw ee n selen ite c ry stals is partly filled w ith g ra n u la r and m ic ro c ry stallin e g y psum rich in carb o n ate and pclitic- o rganic m aterial. Skeletal g y p su m occu rs in layers, 0.2 - 2.5 m thick, in te rc a lated w ith m a ssiv e and clastic g y p su m lam in ae, locally graded.

It also builds cen tral parts o f the g y psum dom es (Pl. Ill: 1, 2). C lusters o f cry stals, sim ila r to those d e sc rib e d above, form the cores o f the g y p s u m do m e s that are fo rm in g n o w in coastal salinas (W arren, 1982; Orti C ab o et al.,

1984; K endall & W arren, 1988).

B a n d e d g y p s u m w ith s e le n itic h o r i z o n s (si) is a w id e ly d istributed lith o facies. S tratification consists in alternation o f layers o f selenitic g y p su m and m a ssiv e (lam inated, alabastrine and strom ato litic) o r clastic g y p su m (Pl. IV).

T h e boundaries b e tw e e n su cc essiv e selenite horizons are in som e cases in d is

tinct, m ark ed only by a thin pelitic la m in a o r a g ra d a tio n in crystal size.

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47

P r z y b o r ó w 1

6m

S t r z e lc e 1 Zerniki 1

Fig. 5 Sections o f sulphate deposits in boreholes Przyborów 1, Żerniki 1 and Strzelce 1 situated in the W schodnia river area. Explanations see Figs. 2 and 3

S elenite crystals, u p to 25 cm high, are oriented v ertically o r radially and p e rp e n d ic u la r to the stratification. T h e y form palisade and g ra ss-lik e s tru c tures o r d o m a l, rosette and c au liflo w er-lik e fo rm s o f cavoli type (Pl. IV: 2).

T h e g ra ss-lik e and cavoli structures w ere first describ ed by R ic h te r-B c rn b u rg (1973) from the M essin ian g y p su m o f Sicily. C rystalline clusters o f cavoli type - in c o n trary to grass-lik e aggregates - do no t form co n tin u o u s h o riz o n s a n d th e y h a v e g r o w n p r e f e r e n t ia l ly o n s u b s t r a te e le v a t i o n s (Pl. IV: 2).

S c h re ib e r e t al. (1976, p. 742) ex p lain their orig in in the M essin ian g y p s u m by increased d en sity o f n u c léa tio n and c o m p etitiv e g ro w th o f crystals.

T h e o th e r distin ctiv e sed im en ta ry structures in banded g y p su m include p o c k et-lik e h o llo w s b e tw ee n the corro d ed or eroded ap ices o f selen ite crys-

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lals, infilled w ith detritic m aterial, stro m ato litic structures, traces o f d is so lu tion and ero sio n o f crystals, load structures o f n u c leatio n -co n e type, brccci- aled h o riz o n s and d e sic c a tio n cracks.

H o riz o n s o f selenite crystals o f grass-lik e and cavoli type are ch arac te ristic fo rm s o f selenite crusts in Q u a tern ary sed im en ts o f co asta l salinas in S E S p a in and in so u th ern a n d w e ste rn A u stralia (A rakel, 1980; W arren, 1982; Orti C abo e t al., 1984; D ronkert, 1985; L o g a n , 1987). T h e y also form te m p o ra rily in sh allo w (u p to 0.5 m) hypersalin e w aters in c an als d ra in in g sab k h a a rea at the coasts o f the P e rsia n G u l f (G u n a tila k a & S h earm an , 1988). P e lilic -c a rb o n a te o r o rg a n ic la m in a e in the selenite ho rizo n s record c h an g e s in salinity, d y n a m ic s and d ep th o f water.

Massive gypsum

M a ssiv e g y psum is a rock in w h ic h the p ro p o rtio n o f selenite and o th e r m acro cry sta llin e fo rm s o f g y psum does no t exceed 50 percent. S everal lilho- l'acies o f m a ssiv e g y p su m could be d istin g u ish ed on the base o f their lithological, p e tro g ra p h ic al and sed im en to lo g ica l characteristics.

M a s s i v e g y p s u m w ith c r y s t a l l i n e c l u s t e r s (cl) is a tran sitional variety b e tw e e n c ry stallin e selen ite and m a ssiv e gyp su m . Selen ite crystals, up to 25 cm long, o c c u r in ag g re g ate s - c o m m o n arc tw ins a lo n g (100), g rass-lik e h o riz o n s o r cavoli - and in single crystals ch aotically distributed in the b a c k gro u n d o f m ic ro c ry stallin e and g ra n u la r gypsum . T h e b a ck g ro u n d d isp lay s p la n a r o r irreg u la r la m in a tio n w ith pelitic-carb o n ate m aterial. D e fo rm a tio n o f la m in a e (load stru ctu res) b e n ea th selenite clusters p ro v e s their p rim ary n ature (cf. D ronkert, 1985; B abel, 1986) and perm its th e ir d istin ctio n from re c ry sta l

liz a tio n forais c o m m o n in the m icro cry stallin e back g ro u n d . Fin e le n tic u la r g y p su m crystals (up to 2 m m in diam eter) p ro b ab ly origin ated e arly d u rin g d iag en esis by g ro w th in g y p su m m u d (cf. Schreiber, 1986). P rim a ry outlin es o f c ry stals w ere partly o r co m p le tely o bliterated by d ia g en e tic a l m o d ifica tio n s in clu d in g reduction, d isso lu tio n and recrystallization, sim ilarly as in m o d e m e v ap o rite e n v iro n m e n ts (L o g an , 1987).

S t r o m a t o l i t i c g y p s u m (st) is a lithofacies (Pl. IV: 1; Pl. V) w h o se d e v e l

o p m e n t reflects the intensity and relations o f tw o su p erim p o se d p rocesses:

c y an o b a c terial activity and c h em ica l p recipitation o f gyp su m . S tro m a to lite structu res have b een hith erto describ ed on ly from the lo w e r p a rt o f the g y p sum seq u e n c e (K w ia tk o w sk i, 1972; Schreiber, 1978; Wala, 1979, 1980; K u b i

ca, 1985, 1992; N ie m cz y k , 1988b; K asp rz y k , 1989a). T h e p re sen t a u t h o r ’s studies revealed th a t stro m ato litic g y p su m occurs at v arious p o sitio n s in the seq u en ce, in layers 0.3 - 3.2 m thick (Figs. 2-6). T h e ir c o m m o n featu re is the p re sen c e o f w ell p reserv ed organic structures such as stro m ato lites and c y a n o bacterial lam in ites w h o se m o rp h o lo g ica l and m ic ro stru c tu ra l variety p erm its the d istin ctio n o f sev eral types o f strom atolitic g y psum (K a sp rzy k , 1993).

L a m i n a t e d g y p s u m (la) is differentiated w ith respect to its lith o lo g y and

Lithofacies and sedimentation of the Badenian (Middle Miocene) gypsum in the northern part of the Carpathian foredeep, Southern Poland