Maria Finogenow, Ph.D.
TheChairofPsychologyofPersonalityandIndividualDifferences InstituteofPsychology,FacultyofEducationalSciences
UniversityofLodz,91-433Łódź,Smugowa10/12 Poland
suPPortInG DeveloPment In olD aGe
old age as a Period of life
Oldage,alsocalledlateadulthood,istheperiodthatcomesnearinevitablyto
everybody�Althoughthemomentofcompletingthisstageoflifeisobviousand
commonlyknown,yetitisdifficulttodefineexplicitlytheexactagethatacon- temporarypersonapproaches�Inliterature,theageof110-120ispointedatasthe
maximumlengthofhumanlife,andreportsonhundred-year-oldpeopleconfirm
thesecalculations(Szukalski,2005)�However,definingtheagewhenaperson
crossesthesocalledoldagethresholdseemsmuchmoredifficult�Moreover,due
tothefactthatoldageisoneofthelongestperiodsinthecourseofthewholehu- manlife(Marchow,2004),itseemsnaturalthatweneedtodivideitintoshorter
stageswiththeirownspecificity�
Inliterature,thereareadoptedvariedcriteriaofoldage,andalsodifferent
stagesthatoccurinthisperiodareenumerated(compare:M�Brzezińska,2011)�
Averypopularclassificationistheonewhichcontainsthreestages:thefirststage
pertainstofitandactiveoldage,thesecondoneischaracterisedwithdeterioration
ofpsychophysicalstate,andthethirdstagemeanslongevity�Insomesourcesone
mayalsofindattemptsatmakingageframesforthesestages�AccordingtoWorld
HealthOrganisation,oldagemaybedividedto:
– 60th–74thyearoflife–earlyoldage,
– 75th–89thyearoflife–lateoldage,
– 90thyearoflifeandmore–longevity(Nowicka,2006;Szarota,2002)�
Klonowicz(1986)referstojobactivityofpeopleandthusadoptsthenotion
ofapersonbeyondretirementage,whichisrelatedtoseizingjobactivity(from
the60thyearoflifeforwomenandfromthe65thyearoflifeformen)�Afterpass- ingthisborderthereisrealoldage(uptothe79thyearoflife)andripeoldage
(fromthe80thyearoflife)�
A�Brzezińska(2006)alsolinksthebeginningofoldagewiththeprocessof
retiring�Sheobserves,however,somedifficultiesindefiningtheageborder�Due
tosomedifferencesintheageofretirement,A�Brzezińskastatesthatitisnotpos- sibletodefineexplicitlythetimeofenteringtheperiodofoldage�Moreover,the
pensionreforminPoland(increasingretirementageto67yearsold)causes,that
previoussuggestionsabouttheagewhenapersoncrossesthesocalledoldage
needtobeactualized�
Althoughvariedframesareadoptedtodefinethebeginningofoldageand
therearedifferentproposalsofperiodisationofthisperiod,yetthemomentofen- teringoldageisveryindividual�Apartfromthetimeofretirement,mentionedby
A�Brzezińska(2006),thereareotherfactorsthatinfluencebeginningofoldage,
theseareforexample:levelofphysicalandmentalfitnessofanorganism,previ- ouslifestyle,economicalconditions,animageofanoldpersoninagivensociety,
externalpressurestowithdraw,anofferofactivitiesfortheelderly(especiallyin
thecontextofseizingjobactivity)�
life-span orientation
Formanyyearsresearchersstudyinghumandevelopmenthavefocusedupon
theperiodsofchildhoodandyouth�Thepreviouslydominatingbiologicalpara- digmassumedthatpersonswhoreachtheirbiologicalmaturityapproachthetop
oftheirmentalabilitiesaswell(Straś-Romanowska,2001;Tyszkowa,1988)�In
thelaterstageshumanlifewasperceivedasstable(Tyszkowa,1988)�
Thisapproachledtotreatingdevelopmentasaprocessofone-way,lastingand
irreversiblechanges�Itwasassumedthatdevelopmentwascommon,predictable,
andconsistentwithchronologicalage(Straś-Romanowska,2001)�Developmental
changeswereonlyofprogressivecharacter(Straś-Romanowska,2001)�
Researchesonoldagewerestartedasearlyasthe19thcentury(cf�Baltes,
Reese,&Lipsitt,1980;Birren,1961a,b)�Amongimportantpublicationsonthis
periodthereareenumeratedworksbyCharlotteBühler,JamesE�Birren,Jack
Botwinick�However,incorporatingtheremaininglifestages(includingoldage)
todevelopmentalpsychologywasstartedonlyattheturnofthe60sand70sof
thepreviouscentury�Acrucialroleinthedevelopmentofthenewapproachwas
playedbytheFirstConferenceofLife-SpanPsychologists,whichwasheldin
MontChateauLodgeinWestVirginiain1969�
Psychologistsofthenewlife-spanorientation(ledbyPaulBaltes)revisedthe
notionofdevelopment,reformulatedthesubjectoftheirstudies,andmadefoun- dationsforthepluralisticapproachinresearchesonhumandevelopment�Their
fieldofinterestencompasseddevelopmentofapersoninthecourseofwholelife,
frombirthuptodeath�Theygaveattentiontodevelopmentaltransformationsin
psycheofanadult,includingoldageasthelastphaseofadulthood�Inorderto
