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2018

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Komitet Naukowy/Scientific Committee:

Prof. Jerzy Żuchowski, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny, Radom, Polska – Przewodniczący Komitetu Naukowego

Prof. Girma Biresaw, United States Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois, USA Prof. Tom Bramorski, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater, Wisconsin, USA Prof. Horst Brezinski, Technische Universität – Bergakademie, Freiberg, Niemcy Prof. Pasquale Giungato, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Włochy Prof. Marcel Mayor, University of Basel, Szwajcaria

Prof. Mitsuharu Mitsui, University of Okayama, Okayama, Japonia

Prof. Marian W. Sułek, Uniwersytet im. Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, Warszawa, Polska Prof. Sun Yongqiang, China Research Institute of Daily Chemical Industry, Taiyuan, Shanxi, Chiny Prof. Ryszard Zieliński, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny, Poznań, Polska

Redaktorzy Naczelni/Editors in Chief:

Dr hab. inż. Tomasz Wasilewski, prof. UTH, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu

Redaktorzy Tematyczni/Subject Editors:

Towaroznawstwo kosmetyków i produktów chemii gospodarczej – dr hab. inż. Tomasz Wasilewski, prof. UTH

Towaroznawstwo opakowań – prof. dr hab. Małgorzata Lisińska-Kuśnierz Towaroznawstwo przemysłowe – prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński Towaroznawstwo żywności – prof. dr hab. Maria Śmiechowska Zarządzanie jakością – prof. dr hab. inż. Jerzy Żuchowski

Towaroznawstwo wyrobów tekstylnych i odzieżowych, bezpieczeństwo produktów nieżywnościowych – dr hab. inż. Renata Salerno-Kochan, prof. nadzw. UE

Redaktor Statystyczny/Statistical Editor:

Dr hab. Andrzej Sokołowski, prof. UEK Komitet Redakcyjny/Editorial Board:

Dr Anita Bocho-Janiszewska, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Prof. dr Pasquale Giungato, Uniwersytet im. Aldo Moro w Bari

Dr inż. Emilia Klimaszewska, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Dr hab. Małgorzata Lotko, Prof. Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Dr inż. Anna Małysa, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu

Dr inż. Małgorzata Zięba, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Adres Komitetu Redakcyjnego

Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny, ul. Chrobrego 27, 26-600 Radom, tel. (48) 361-75-39; e-mail: tpj@uthrad.pl, www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl

Redakcja czasopisma „Towaroznawcze Problemy Jakości” informuje, że formą referencyjną czasopisma jest wersja drukowana.

Publikacje można nadsyłać na adres Komitetu Redakcyjnego ISSN 1733-747X

Wydawcy:

 Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny im. K. Pułaskiego, ul. Malczewskiego 29, 26-600 Radom

 Instytut Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB, ul. K. Pułaskiego 6/10, 26-600 Radom Opracowanie wydawnicze: Joanna Iwanowska, Iwona Nitek

Wydawnictwo

ul. Malczewskiego 20A, 26-600 Radom, tel. centr. (48) 361-70-33, fax (48) 361-70-34 e-mail: przypis@poczta.onet.pl http://www.uniwersytetradom.pl

Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB

ul. K. Pułaskiego 6/10, 26-600 Radom, tel. centr. (48) 364-42-41, fax (48) 364-47-65 e-mail: instytut@itee.radom.pl http://www.itee.radom.pl

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Spis treści

Przedmowa ... 5 Magdalena Wojnarowska: Znaczenie recyklingu w gospodarce o obiegu

zamkniętym ... 13 Krystyna Lisiecka, Dobrochna Sztajerska: Dojrzałość zarządzania

bezpieczeństwem żywności a opłacalność produkcji. Wyniki badań ... 25 Karolina Doba, Wojciech Zmudziński: Nowa żywność pochodzenia roślinnego – aspekty prawne i perspektywy rozwoju ... 36 Małgorzata Kowalska, Sławomir Janas, Magdalena Woźniak: Walidacja

oznaczania zawartości wody za pomocą wagosuszarki jako istotny

czynnik w zapewnieniu jakości pomiaru ... 46 Olga Bińczak, Urszula Samotyja: Zmiany aktywności przeciwutleniającej

wytłoku z orzecha włoskiego w czasie jego przechowywania ... 59 Ewa Pyrzyńska: Wpływ dodatku inuliny i czasu przechowywania

na parametry barwy napojów fermentowanych z mleka koziego ... 68 Elżbieta Bielak, Gabriela Zielińska: Wyroby ze skóry zarejestrowane w systemie RAPEX w latach 2004–2017 – analiza notyfikacji pod kątem rodzaju

zagrożenia ... 75 Ryszard Zieliński: Zastosowanie objętości charakterystycznej oraz indeksów

topologicznych cząsteczek do przewidywania toksyczności wybranych

surfaktantów anionowych w środowisku wodnym ... 86 Valentina Turchin, Alla Grin’ko, Viktoria Raks, Natalia Bereznenko,

Sergey Bereznenko, Maria Pawlowa: Wykorzystanie modyfikowanej krzemionki (SiO₂-TX) do ekstrakcji kwaśnych herbicydów ... 96 Marzenna Popek: Upłynnianie ładunków węgla kamiennego... 107 Informacje ... 117

