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The principle of rule of law and independence of the judiciary in Myanmar

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The principle of rule of law

and independence of the judiciary

in Myanmar

Nge Nge Aung

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E-mail address: ngengeaung80@gmail.com ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3620-2849

Abstract

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doi: 10.15503/jecs2021.1.530.539

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The latest constitution and new challenges in Myanmar

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References

>@ $XQJ0.6  :ULW-XULVGLFWLRQLQ0\DQPDU Dagon University Research Journal

5HWULHYHG-XQHIURPKWWSVZZZGDJRQXQLYHUVLW\HGXPPZSFRQWHQW

XSORDGV0L.KLQ6DZ$XQJSGI

>@ $XQJ11  &RPSDULVRQRQ)RUPDWLRQRI&RXUWVEHWZHHQ0\DQPDUDQG,QGLD&RQVWL

WXWLRQTaunggyi University Research Journal,4  

>@ $XQJ11 /ZLQ66  &RPSDULVRQRQ)RUPDWLRQRI&RXUWVDPRQJ6RPH$6($1

&RXQWULHV >8QSXEOLVKHG UHVHDUFK SURMHFW@ 'HSDUWPHQW RI /DZ 7DXQJJ\L 8QLYHUVLW\

0\DQPDU

[4] Brown v. Bd. of Educ.866&W  .

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>@ &KHPHULQVN\(  Constitutional Law: Principle and Policy1HZ<RUN:ROWHUV.OXZHU

>@ &RQVW7UL/DZRI

>@ &RQVW7UL$PHQG/DZRI

>@ &RXQFLORI(XURSH  World Conference onConstitutional Justice5HWULHYHG0DUFK

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>@ 'DZ + 0 1   'HYHORSPHQWV LQ 0\DQPDU &RQVWLWXWLRQDO /DZ 7KH

<HDU  LQ 5HYLHZ International Journal of Constitutional Law ,&21QHFW

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GHYHORSPHQWVLQP\DQPDUFRQVWLWXWLRQDOODZWKH\HDULQUHYLHZ

>@ 'XFDW&5  Constitutional Interpretation&DQDGD:DGVZRUWK&HQJDJH/HDUQLQJ

>@ *RYRI%XU$FWRI

>@ +WD\&0 -DQ Challenges of the Independence of the Constitutional Tribunal in Myan- mar >&RQIHUHQFH 6HVVLRQ@ -XGLFLDO ,QGHSHQGHQFH LQ $6($1 $ &RPSDUDWLYH 3HUVSHFWLYH

1DJR\D8QLYHUVLW\ &$/( 5HWULHYHG0DUFKIURPKWWSVFDOHODZQDJR\DXDFMS

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>@ ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RPPLVVLRQ RI -XULVWV   Myanmar Appointment and Promotionof Judges;

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>@ /RZQGHV-  -XGLFLDO,QGHSHQGHQFHDQG-XGLFLDO$FFRXQWDELOLW\DWWKH&RDOIDFHRIWKH

$XVWUDOLDQ -XGLFLDU\ 5HWULHYHG 0DUFK  IURP KWWSVORFDOFRXUWQWJRYDXVLWHV

GHIDXOWÀOHVMXGLFLDOBLQGHSHQGHQFHBDQGBMXGLFLDOBDFFRXQWDELOLW\BDWBWKHBFRDOIDFHBRIBWKHB DXVWUDOLDQBMXGLFLDU\BSGI

[19] Marbury v. Madison86 &UDQFK   

>@ 0RQWHVTXLHX %DURQ &KDUOHV GH   The Spirit of the Laws 7 1XJHQW 7UDQV  2QWDULR

%DWRFOH%RRNV 2ULJLQDOZRUNSXEOLVKHG 

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[22] Plessy v. Ferguson86  .866&W 

>@ 3\LWKX+OXWWDZYWKH0HPEHUVRIWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQDO&RXUWRIWKH8QLRQ  5HIHUHQFH

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>@ 8QL-XGL/DZRI

>@ 9LQ[/ (G   The Guardian of the Constitution: Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt on the Limits of Constitutional Law8QLWHG.LQJGRP&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

>@ =XOXHWD)XOVFKHU.  Looking back at the Myanmar Constitution amendmentprocess5HWULH

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