distinguishdevelopmentalpsychologyheldwithinthisformulafromthetradi- tionalapproach,itiscalled‘developmentalpsychologyinthecourseoflife’,‘life- spandevelopmentalpsychology’,or‘humandevelopmentpsychology’(Baltes,
1987,1997;Stuart-Hamilton,2006;Tyszkowa,1988)�
Itisassumedinthenewapproachthatontogeneticdevelopmentisaprocess
thatlastsalllife(Baltes,Reese&Lipsitt,1980)�Developmentalchangeswhich
occurinthecourseofwholelifearebasednotonlybiologically,buttheypresent
aresultofconstanttransactionsbetweenanindividualandchangingindividual,
cultural,andhistoricalcontexts(Staudinger&Bluck,2001)�Anindividualselects
developmentalcontexts,introducessomechangesthere,andthecontextsevoke
changesintheindividual(Baltes,1997)�Thus,developmentisamultidimension- alandmultidirectionalprocessthatcontainsbothprogressivechanges(profits)
andregressiveones(losses)�
Developmentisinfluencedbydifferentfactors:age,developmentaltasksthat
arerelatedtoage,ahistoricalperiod,civilisationconditions,anindividualhistory
ofaperson�Thenumberofthesefactorsinthecourseofone’slifeleadstothefact
thatdevelopmentalchangesinparticularmentalfunctionsmayoccuraccordingto
differentpatterns(Baltes,1987)�Changesthatresultfromthebiologicalstructure
ofanorganism,alsocalleduniversalchanges,aretheleastvulnerabletomodifi- cation(Boyd&Bee,2006)�Developmentofindividualsisalsodependentonlife
experiencesthatresultfrombelongingtoaparticularcohort(agroupthatexperi- encesthesamehistoricalevents)andtoaspecificculture�Developmentalchanges
thatresultfromdifferentgroupexperiencesarenotuniversal,theypresenttheso
calledcommongroupchanges(Boyd&Bee,2006)�Anothercategoryofchanges
isformedbythosethatresultfromindividual,uniqueexperiences�Animportant
roleisplayedbybothrandomincidentsandeventsthatresultfrompersonaldeci- sionsofindividuals�
Such way of understanding development applies also to the period of old
age,whichisnomorerelatedtoregressonly�Therespectiveresearchesbecome
focuseduponpsychologicalresourcesofanoldperson�Thereareanalysedboth
limitationsassociatedwiththisperiodinlifeanddevelopmentalcapabilitiesthat
occur�Itisalsoindicatedthatsuchchangesasregress,disintegration,decline,
loss,anddisappearingareelementsoftherestructuringprocessineachphaseof
life�Aginginallthedimensions(biological,mental,social)constitutesanexperi- encethatispresentateachstageoflife(Turner&Helms,1999)�
aging of a society
Oneoftheimportantreasonsforthegrowthofinterestintheperiodofoldage
isrelatedtotheobservedchangesinthenumberandagestructureofpopulations
innumerouscountries(compare:Finogenow,2011)�Onthebasisofparticipation
oftheelderlyinagivenpopulation,thesocalleddemographicoldageisdefined,
andthisclassificationisbasedmainlyuponchronologicalageofaperson�Ade- mographicallyoldsocietyisapopulationwhichincludesmorethan12%ofpeople
aged60andmore,ormorethan7%ofpeopleaged65andmore(accordingtothe
UnitedNationsnormstheborderageis65)�Moreover,itisassumedthatifthere
ismorethan7%ofpeopleaged65andmoreinagivencountry,thismeansthat
thecountryexceedsthesocalledoldagethreshold,whereasafterreachingmore
than10%,thecountrybecomesreferredtoasadvancedinage(Orzechowska,
2001)�AccordingtotheEurostat(EurostatYearbook,2010)datesfromtheyear
2010, between 1960 and 2005 the world population more than doubled (from
3023to6512million)�Prognosesforthenextyearsindicatethatthetendency
willbemaintained�Itisforecastedthatintheyear2050thenumberofpeoplein
theworldwillincreaseupto9140million�Amarkedlylowergrowthwasnoted
inthesameyearsintheEuropeancountries(from604to729million)�According
totherespectiveprognosesthisweakgrowthtendencywillbemaintainedonlyto
theyear2020,whenthepopulationofEuropewillstarttodiminishslightly,to691
millionintheyear2050�InthecountriesthatbelongtotheEuropeanUnionthe
growthofpopulationnumberwasevenlower(from402�6to497�4million),and
accordingtotherespectiveprognoses,intheyear2050itwillreach505�7million�
There would be nothing alarming about maintaining growth at a similar
level,ifthesubsequentgenerationswerereplaced�However,maintainingthe
numberofpopulationatasimilarlevelresultsfromchangesintheagestructure
ofinhabitants�
AccordingtothedatapresentedinareportbyWorldHealthOrganisationin
theyear1999,therelivedintheworldabout580millionpeopleagedabove60,