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activity of walnut cake... 59 Ewa Pyrzyńska: The influence of inulin and storage time on colour parameters of fermented goat’s milk products ... 68 Elżbieta Bielak, Gabriela Zielińska: Leather goods notified to the RAPEX system in the years 2004–2017 – notification analysis for hazard types ... 75 Ryszard Zieliński: Application of characteristic volumes and topological indices of molecules in toxicity prediction of several anionic surfactants in aquatic

environment ... 86 Valentina Turchin, Alla Grin’ko, Viktoria Raks, Natalia Bereznenko,

Sergey Bereznenko, Maria Pawlowa: Application of modified silica (SiO2–TX)

for recovery of acidic herbicides ... 96 Marzenna Popek: Liquefaction of coal cargo ... 107 Information ... 117

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P r z e d m o w a

Zgodnie z przyjętym przez Kolegium Redakcyjne długoterminowym planem wy- dawniczym w pierwszych dniach kwietnia 2018 roku oddajemy do rąk Państwa – naszych czytelników – pięćdziesiąty piąty numer kwartalnika Towaroznawcze Problemy Jakości (Polish Journal of Commodity Science). Kontynuując próby rozszerzenia grona naszych czy- telników, wszystkie artykuły publikujemy w angielskiej wersji językowej. Jednocześnie przy- pominamy, że obecnie redakcja kwartalnika przyjmuje do publikacji artykuły przygotowane wyłącznie w języku angielskim. Tak jak poprzednio, każdy artykuł zawiera obszerne streszczenie zarówno w języku polskim, jak i angielskim. Streszczenia wszystkich prac opubliko- wanych na łamach kwartalnika w obydwu wersjach językowych dostępne są również na stronie internetowej naszego czasopisma pod adresem: http://www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl. Ponadto, obecnie na stronie internetowej dostępne są w formule open-access pełne wersje wszystkich artykułów, które zostały opublikowane na łamach naszego czasopisma do roku 2017 włącznie.

Serię 10 artykułów obecnego wydania naszego czasopisma otwiera praca Wojnarowskiej dotycząca znaczenia procesów recyklingu w gospodarce o obiegu zamkniętym. W artykule omówiono istotę procesu ekoprojektowania i cyklu życia produktu. Na tym tle przedstawiono strategię gospodarki o obiegu zamkniętym w łańcuchu produkcyjnym ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli recyklingu. W tym zakresie proponuje się między innymi zakazanie składowania materiałów biodegradowalnych i nadających się do recyklingu (takich jak papier, szkło, metal i plastik) do 2025 roku oraz całkowite wyeliminowanie składowania odpadów nadających się do recyklingu do 2030 roku. Oprócz przyjętego docelowego progu wynoszą- cego 70% dla recyklingu i przygotowania infrastruktury przetwarzania odpadów komunal- nych, zakłada się również stopniowy wzrost poziomu indywidualnego recyklingu, tak aby osiągnął poziom 90% do 2025 roku dla papieru i 60% poziomu do 2030 roku dla tworzyw sztucznych, 80% dla drewna i 90% w przypadku metali żelaznych, aluminium i szkła. Ponad- to, Komisja Europejska zakłada, że do 2025 roku państwa członkowskie zmniejszą ilość od- padów żywnościowych o 30%.

W kolejnym artykule Lisiecka i Sztajerska przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczą- cych zależności pomiędzy dojrzałością zarządzania bezpieczeństwem żywności konwencjonalnej i żywności funkcjonalnej a opłacalnością jej wytwarzania. Prezentowane w pracy za- leżności omówiono zarówno w ujęciu społecznym, ekonomicznym, jak i finansowym.

W pracy zaprezentowano także model badawczy skonstruowany na podstawie wyników badań przeprowadzonych w przedsiębiorstwach branży mleczarskiej. W badaniach tych testowano cztery zmienne: dojrzałość i opłacalność produkcji, systemy zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa żywności konwencjonalnej oraz wytwarzanie żywności funkcjonalnej. Na podstawie wyników przeprowadzonych badań stwierdzono, że w ramach badanej branży istnieje dodatnia zależ- ność pomiędzy poziomem dojrzałości zarządzania bezpieczeństwem żywności konwencjonalnej i funkcjonalnej a opłacalnością produkcji w aspekcie ekonomicznym oraz nie stwierdzono istnienia takiej zależności w aspekcie społecznym i finansowym. Dodatkowym wnioskiem z badań jest stwierdzenie, że poziom dojrzałości zarządzania bezpieczeństwem żywności zale- ży od wdrożonych nieobligatoryjnych systemów zarządzania jakością i bezpieczeństwem żywności.

W ostatnich latach surowce roślinne stają się coraz ważniejszym źródłem składników ko- rzystnych dla zdrowia ludzkiego. Próby zastosowania składników pochodzenia naturalnego wydaje się być dość obiecujące z punktu widzenia konieczności ograniczenia występowania chorób przewlekłych. Przedmiotem artykułu Doby i Zmudzińskiego są aspekty prawne i perspektywy dalszego rozwoju nowej żywności pochodzenia roślinnego. W artykule omówiono nowe rodzaje żywności wykorzystującej szałwię hiszpańską, morindę, fitosterole i fitostanole.

Autorzy stwierdzają, że pomimo wielu obaw związanych z bezpieczeństwem nowych produk-

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tów spożywczych oraz dodatków stosowanych w kuchni tradycyjnej kuchni, prezentowane w artykule wyniki badań własnych dają nadzieję, że nowa żywność zostanie zaakceptowana przez większość konsumentów.

Informacja o zawartości wody w produktach spożywczych stanowi podstawowy parametr decydujący o ich trwałości. Dlatego zagadnienie walidacji oznaczania zawartości wody w tych produktach ma istotne znaczenie w określaniu ich jakości. W kolejnej pracy Kowalska i współautorzy przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczące walidacji oznaczania zawar- tości wody w sypkich produktach spożywczych za pomocą wagosuszarki. W pracy omówiono zagadnienia prawne związane z walidacją oraz jej zasadnicze elementy, jakie powinny być stosowane w przemyśle spożywczym. Przedstawiono wyniki badań własnych dotyczące walidacji oznaczania wilgotności mąki za pomocą wagosuszarki. Zwrócono szczególną uwagę na aspekt projakościowy wszystkich działań.

Zachodzące podczas przechowywania surowców roślinnych systematyczne zmiany w za- wartości oraz aktywności składników bioaktywnych mogą mieć istotny wpływ na stabilność frakcji lipidowej, a tym samym warunkować jakość i bezpieczeństwo żywności. Stąd istnieje konieczność określania kierunków tych zmian oraz ich intensywności w celu określenia prze- widywanego okresu trwałości surowców i produktów spożywczych. Celem pracy Bińczak i Samotyi była ocena zmian w aktywności przeciwutleniającej wytłoku z orzecha włoskiego w trakcie jego jednorocznego przechowywania w temperaturze pokojowej. Na podstawie oznaczeń zawartości związków fenolowych i flawonoidów oraz testów FRAP i DPPH aktyw- ności przeciwutleniającej stwierdzono wysoki potencjał oksydacyjny utrzymujący się podczas pierwszych 200 dni przechowywania badanego surowca. Wykazano także silną dodatnią kore- lację pomiędzy zawartością związków fenolowych i flawonoidów a aktywnością przeciwutle- niającą podczas całego okresu przechowywania.

Barwa produktów spożywczych stanowi jeden z istotnych parametrów jakościowych. Do czynników wpływających na barwę konkretnego produktu spożywczego należą zastosowane surowce główne i pomocnicze (ich skład chemiczny i ilość), technologia wytwarzania oraz warunki przechowywania wyrobu gotowego. Barwa mleka i jego przetworów zależy przede wszystkim od ich składu. W kolejnej pracy Pyrzyńska omawia wpływ dodatku inuliny i czasu przechowywania na parametry barwy napojów fermentowanych z mleka koziego. W pracy dokonano oceny wpływu dodatku inuliny oraz czasu przechowywania jogurtów z mleka koziego na parametry ich barwy. Parametry barwy jogurtów wyprodukowanych z mleka koziego określano w czasie ich przechowywania z wykorzystaniem układu CIE L*a*b. W pracy wykazano, że dodatek inuliny do jogurtów wykazuje statystycznie istotny wpływ na parametry L* oraz a* barwy jogurtów wytworzonych z mleka koziego, natomiast czas przechowywania nie ma statystycznie istotnego wpływu na żaden z badanych parametrów barwy tych jogurtów.

Szybki dostęp do danych na temat wprowadzonych na rynki europejskie produktów nie- żywnościowych, które stwarzają zagrożenie dla odbiorców, ma istotne znaczenie dla bezpie- czeństwa konsumentów. W celu ochrony zdrowia oraz bezpieczeństwa konsumentów na po- trzeby państw członkowskich Unii Europejskiej stworzono system szybkiej informacji okre- ślany skrótem RAPEX. W pracy Bielak i Zielińskiej dokonano analizy wyrobów ze skóry zarejestrowanych w systemie RAPEX w latach 2004–2017. Zdaniem autorek wśród wielu zgłaszanych w tym systemie wyrobów ze skóry znaczący udział stanowi obuwie dla doro- słych. Zgłoszenia dotyczą również obuwia dziecięcego, rękawiczek, odzieży, wyrobów galan- teryjnych, a nawet biżuterii skórzanej. Stwierdzono, że zdecydowana większość z nich doty- czyła zagrożeń chemicznych, natomiast niewielki udział miały zagrożenia związane z niewła- ściwą konstrukcją obuwia.