themajorityofthem(355million)inwell-developedcountries�Itwasforecasted
thatintheyear2020thenumberofoldpeoplewouldexceed1milliard�Theworst
situationappliestothemostwealthycountries(700million),whereoldpeople
willconstituteabout30%ofthewholepopulation(Straś-Romanowska,2000b);
thissituationwillholdtruealsoforthecountriesoftheEuropeanUnion�
AccordingtotheprognosesforthepopulationoftheEuropeanUnionthat
were presented by Eurostat in 2010 (EurostatYearbook, 2010), the proportion
ofthosewhoworkprofessionallytopersonsaged65+willdiminishfrom4:1in
theyear2008to2:1in2060�Itissupposedthatpersonsaged65andmorewill
constituteabout30%oftheEUpopulation,ascomparedto17%intheyear2008�
StatisticsthatapplytoPolishsociety5alsoshowagrowthofpercentageofthere- tiredinthewholepopulation,andprognosesforfuture6indicatethatthetendency
willstillgrow�
5TheStatisticalYearbookoftheRepublicofPoland(1991,p�41;1996,p�51;2001,p�101;
2006,p�195,197;2010,p�219,221)�
6TheStatisticalYearbookoftheRepublicofPoland(2010,p�233)�
AgingofthesocietiesinEuropeisaresultofnumerousfactors�Advancesin
medicineandbetterlivingconditionscontributetolengtheningofanaveragetime
ofhumanlife�Personsbornduringthesocalledafter-war‘baby-boom’exceed
theborderofretirementage�Adecreaseinthenumberofbirthsduringayearis
noted–from11�9million(intheyears1960-1965)to7�4million(intheyears
2000-2005)�Intheperiodbetween2000and2005,thebirthrateinEurope(the
numberofbirthsfor1000inhabitants)wasthelowestamongallcontinentsand
itequalled10�2(themeanrateintheworldwas21�2)�Anaveragenumberof
childrenbornbyawomandiminishedfrom2�6(intheyears1960-1965)to1�4(at
theendofthe90s),anditwasmaintainedatasimilarleveluptotheyear2005 (EurostatYearbook,2010)�
Developmental Changes in the Period of late adulthood
Developmentalchangesintheperiodoflateadulthoodappearinmanyareas
(compare:Stuart-Hamilton,2006)�Changesattheexternallevelaretheeasiestto
observe�Thereappearwrinklesandtheskinbecomeslessflexible,hairturngrey,
andposturebecomesmorehunched�
Internalchangesoccurinthenervous,bloodcirculation,digestive,respira- tory,muscular-skeletal,urinary,hormonal,andimmunologicalsystems(compare:
Bień,1997;Perryetal�,2006)�Withage,thefunctionalpotentialoftheheartand
lungsbecomeslower,bloodcirculationinbraindecreases,bonesbecomemore
brittle,themassandstrengthofmusclesdiminishes,theimmunologicalsystem
becomesweaker�Asaresultoftheongoingchanges,thetimethatisnecessary
toperformvariedeverydayactivitiesbecomeslongerandtheneedtohavearest
increases�Thechangesleadtomorefrequentandmoredangerousdiseases,with
somesex-relateddifferencesinthisarea�Mensufferfromdiseasesthatendanger
theirlifemoreoften,whereaswomensufferfromchronicdiseasesmoreoftenand
theydeclaremorecomplaints�
There are changes in functioning of the senses as well (compare: Stuart- Hamilton,2006)�Asaresultoldpersonsreacttostimulimoreslowlyandthey
oftendonotgetfulldataabouttheirexternalenvironment�Thisleadstotheriskof
greaterdependenceonotherpeopleandthegeneralleveloffunctioningbecomes
lower(compare:Carabelleseetal�,1993;Oleśetal�,2002;Spinellietal�,1998)�
The period of late adulthood abounds in transformations in cognitive and
personalityfunctioning(Coleman&O’Hanlon,2004;Lazarus&Lazarus,2006)�
However,atthelevelofmentalabilitiesthereoccursamarkedlygreaterdifferen- tiation�Moreover,someoftheongoingchangesaredifficulttodefineexplicitlyas
positiveornegativeones�
Thedecreasedefficiencyofsensesandlongerreactiontimeareoftencom- pensatedbytheelderlywiththeirknowledgeandexperience�Theobservedslow- downinfunctioningallowsforlessviolentengagement,betterthought-outand
balanced expression of one’s opinions, deeper differentiation between signifi- cantandnon-significantmatters,understanding,andgoodness(compare:Braun- Gałkowska,2006)�
Althoughformanyyearsithasbeencommonlybelievedthatintellectuallev- elbecomeslowerwithage,thisviewisquestionednowadays(Stuart-Hamilton,
2006)�Researchresultsindicatethatsomeintellectualabilitiesmaybemaintained
atagoodlevel,andsometimestheymaybeevendevelopeduptoadvancedold
age�Mentalfitnessdependsalsoonpreviousintellectualactivityofanindividual
andonoldagestage(Birch&Malim,1999)�Inamajorityofpersonsmentalfit- nessismaintainedatasimilarleveluptotheageofabout60(Cavanaugh,1997;
Marcinek,2007)�Inthephaseofearlyoldage(uptothe75thyearoflife)changes