Jednym z ważnych wyzwań dotyczących jakości surowców kosmetycznych i farmaceu- tycznych jest możliwość skutecznego prognozowania toksyczności stosowanych substancji czynnych, a zwłaszcza emulgatorów. Od dawna wiadomo, że toksyczność jest liniową funkcją

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wartości współczynnika podziału, którego wyznaczanie na drodze doświadczalnej jest żmudne i bardzo trudne zwłaszcza dla surfaktantów. Jednak uzyskane dotychczas korelacje pomiędzy toksycznością wartości i współczynnikiem podziału są mało zadowalające. W artykule Zieliń- ski przedstawia możliwości szacowania toksyczności surfaktantów w oparciu o empiryczne korelacje nie tylko z obliczonymi wartościami współczynnika podziału w modelowym ukła- dzie: n-oktanol–woda ale również o dane dotyczące objętości charakterystycznej oraz wybra- ne indeksy topologiczne cząsteczek surfaktantów. W pracy szczegółowo opisano procedurę obliczania tej wielkości opracowaną na podstawie analizy dostępnych danych literaturowych i wyników badań własnych autora. Proponowana metoda pozwala na uzyskanie dobrej zgod- ności z danymi doświadczalnymi.

W kolejnej pracy Turchinowa i współautorzy przedstawiają metodę otrzymywania i wła- ściwości użytkowe nowego materiału przeznaczonego do procesu adsorpcji kwaśnych substancji z naturalnego środowiska wodnego. Otrzymano adsorbent na bazie krzemionki modyfikowanej polioksyetylenowanym izooktylofenolem (SiO2–TX), który badano z zamiarem określenia jego przydatności do ekstrakcji w fazie stałej kwasów chlorofenoksyalkanokarbok- sylowych. W pracy wykazano, że tak modyfikowany adsorbent (SiO2-TX) wykazuje wyższą zdolność do adsorpcji tych substancji niż stosowany sorbent SiO2–C18.

W ostatnim artykule Popek przedstawia wyniki badań własnych dotyczących parametrów jakościowych węgla kamiennego z punktu widzenia bezpieczeństwa transportu morskiego tego surowca. Węgiel kamienny jest często znacznie rozdrobniony, co sprzyja procesowi jego utlenienia i wpływa na zdolność do upłynniania. Do czynników wpływających na upłynnianie węgla kamiennego głównie wielkość cząstek ładunku i zawartość wilgoci, co wpływa na bez- pieczeństwo transportu węgla kamiennego drogą morską. W artykule Autorka przedstawia wyniki badań własnych dotyczących zależności pomiędzy stopniem rozdrobnienia węgla kamiennego a graniczną wartością wilgotności (TML), która określa przydatność węgla do transportu drogą morską.

Pięćdziesiąty piąty numer naszego kwartalnika zamyka stała rubryka „Informacje TPJ”.

Zamieszczono w niej informacje o kolejnych samodzielnych pracownikach nauki związanych z towaroznawstwem, którzy uzyskali stopnie doktora habilitowanego w 2017 roku.

Życzę Państwu przyjemnej lektury.

Redaktor TPJ

prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński

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P r e f a c e

According to the long-term plan accepted by the Editorial Board, in the first days of April 2018 we present to our readers the 55^thissue of the Polish Journal of Commodity Science.

Continuing the efforts to widen the group of our readers all the papers are published in English. We would like to remind that now, only papers written in English are accepted by the editors. As before, each paper contains a wide summary in Polish and English. The summaries in both language versions of all the works published one can find on our web page http://www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl. Moreover, at the web page an open-access to all the papers published up to 2017 is offered.

A series of 10 articles in the current issue of our magazine is opened by Wojnarowska's paper on the importance of recycling processes in the circular economy. The article discusses the essence of the ecodesign process and product life cycle. Against this background, the circular economy strategy in the production chain is presented with particular emphasis on the role of recycling. It is proposed, inter alia, to prohibit the storage of biodegradable and recyclable materials (such as paper, glass, metal and plastic) by 2025 and to eliminate the landfill of recyclable waste by 2030. In addition to the adopted 70% target for recycling and preparation of municipal waste treatment infrastructure, a gradual increase in the level of individual recycling is also assumed, so that by 2025 it can reach 90% for paper, 60% for plastics, 80% for wood and 90 % in the case of ferrous metals, aluminum and glass. Moreover, the European Commission assumes that by 2025 member states will reduce the amount of food waste by 30%.

In the next paper Lisiecka et al. present the results of their research on the relationship between the maturity of safety management of conventional and functional foods and the profitability of its production. The dependencies presented in the paper were discussed in social, economic and financial terms. The study presents a model based on the results of research carried out in enterprises of the dairy industry. Four variables were tested in this study: maturity and profitability of production, systems for ensuring the safety of conventional food and the production of functional foods. On the basis of research performed it was found that within the studied industry there was a positive relationship between the level of maturity of food safety managementand the economic viability of production. Moreover, there was no such dependence in the social and financial aspect. An additional conclusion from the research is the statement that the level of maturity of food safety management depends on the implemented non-obligatory quality and food safety management systems.

In recent years, vegetable raw materials have become an increasingly important source of ingredients beneficial to human health. Attempts to use natural ingredients seem to be quite promising from the point of view of the need to reduce the occurrence of chronic diseases. The subject of Doba and Zmudziński's article are legal aspects and prospects for further development of new foods of plant origin. The article discusses new types of food using Spanish sage, morinda, phytosterols and phytostanols. The authors state that despite many concerns related to the safety of new food products and additives used in traditional cuisine, the results of the research presented in the article give hope that the new food will be accepted by the majority of consumers.

Information on the water content in food products is a basic parameter determining their durability. That is why the issue of validating the determination of water content in these products is important in determining their quality. In the next paper, Kowalska et al. present the results of their research on the validation of water content determination in powdered food products using a moisture analyzer. The paper discusses legal issues related to validation and its basic elements that should be applied in the food industry. The results of tests on the

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validation of moisture content determination using a moisture analyzer are presented. Special attention was paid to the pro-quality aspect of all the activities.

The systematic changes in the content and activity of bioactive components that occur during the storage of plant raw materials can have a significant impact on the stability of the lipid fraction, and thus determine the quality and safety of food. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the directions of these changes and their intensity in order to predict the expected shelf-life of raw materials and food products. The aim of the work by Bińczak and Samotyja was to assess changes in the antioxidant activity of walnut pouch during its one-year storage at room temperature. Based on the determination of the content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids as well as FRAP and DPPH tests of antioxidant activity, high oxidation potential was confirmed during the first 200 days of storage of the tested raw material. A strong positive correlation between the content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids and antioxidant activity during the entire storage period was also observed.

The color of food products is an important quality parameter. The factors affecting the color of a particular food product include the main and auxiliary raw materials used (their chemical composition and quantity), the manufacturing technology and the storage conditions of the final product. The color of milk and its products depends primarily on their composition. In the consecutive paper, Pyrzyńska discusses the effect of inulin addition and storage time on the color parameters of fermented beverages from goat's milk. The paper evaluates the effect of the addition of inulin and the storage time of yoghurts from goat's milk on their color parameters. The color parameters of yoghurts produced from goat's milk were determined during their storage using the CIE L * a * b system. The study shows that the addition of inulin to yoghurts has a statistically significant effect on the L * and a * parameters of yogurts made from goat's milk, while the storage time has no statistically significant effect on any of the color parameters tested.

Fast access to data on non-food products introduced into European markets that pose a threat to recipients is important for consumer safety. In order to protect the health and safety of consumers for the needs of the member states of the European Union, a rapid information system, RAPEX, was created. In the work of Bielak and Zielińska, leather products registered in the RAPEX system in the years 2004–2017 were analyzed. Authors recognized that the significant share of reports belongs to footwear for adults. Also children's footwear, gloves, clothing, fancy goods and even leather jewelry were reported. It was found that the vast majority of them concerned chemical hazards, while the share of hazards associated with improper footwear construction was low.

An important challenge in the quality of cosmetic and pharmaceutical raw materials is the ability to effectively predict the toxicity of the active substances used, in particular – emulsifiers. It is well known that toxicity is a linear function of the partition coefficient value, the determination of which in the experimental way is tedious and very difficult, especially for surfactants. However, the obtained correlations between the toxicity and the value of the partition coefficient are not very satisfactory. In the article, Zielinski presents the possibilities of estimating toxicity of surfactants basing not only on empirical correlations with the calculated values of the partition coefficient in the model system: n-octanol – water, but also on the characteristic volume data and selected topological indexes of surfactant molecules.

The work describes in detail the procedure for calculating this quantity based on the analysis of available literature data and the Author's results. The proposed method allows to obtain good compliance with experimental data.

In the next paper, Turchinowa et al. present the method of obtaining and usable properties of a new material intended for the adsorption of acidic substances from the natural water environment. An adsorbent based on silica modified with polyoxyethylene isooctyl phenol (SiO2–TX) was obtained and tested with the intention of determining its suitability for solid

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phase extraction of chlorophenoxyalkanecarboxylic acids. The study shows that the modified adsorbent (SiO2–TX) shows a higher capacity of adsorption of these substances than the commonly used SiO2–C18sorbent.

In the last article Popek presents the results of research on the quality parameters of hard coal from the point of view of the safety of sea transport of this raw material. Coal is often very fragmented, which favors the process of its oxidation and its ability to liquefy. The factors affecting the liquefaction of hard coal are mainly influenced by the particle size of the cargo and the moisture content, which affects the safety of hard coal transport by sea. In the article Author presents the results of research on the relationship between the degree of hard coal fineness and the limit value of humidity (TML), which determines the suitability of coal for transport by sea.

The 55^thissue of the quarterly is closed by the columnt „PJCS Announcements”. One can find there information on the scientists who received their habilitation degree in 2017.

I wish you a nice reading

PJCS Editor

Prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński

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Magdalena WOJNAROWSKA Cracow University of Economics

Faculty of Commodity Science and Product Management Department of Technology and Ecology of Products

The importance of recycling in a circular

economy

Received: September 30, 2017, accepted: November 28, 2017

DOI: 10.19202/j.cs.2018.02.01

Key words: circular economy, eco-design, product life cycle, recycling.

Słowa kluczowe: gospodarka o obiegu zamkniętym, ekoprojekto- wanie, cykl życia wyrobów, recycling.

1. Introduction

The economic development of countries and the changes taking place in societies cause increase in the levels of consumption, and thus in the levels of waste generation [1]. Modern-time consumers more and more commonly look for product and service offers that satisfy their expectations to the greatest extent possible, often neglecting the environmental problems induced by their choices [2]. Enterprises that want to satisfy the demand produce greater and greater quantities of products, which involves the need to provide raw materials and other stuffs, energy, water, fuels as well as other components necessary to produce goods [3].