aresmallanddifficulttoobserve�Onlylaterinamajorityofpeoplethereappears
deteriorationinamajorityofcognitiveabilities,especiallyinthosewhichapply
tospeedandskillsthatwerenottrained(Boyd&Bee,2006)�
Thenegativeinfluenceofagerelatesmainlytothetasksinwhichfluidintel- ligenceisapplied,e�g�simplereactiontime,operationalmemoryandepisodic
memory,spatialabilities,reasoning,sightsearching�Arithmetic,sight,andspatial
abilitiessubmittodeteriorationtoasmallextent�Thegreatestchangesoccurinthe
areaofabstractandlogicalabilities(Marcinek,2007;Steuden,2009)�Thereare
alsoareasinwhichachievementsdependonagetoasmallextent�Asimilarlevel
ismaintainedfor:operationalmemory,prospectivememory,recognition,verbal
intelligence,languagefunctions(naming,wordfluency,understanding,counting),
praxis(compare:Stuart-Hamilton,2006;Turner&Helms,1999)�Thus,itturns
outthatverbalabilitiesrelatedtoknowledge,vocabulary,andskillsofusingthem,
seemthemoststableones(Verhaeghenetal�,2006)�
Somefavourablechangesthatoccurwithagearerelatedtoproblem-solving
strategies�Ascomparedtoyoungpeople,theelderlyapproachsocialsituations
and situations that demand interpreting life experiences, in a different way� In
problemsituationstheyusethesocalledpost-formalthinking,whichischaracter- isedwithacceptingmorethanjustonecorrectsolution,acceptingparadoxesand
ambiguities,consideringone’slimitedinfluenceonthecourseofevents�While
thinkinginthepost-formalmode,itiscomingtothepointwherethespheresof
emotionsandlogicbecomecombined,whichallowstheelderlyformoreeffec- tiveovercomingdifficultiesineverydaylife,leadsthemtopatience,humility,and
deliberation(Cavanaugh,1997;Steuden,2009)�
Studiesonpersonalityintheelderlyconsistincomparingtheirtraitswith
thoseintheyoungeronesorrecordingchangesthatoccurinalongertimepe- riod�Sometimes,thereisobservedanincreaseinmildness,patience,understand- ing,creativity,butalsoinobstinacy,avoidingrisk,unwillingnesstochanges,and
adecreaseinflexibilityandemotionallife�Yet,theuptodateresultsdonotallow
foranexplicitdefinitionofpersonalitytraitsinoldage(compare:Brzezińska,
2011; Cavanaugh, 1997; Steuden, 2011; Szatur-Jaworska et al�, 2006)�This is
becausetheyareinfluencedbytrulydiversefactors:personal,environmental,and
culturalones,aswellaslifeexperiences,readinesstoacceptsocialtransforma- tions,theskillofacceptingoncominglimitations,ortheskillofmakingarealistic
evaluationofoneselfandone’spossibilities�Long-termstudiesdonotdisplay
changesinthebasicdimensionsofpersonality(McCrae&Costa,2005),yetthey
indicatesomechangesintheachievedtraits(Straś-Romanowska,2002)�
Consideringdevelopmentalchangesintheperiodoflateadulthoodleadsto
thequestionaboutpositiveagingandhowitshouldlooklike�Theprocessofag- ingisoftendefinedasagradualdeclineinphysicalandmentalfitnessuptodeath�
Accordingtothisapproachpositiveagingconsistsinacceptingandskilfuladapt- ingtotheselimitations(e�g�Chapman,2005)�Whereas,RoweandKahn(1987)
indicatethatoptimumagingmeanslackofmarkeddiseasesorcomplaints,ahigh
levelofcognitivefunctioning,maintaininghighengagementinsociallife�
Itseems,however,thatavoidingdiseasesinoldageisimpossible�Moreover,
amajorityofoldpeoplewhosufferfromchronicdiseasesorexperienceadecrease
intheirphysicalormentalabilitiesclaimthattheygrowoldinapositiveway(e�
g�Stawbridge,Wallhagen&Cohen,2002)�Anattemptatintegratingthevariedap- proachesisfoundinthecontemporaryapproachinwhichitisclaimedthatagingis
anindividualprocessthatdependsontraitsofaparticularperson,andpositiveaging
isaresultofnumerousvariables(Baltes&Baltes,1990;Kaplan,1994,2003)�
Thepresentedconsiderationsondevelopmentalchangesintheperiodofag- ingandoldagedrawattentiontotheexistingdiscrepancybetweentreatingold
ageas‘theheightofone’sindividuality’(Garret,1990),inwhichatrulygreatdif- ferentiationamongparticularoldpersonsisassumed,andahighlyhomogenous
imageofneeds,expectationsandlifestylesintheelderly,whichisoftenpresented
inliteratureandreflectedintheexistingstereotypesofoldage�
Itisalsonotedthatthereisaneedtoconsiderboththechangeswhichconsist
indeteriorationofsomefunctionsinanagingpersonandthosewhichconsistinan
increase�AccordingtoKowalik(2000),onlyaholisticapproachtooldage,with
focusingtoitsprogressivecharacter,presentsathoroughandrealisticdescription
ofthephenomenon�
old age – the time of Paradoxes