Hence, it is an essential issue to introduce circular economy that will enable achieving better results with lower resource consumption [4]. This kind of economy is based on recycling thus allowing for reductions in crude oil consumption and emissions of carbon dioxide, as well as improved waste disposal. Recycling understood in this sense leads to waste reduction and

therefore reduced material consumption through reuse of products, application of alternative, biodegradable materials as well as energy recovery in the form of fuels [5].

Introduction of a circular economy becomes particularly essential when consideration is given to the data contained in the Living Planet Report of 2016, which indicate that sustainable development pursued in the same extent and at the same pace as has been the case so far does not bring the expected effects. The report stresses that man is currently consuming more natural resources than the earth is capable of providing him with [6]. Therefore, in order to curb these adverse tendencies, it is becoming necessary to spare natural resources and recycle to the maximum extent possible the wastes that can be quality raw materials [7].

The relation between the enterprise and the environment implies the expectations in with regard to reducing the negative effect of the enterprise on the environment in all the stages of the production process and product utilisation [8]. Thus, it is necessary to adapt the particular type of activity and its extent to the existing natural conditions, and manage the natural resources a rational manner while manufacturing products the use of which does not jeopardise the environment.

The objective of Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy Action Plan COM/2008/0397 is mproving the

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overall environmental performance of products during the entire product life cycle, promoting and stimulating demand for better products and production technologies and supporting consumers in making better choices. The action plan for sustainable consumption and production has stimulated a range of initiatives in the following areas: extending the scope of the directive concerning eco-design, review of the regulation on eco-labelling, review of the Regulation on EMAS, legislation in the field of green public procurement, the Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe and the Eco-Innovation Action Plan.

More and more frequently, the environment protection requirement has an impact on enterprises, at least due to the regulations in this field. However, environmental protection is still perceived as a source of additional costs, e.g. the growing cost of using the environment and expenditure on its protection must be included in the economic analyses. Hence, modern enterprise management should treat environmental protection as an integral part of the entire management process [9].

In modern times, one of the fundamental reasons causing environmental degradation is thought to be unsustainable consumption, which is proportionate to the level of industrialisation [10]. The development of consumption and launching significant amounts of new products on the market each year as well as the shortening of the life cycle of products translates into increased consumption of raw materials and energy as well as increased quantities of wastes generated by urbanindustrial agglomerations and other settlement complexes [11].

Waste defined in Art. 3 (1) of Directive 2008/98/EC as ‘means any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard’[12] potentially signifies loss of resources in the form of materials and energy. Waste management and its disposal can also have serious environmental consequences. Therefore, the EU waste management policy aims to reduce the impact of waste on the environment and health, and to improve the efficient use of resources in the European Union. A long-term goal of the aforementioned policy is to reduce the amount of produced waste and, if its production is unavoidable, to promote greater recycling, its use as resources, and to ensure safe disposal of waste [13].

The purpose of this article is to indicate possible applications of recycling in a circular economy. The article focuses on the issue of designing a recycling strategy, which, despite being practically at the end of the R hierarchy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover and Renew), provides an opportunity for waste management, which at this moment cannot be eliminated at the production stage and at the end of the product life cycle.

2. The process of eco-designing in a circular economy

The objective of a circular economy is to achieve the highest possible level of waste recovery and then recycling in the production [14]. Enterprises implementing the assumptions of the sustainable development also implement solutions that enable effective and environmentally sound waste management.

Creation of a circular economy model requires certain conditions to be fulfilled. The key task is the development of production oriented towards providing products and services that are safe to the environment, e.g. one based on eco-design [15]. Another step is the selection of this offer by consumers, but this depends on a number of factors, including the people’s knowledge, needs and habits, the influence of advertising and available information, the supply and availability of the products and above all their prices [16].

Circular economy begins at the very start of the product life cycle, i.e. at the stage of design. Both the designing and the production itself affect the processes of acquisition of raw materials, resources and consequently waste generation during the entire life cycle of the product. It is thus important in the new economy that the materials that theoretically make waste material should be recycled and reintroduced to the economy as new raw material. Such

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raw materials can be sold or dispatched in like manner as the primary raw materials from the traditional deposits of natural resources. At present, recycled materials still account for a small fraction of production materials utilised in the EU [17].

Implementation of a circular economy allows for achieving energy savings while at the same time eliminating the irreversible environmental damage caused by utilisation of resources at a level exceeding the Earth’s capability to replenish them, and for reducing the current levels of carbon dioxide emissions [18]. Actions being taken in favour of a circular economy are strictly consistent with the EU priorities, i.e. the ongoing global work towards sustainable development.