Researcheswhodealwiththeperiodoflateadulthoodpointtoaparadoxical
characterofdevelopmentinanagingperson(e�g�Straś-Romanowska,2000a)�It
isthemereconsiderationofsomedevelopmentalpossibilitiesinthisperiodwhich
seemsparadoxical�Theperiodofagingistypicallylinkedtoaregress,adecrease
invariedfunctions,disappearingoflifefunctionsandactivities,thatisanegation
ofwhatistypicallyassociatedwiththeprocessofdevelopment�
Studiesthatareconductedwithinthelife-spanapproachindicatethatdevel- opmentalchangesintheperiodoflateadulthoodarenotonlymultidimensional
(biological, personal, and psychosocial spheres) but multidirectional as well�
Focusingattentiontothisvariabilityrendersitpossibletonoticethatsomeofthe
changesareprogressive,whileothersareofaregressivecharacter�Thisleadsto
formulationofadiverse,asynchronic,andindividualisedimageoftheprocess
ofagingandpersonalityofanoldperson,animagethatisdifficulttopresentas
auniversalpatternforeverybody�
Themainparadoxoftheageoflateadulthoodliesinaclashoftwoopposite
processes,twoaimsthataremutuallyexclusive�Intheperiodofagingaperson
experiencesveryclearlythecoexistenceofregress(andlossesthatarerelated
toit)insomeareasandprogress(andaccompanyinggains)insomeothers�On
theonehand,thefitnessandregulatoryprocessessubmittodeterioration�Yet,
ontheotherhand,theregrowsdynamicsofcognitiveandexperienceprocesses�
Focusingupontheseareasmaybefoundinegopsychology(Erikson,1968)or
existentialpsychology(Frankl,1984)�Thesetrendsarefocusedupondirecting
one’sactivitytopersonalandexperiencedimensions,tointernalexperiencesof
individuals,alsointhetimeofagingandoldage�
Anotherparadoxthatisrelatedtotheperiodoflateadulthoodrelatestocon- sidering optimum conditions for proper aging� This diversified approach may
befoundinthetwomajortheoriesofsuccessfulaging�Inthetheoryofactivity
(Neugarten,Havighurst,&Tobin,1968)theprocessofagingisreferredtoasaso- cialphenomenon,inwhichchangesinsocialrolesthatareplayedresultinemerg- ingandgatheringoftensionsrelatedtotheconceptofself�Personalityadaptation
ofanoldpersonisstronglyrelatedtohis/herself-esteem,whichisformeddueto
one’sownstatus,roles,socialinteractions,andobservationsofthesurroundings
(Kofta&Doliński,2000)�Thus,theauthorssuggestactivityuptotheoldestage,
asgreataspossibleandfittoanindividualsituation�Accordingtothetheoryof
activity,anormalprocessofagingallowsapersonformaintaininghis/herup
todatelifeinvolvement�Peoplewhogrowoldinanoptimumwayremainac- tiveandpresentinsociallife,afterretiringtheygetinvolvedinsomesubstitute
activitiesandtheystartnewfriendlyrelations(Straś-Romanowska,2000b)�Due
tomaintainingactivityfromtheformerperiods,theycanstillfeelnecessary,they
haveachancetopreservethesenseofcompetenceandtheirself-esteem,theycan
rejoiceintheirlife�
Onthecontrary,inthetheoryofdisengagement/withdrawalbyCummingand
Henry(1961)itisassumedthatoldpeoplelimittheiractivityandtheirsociallinks
becomeweaker�Thewithdrawalisreferredtoasanaturalneedofapersoninthe
periodoflateadulthood,whichisimportantforachievingmentalbalanceandfor
further development of personality (Straś-Romanowska, 2000b)� It is accepted
byanagingperson,thusitallowsthepersonforwell-being�Thestyleoflifethat
resultsfromthisneedhasbeencalled‘rockingchairstyle’anditisassumedthat
thestylefavoursintrospectiveanalysisofmemoriesandstillunsolvedconflicts,
reinterpretationofpastexperiencesanddiscoveringnewmeanings�
Thetwocontrarywaysofoptimisationoftheprocessofaging,whichare
proposedinthepresentedtheories,resultintwocontrarymotivationaltendencies
inanagingperson:eithertoliveaccordingtothepreviousmodel,tomakeevery
efforttomaintainone’sactivityatasimilarlevel,ortolimittheuptodateactivity,
towithdrawfromsomeareasoffunctioning,andtodirectone’sattentioninside�
Ontheonehand,theoccurrenceofsomenegativechangesinoldageresults
infocusingone’sattentiontofitnessandcompetencedimensions,whichmaylead
toanegativeperceptionofoneself,focusingonlossesandmoredifficultiesin
realisinglifeplans�Inthiscase,individualsdonotwanttoaccepttheoncoming
limitationsandundertaketasksthatexceedtheirpossibilities,theyinvestalotof
personalresourcestomaintainthepassingimage�Suchanapproachmayleadto
despairandincreasedfearofdeath(Erikson,1968)�
Ontheotherhand,insomecasesitisalsowithdrawal(e�g�tooearlywith- drawalcausedbyadisease)whichcanleadtosomeadaptationproblems,suchas
lackofanideahowtolivefurther(Birch&Malim,1998)�Thedifficultiesmay
becomedeeperifsocialenvironmentisdesertinganoldpersonsimultaneously,
theymayalsoresultinsocialisolationandweakerrelationsalsowiththeclosest
ones�Thisleadstofocusingattentionupononeselfmainlyandbecomingindif- ferenttoeverylifematter,italsoexertsadestructiveinfluenceonself-esteemand
thesenseofinternalcontrol�
Asignificantcontributiontotheconsiderationsonagingadaptationandthe
roleofactivitiesthatareundertakenbyaperson,wasmadebysubsequenttheo- riesinwhichelementsfromvariedideaswerecombined�Aspecialattentionis
deservedbythefollowingones:thetheoryofselectiveoptimisationwithcom- pensationby Baltesandco-workers (Baltes&Baltes,1990;Freund &Baltes,
1998;Lang&Carstensen,1994),thetheoryofoscillationbetweenassimilation
and accommodation by Brandtsätdter and co-workers (Brandtsätdter & Greve,
1994),thetheoryofsocialandemotionalselectivitybyCarstensen(Carstensen,
1991;Carstensenetal�,1999),thetheoryofgeotranscendencebyTornstam(1989,
1999)�Theauthorsstressgreatplasticityofahumanbeingintheprocessofadapt- ingtooldage�Theirassumptionsdonotrenderitpossibletodefineexplicitlythe
mostoptimumwayofadaptationforallagingpeople�Theadaptationprocessis
influenced by experiences, different ways of living one’s life, and many other
factorsthatcontributetothecomplexcharacterofhumanlife�Someoldpeople
maydrawsatisfactionfromactivity,whileothersmaybesatisfiedwithlimiting
it�Anoldperson’sactivitymaybenotonlymaintainedorlimited,itmaychange
itscharacteraswell�Itisalsostressedthatduetohumanabilitytoevaluateand
defineone’spreferences,everypersonmaychoosethewayofadaptingwhichis
themostoptimumonefortheperson�
Theparadoxicalcharacteroflateadulthoodisalsolinkedtoacomplex,am- biguous,andinexplicitattitudetowardsoldage�AsitwaswrittenbyCicero:‘We
allwanttoliveuptooldage,butwhenitcomes,weprotestagainstit’�Ontheone
hand,atdifferentoccasionsweallwisheachothertolive‘ahundredyears’,but
ontheotherhand,weperceiveoldageandoldpeopleinanegativeway�Thisis
reflectedinvariedeuphemisticnamesfortheperiod,e�g�‘advancedage’,‘golden
age’,‘theautumnofone’slife’,‘seniorage’,‘thethirdage’,‘ripeage’�Thenames
allowforavoidingthewordwhichisassociatedinanegativeway(oldage)and
renderitpossibletosoftenitsnegativeovertone�
Stereotypes,prejudices,andrelateddiscriminationofpeoplebecauseoftheir
ageiscalledwiththetermageism(Nelson,2003)�Attitudestowardstheelderly
whichareexpressedtherearemostoftenpainfulandharming�Accordingtothe
stereotypicalimage,anoldpersonisnotabletoliveinaself-dependentway�The
imageofoldageisrelatedtobeingdecrepit,sensitivetodiseases,repugnant,and
unproductive�Somedemandsrelatedtothenecessityofconstantcareandhelp,
andsometimesnursingandrehabilitation,arealsostressed(Nelson,2003)�
Thenegativeimageofanoldpersoncontainsalsofocusinguponsomeun- favourablechangesinthesphereofsocialfunctioning�Theagedareperceivedas
conservativeandresistanttochanges,theyaresaidtohavestiffhabits,andwhat
ismore,totelltheyoungeroneswhattodoallthetime�Theexamplesarethe
stereotypicalimagesofoldwomen(Cieśliketal�,2005):acityoldwoman(apry- ingneighbourinablockofflats),achurcholdwoman(whogoestoallpossible
services),afightingoldwoman(fightstogetplaceinaqueueoraseatinabus)�
Therearealsothesocalledpositiveprejudicestooldageinwhichitissug- gestedthatanoldpersonrequiressomespecialcare,help,exceptionaltreatment�
Althoughtheyaremeanttofavourtheelderly,yettheprejudicesoftenleadtotheir
infantilisation,tolimitingtheirindependence,activity,andautonomy�Asaresult
ofsuchtreatment,seniorsoftenadopttheforcedimageandbecomemoreand
morepassiveanddependentonothers(Nelson,2003)�
Arelativelyrecentimageofoldageisthestereotypeof‘newoldage’,which
hasbeenobservedintherecentyears(Ratkowska,2006)�Accordingtothisstere- otype,anagedpersonisjoyful,fit,independent,sociable,heorshehasgotbroad
knowledgeandrichexperience�Suchapersonisshownwithyouthattributeslike
trainers,abicycle,elegantclothesetc�Atpresent,thisimageissometimesusedin
media,whichresultsmainlyfromnoticingthatseniorsmayconstituteanattrac- tivetargetgroupforpoliticians,entrepreneurs,healthservice(e�g�Kożuch,2006;
Ratkowska,2006;Wieczorkowska,2006;Woszczyk,2005)�
Thenegativeattitudestooldagethatarepresentedabovearelinkedtoan- otherparadoxwhichispresentincontemporaryreality�Youthandwhatisrelated