3. Product life cycle

The traditional approach to designing is focussed on the final product, placing emphasis on its functions, durability, quality, safety and the costs. The contemporary approach to product design more and more often takes into account additional issues related to the effect of the product on man and the environment. Such an approach is defined as eco-design [19], which introduces some additional criteria, such as evaluation of a particular product with regard to its effect on the environment [20]. The idea of eco-design covers the whole life cycle of a product, beginning with the concept phase until disposal when the product has no more functional properties [21]. Eco-design can therefore be considered as a compromise between functional and ecological requirements and the technical capabilities [22]. The ecologic properties of a product should concern each stage of the product life cycle. Therefore, the process of designing a product or a service should take into consideration all the stages of its functioning, i.e. until the post-consumption phase (including the widest spectrum of environmental issues at each stage) [23]. The purpose of the product life cycle analysis is to obtain comprehensive knowledge necessary in making decisions concerning the process of designing and the process of producing [24].

According to the Directive 2009/125/EC, eco-design consists in systematic integration of the environmental life cycle perspectives into the process of designing products, services and processes. The notion of eco-design is understood as taking environmental aspects into account in designing a product in order to improve its environmental performance during the entire life cycle. Within the framework of the eco-design process, a so-called ecological profile is obtained, being a description of the input and output elements related to the particular product in the whole cycle of its life cycle that are essential with regard to the environmental impact and are expressed in measurable physical quantities [25] (Fig. 1).

Styling ecological features of both the product and the processes of its manufacturing requires efficient flow, gathering and assessment of information at all stages of its production.

Methods of assessment of relations between the environment and the processes related to its production are considered to be a set of instruments specific to product ecology [11]. The beginning of the product life cycle is considered to be the design phase, i.e. the pre-production one, which involves determination of the product concept and design as well as the technologies that are necessary for the production. The effect of the pre-production phase is a product blueprint the quality of which is defined by specified sets of features (including ecological features) and a product manufacturing process design at a specific level of technology [26].

For the circular economy, the foundation is just the stage of designing products with emphasis on the so-called design for recycling [27] as it is at this stage that decisions are made to what extent recyclable materials will be used. The main objective of the design for recycling is to achieve the maximum reduction in the raw material production and utilise recycled materials, as well as to achieve the highest level of recyclability after the end of the product life cycle. It is thus essential to design in a manner that will enable waste materials

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with specified properties to be recovered and used again in the manufacturing process or to be used by other entities [28].

Implementation of a circular economy at the design stage encounters, however, some barriers [29]. One of the obstacles faced by the economic entities that want to use recycled materials is the uncertainty as to their quality. This is caused, inter alia, by the absence of appropriate EU-wide standards, which makes it difficult to ascertain impurity levels, or suitability for high-grade recycling (e.g. for plastics).

Development of such standards should increase the trust for recycled materials and provide support for this market. Therefore, the European Commission is planning to carry out work on EU-wide quality standards for appropriate recycled materials [30].

The design stage should also include appropriate plans for production-related purchases in order to eliminate the risk of wasting them. Consideration should be made of the quantity of the required materials, delivery times and packaging.

In eco-design, it is the process of thinking, and especially ecological thinking, that is of fundamental importance as it serves the purpose of designing technical artefacts with consideration to the ecological effects associated with the manufacturing and functioning thereof. Implementation of the ecological aspects in the process of designing a product is even more effective if it takes place at an early phase of the designing, the earlier the better. The following principles are applicable in the process of ecological design of a product life cycle [11]:

− achieving environmental effectiveness;

− saving resources and utilising available renewable resources;

− increasing product durability;

− designing with consideration to material recycling;

− design for disassembly;

− minimising the use of harmful substances;

− environmentally friendly production;

− restricting the environmental impact of the product in the course of its use;

− utilisation of environmentally friendly packaging;

− eliminating materials unsuitable for recycling;

− application of environmentally friendly logistics.

Analysis of the principles cited above enable formulation of some criteria that are quantified in the design process. By assigning a specific implementation status to each criterion it is possible to create checklists which in turn enable verification whether or not and to what extent the ecological criteria have been achieved. With a checklist, it is easier for a designer to search for appropriate solutions the fulfil the ecological criteria while designing a life cycle. Typically, it is sufficient to have qualitative assessment of compliance with the criteria by ascribing to them states defined as A (if all the criteria are met), B (for an acceptable degree of fulfilment) or C (definitely negative assessment; implies urgent need for a change). The purpose it to roughly identify the weaknesses of the planned solution. Taking into consideration ecologic features of the product provides a chance at implementing the circular economy.

The eco-design process should be an integral part of the circular. Its individual stages need to be supported with appropriate methods and tools (simplified and/or complex – depending on the particular needs and potentials) that enable taking into account the environmental aspects and their impacts, associated with the entire life cycle of the particular reference item, as well as selected design variants [11].

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Fig. 1. The process of eco-designing Source: own work based on [31].

Rys. 1. Proces ekoprojektowania

Źródło: Opracowanie własne na podstawie [31].

Examples of tools and methods that are useful at the stage of conceptual eco-design and detailed eco-design planning are [11]:

I. The planning stage. This includes qualitative and semi-quantitative methods of analysing the life cycle of products with regard to their environmental impact (checklists or control

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charts, matrix methods), Pareto charts, SWOT analysis, radar and portfolio diagrams, benchmarking, inclusion of environmental aspects into FMEA and QFD (EQFD) design, Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life-Cycle Costing (LCC), Social Life- Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) or simplified versions of these methods, analysis and evaluation of threats and risks, stakeholder-focused cost benefit analysis, feasibility study.