toitarereferredtoasthegreatestvalue�Strength,fitness,physicalattractiveness,
readiness to take risk, openness to changes, flexibility, brilliance, and go-get- tingenergy,arehighlyvalued�Youngpeoplearefocuseduponfuture,activity,
progress, and changes� Old age, which is in contradictionwith youth, is often
deprivedofalltheseattributes�Agedpersonsfrequentlyaimatstabilisingtheir
externalenvironment,theyturntothepast,totheirmemories�Thus,whenfacing
activeandcolourfulyouth,oldagebecomesrepulsive,depressing,somethingthat
oughttobeeliminated�
However,oldageisanaturalperiodinlife,whichisexperiencedbyapre- dominantpartofpopulation�Amajorityofthosewhobecomemature,startadult- hood,orareattheheightoftheircareeratpresent,willmostprobablylivetoold
age�Inthiscontext,itseemsparadoxicalthattheycreatesuchafutureinwhich
thereisnoplacefortheelderly�Theycreatesuchafutureinwhichtherewillbeno
placeforitscreatorsaftertheycrossthesymbolicthresholdofoldage�
supporting Development in the Period of late adulthood
Supportingdevelopmentismeantasallactivitieswhicharedisplayedbothby
aparticularindividual(towardshimself/herself)andbyotherpersonstowardsthis
oneandwhichareaimedatfacilitatingthedevelopmentalprocessintheperson,
facilitatingrealisationofdevelopmentaltasks(Harwas-Napierała,2000)�
Developmentinvariedspheresissupportedstartingfromthefirstmoments
ofachild’slife�Intheperiodofchildhood,responsibilityforsupportingdevelop- mentbelongstoalargeextenttootherpersons–parents,care-givers,tutorsetc�
(Harwas-Napierała,2000)�Activitiesperformedbyadultsapplybothtointellec- tualandemotionaldevelopmentandtoformingsomehabits,forinstancehealth
behaviours(Zadworna-Cieślak&Ogińska-Bulik,2011)�Aswegrowup,agreater
roleisattributedtoone’sownactivities�Asweentertheperiodofadulthood,re- sponsibilityfordevelopmentofaparticularpersonstartstobelongmainlytothis
person(Harwas-Napierała,2000)�Aspecialroleisplayedbyone’sownactivity
thatisaimedatundertakingnewrolesandtasks�Whereastheroleofotherpersons
islimitedmainlytoinspiringanadulttoundertakethisactivity�
Oldageistheperiodwhenagraduallygrowingroleisplayedagainbyother
persons�Agradualdecreaseinphysicalfitness,outdatedcompetenciesofaper- son,lackofnewskillsthatmakefunctioninginthedevelopingrealityeasier(e�g�
lackofcomputerskills,lackofforeignlanguagesskills;compare:Finogenow,
2011)oftenleadtogrowthoftension,anxiety,andthesenseofbeingilladapt- ed�Inthecontextoftheongoingchanges,supportingdevelopmentintheelderly
startstodependtoalargeextentontheyoungergenerations�Yet,thelongerand
longertimeofhumanliferesultsinthesituationthatthisresponsibilitybelongsto
agrowingextenttograndchildren,andnottochildren(Marchow,2004)�
Asitwasintheearlierdevelopmentalperiods,supportingdevelopmentin
theperiodoflateadulthoodisdirectlyrelatedtonaturaldevelopmentalchanges
andtasksthatareposedforanindividual�Erikson’stheorypresentsastudyofde- velopmentalchangesthataremanifestedonebyoneinanindividual’slife�Each
stagebringsaspecificcrisis,whichapersonmustsolveinanaccuratetimeto
reachproperdevelopmentofhis/herpersonality�Oldageisreferredtoasthelast
developmentalstage,whenapersonfacesthepsychosocialcrisis:egointegration
versusdespair�Thetasktoberealisedbyamaturepersonistoachievelifewis- domasaresultofapositivelifeassessment�
Egointegration(apositivesolutiontotheconflictthatistypicalforthisage)
islinkedtothesenseofmeaningandusefulnessofone’sownlife,andleadsto
reachinglifewisdomandfullmaturity�Itisbaseduponacceptanceofmanhood
andone’sownexistenceassomethingnecessaryandunique�Achievingintegra- tionisequivalenttobeingconvincedaboutavalueofone’sownwayoflife,inde- pendentlyfrombeingconsciousthatitcouldhavepasseddifferently�
However,ifapersonisnotabletoaccepthis/herownuptodatelife,thenthe
personcannotacceptthefactofthefinitenessofhis/herexistence�Suchpersons
wouldliketostarteverythingfromthebeginning,butatthesametimetheyknow
thatlifeistooshort�Thisresultsinagriefoverlifemistakesandlostchances�The
stateofdespairischaracterisedwithanincreasedfearofdeath,perceivingone’s
ownlifeaslackinganymeaningandpurpose,thesenseofsorrowanddisappoint- ment�Achievingintegrationispossibleunderconditionofpositivesolutionsto
conflictsfromearlierdevelopmentalstages,asitisthetimewhentheirspecific
assessmentisbeingmade�
ItisalsointhetheoriesbyHavighurst,Levinson,andPeck(after:Turner&
Helms,1999)thateachdevelopmentalstageislinkedtosomedefinitedevelop- mentaltasks�Managingthetaskspresentsabasisforanindividual’sadaptationto
agivenperiodinlife�Amongthetasksthatanagingpersonfaces,aspecialroleis
giventothenecessityofdealingwithloweringofimmunitytodiseases,decline
intheabilitytorecover,andgrowthofphysicalcomplaintsandpains�Theauthors
focusuponthechangeinsocialstatus,whichisrelatedtoretiring,andtheneed
offindingoneselfinnewroles,withasimultaneousresignationfromtheprevious
ones�Thepossessedenergymustbedirectedtowardsnewrolesandnewtasks�
Oneofthekeytasksinthisperiodliesalsointheacceptanceofinevitabilityof
deathandtherelatednecessityofadoptinganewlifeperspective�
Despitevariedtasksthatareenumeratedinthetheoriesofaging,manyac- tivitiesdirectedtowardstheelderlycomedowntohelpingandtakingcareonly�
Theseactivitiesareofcoursenecessaryinvaluableinmanysituations,yetlimi- tationtotheseformsofinfluenceonlydoesnotfavourpersonaltreatmentofold
persons(Ober-Łopatka,2007)�Theactivitiesarefocusedmainlyonseniors’defi- cits,andtheyignoreoldpeople’sresourcesanddevelopmentalpotential�Whereas
supportingdevelopmentshouldengageanagedpersonsactivelyinsolvingtheir
ownproblems,guaranteethesenseofcontrolovertheirownlife,andreinforcethe
senseofstabilityandcontinuityoftheirownlife�Itoughttobefocusedonmore
thanimprovingtheirmaterialandeverydayqualityoflife�
Supportingdevelopmentintheperiodofoldagemayberealisedindiverse
forms�Oneofthemliesinprovidingagingpeoplewithpossiblemostthorough
knowledgeonmechanismsofaging,difficultiesandcrisesthatappearatthistime�
Understandingwhatisgoingonstrengthensthesenseofcontroloverone’sown
life(Finogenow,2008)�Moreover,knowledgeonmechanismsofagingallowsold
personsforpreparingtothesubsequentchanges,andalsoforreducingthesense
ofanxietyaboutthefuture�
Supporting development in the aged consists also in helping them make
apositivelifeassessment�Ithappenssometimesthatoldpersonsfinditdifficultto
gettheirthoughtsinorder,toorganisetheirpastexperiencesandmemories,andto
findameaninginthepassinglife�Accompanyingthemingoingthroughtheirown
wayoflifemayfacilitateacceptingtheiruptodatelife,earlierdecisionsandtheir
consequences�Somehelpisneededsometimesalsoinanalysingrelationswiththe
closestones,repairingweakenedrelations,orevenmakingupwiththosewhoare
importantbuthavebeenforsomereasonsrejected�Moreover,itistrulysignificant
tocreateconditionsinwhichtheagedcouldacceptthefactoffinitenessoftheir
existenceandcouldgetreadyfortheirowndeath,whichshouldbeaccompanied
withfindingameaningintheremainingtimeoftheirlife�
Supportingdevelopmentintheelderlymaybealsorealisedinanindirect
way,bymeansofsomeactivitiesdirectedtowardsotherpeople�Oneoftheareas
concernsundertakingactivitiesthatpromoteachangeinsocial,oftennegative,
imageofthisagegroup�Itseemsimportanttocreateapositiveattitudetothe
aged,tobuildtheattitudeofrespectbyshowingtheroleoftheelderlyinasociety
andculture�
Moreover,educatingyoungpeopleaboutdevelopmentalregularitiesofthe
finalperiodinlifeseemsreallyimportant�Ontheonehand,itisaimedatmaking
iteasiertounderstandsomebehavioursandattitudesoftheelderly,whichcould
loweranxietyandhostilitytothisagegroup�Ontheotherhand,educationinthis
areapreparesthosewhoareyoungatpresenttothechangestheywillexperience
infuture�Preparingtooldagestartsasearlyasinyouthanditlastsalllife�
AninterestingexampleofabroaderscaleactivitiesisfoundintheGALM
programme(Groningen Active Living Model;Stec,2007),whichisrealisedinthe
Netherlands�Itisaimedatstimulatingphysicalactivityinpersonswhoenterold
age(thoseaged55-65)andwholeadasedentarymodeofliving�Theprogramme
isbasedupontheassumptionthatelaboratingthehabitofphysicalactivityinthe
earlierstageoflifemayconstituteapreventivefactoragainststagnationandlack
ofphysicalactivityatthenextstage�
Nomatterwhatisacharacterofactivitythatisfocuseduponsupportingdevel- opmentintheelderly,itseemsexceptionallysignificanttoapplyanindividualised
approach�Oldageisthemostdiversifiedperiodinlife�Itisnotpossibletotalk
aboutacertainoldage,itispossibletotalkaboutoldageofaparticularperson
only�Therearenohomogenouspatternsofexperiencingoldage,andthereisno
oneuniversalpatternofadaptingtothisperiod�
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