II. The conceptual eco-design stage. This includes heuristic methods and techniques, guidelines and checklists, compatibility lists, material databases, Environmental Life- Cycle Assessment (LCA) or its simplified versions, decision-making theory tools, risk assessments, benchmarking in relation to the available techniques, integration methods for environmental management, design process and product development.

III. Detailed eco-design. This includes software and modelling tools, material databases, design tools for assembly/disassembly, tools for production and process optimisation, lists of substances.

An important role in the accomplishment of the design and product development processes is played by the specific methods of concurrent design and product quality design that allow taking into account the environmental features [32].

4. An analysis of the waste market

The main goal of the R strategy is to reduce the consumption of resources and materials throughout their life cycle. It makes it possible to formulate a circular economy strategy while preserving the basic function of the product. Figure 2 shows the key stages in the product life cycle, which indicate different options for implementing circular economy scenarios [33].

While analyzing the EU waste market it turned out that the presented R strategy makes it impossible to eliminate waste generation. Consequently, there is a need to increase the importance of recycling, which will allow the use of already produced waste as full-value raw materials, bringing them to the market once again. This action may lead to the implementation of a circular economy.

4.1. The waste market in the UE

In 2014, all business activities and households in all 28 EU member states produced 2503 million tonnes of waste which was the highest number registered for the 28 EU member states since 2004. The waste mainly came from: construction and demolition 34.7%, mining and quarrying industry 28.2%, processing industry 10.2%, waste and water services (9.1%), and households (8.3%). The remaining 9.5% were waste generated from other business activities, mainly services (3.9%) and energy (3.7%). In 2014, around 2320 million tonnes of waste was processed in the 28 EU member states, including the waste imported into the EU. Almost half (47.4%) of waste processed in the 28 EU member states in 2014 was subject to various waste disposal processes. Deposit into or onto land (landfill), as well as land treatment and discharges of waste to water reservoirs were mainly applied. Only 36.2% of the waste processed in the 28 EU member states in 2014 was destined for recovery (other than energy recovery) and 10.2% for filling excavations. The remaining 6.2% of the waste was burnt including 4.7% with energy recovery and 1.5% without it. Significant discrepancies in waste management can be observed among the EU member states. Only some member states had very high recycling rates (Italy and Belgium), while others preferred landfills (Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Sweden and Finland). The amount of waste disposed in 2014 was by 1.7%

lower than in 2004. On the other hand, the importance of waste recovery increased by 23.4%

from 960 million tonnes in 2004 to 1185 million tonnes in 2014. As a result, the share of waste recovery as far as its total processing is concerned increased from 45.4% in 2004 to 51.1% in 2014 [34].

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Fig. 2. Circularity strategies within the production chain, in order of priority

Source: RLI. 2015. Circular economy. From intention to implementation. Council for the Environment and Infrastructure (RLI), The Hague.

Rys. 2. Gospodarka o obiegu zamkniętym w łańcuchu produkcyjnym, według priorytetu

Źródło: RLI. 2015. Circular economy. From intention to implementation. Council for the Environment and Infrastructure (RLI), The Hague.

4.2. Waste market in Poland – an analysis

In 2000–2007 and 2011–2012 the quantity of waste generated in Poland (excluding municipal waste) remained at a relatively stable level, i.e. approximately 120 m tonnes. The lowest quantity of waste, approx. 111–115 m tonnes, was recorded in 2008–2010. This may have been be caused by, inter alia, the economic slowdown in the country. In 2015 the amount of waste generated was 142 m tonnes, of which 131 m tonnes (i.e. 92%) was waste other than municipal. It should be noted that the main emphasis in Poland is placed on segregation of municipal waste, which only makes up 8% of total waste generation. And the main source of waste generation are enterprises included in the sections of mining and quarrying (53% of the total quantity of wastes other than municipal), manufacturing (21%) and electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply (16%). Of the total amount of waste generated in 2015, waste producers only recycled 22% of the waste by their own efforts; they disposed of 17%

themselves by landfill, and 3% in a manner other than burial in a landfill; and 57% was dispatched to other entities for subsequent disposal. The total quantity of waste buried (accumulated) in factories’ own landfills and at waste disposal facilities (landfills, tailings ponds) so far in the last decade remains at the level of 1.7 bn tonnes. In 2015, 10.9 m tonnes municipal waste was collected, of which 2.5 m tonnes selectively. Even though the amount of waste collected without any selection is decreasing, this still makes up a high percentage, which was 76.6% in 2015. It should be remarked that with appropriate design of commodities, selectively collected waste can become quality raw materials. Such an approach enables implementation of circular economy. Unfortunately, the most common way of dealing with municipal waste in Poland in 2015 was burying them in landfills (44% of its total quantity, i.e.

4.8 m tonnes). As little as 26% (2.9 m tonnes) of municipal waste was recycled, while 13%

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(1.4 m tonnes) was disposed of thermally in incinerators and 16% (1.7 m tonnes) was processed biologically [35].

The tendencies observed indicate a need for changing the ways of the current economy based the linear approach into a circular economy. This is particularly essential in view of the analysis of the market for waste other than municipal as it is here that a huge potential can be seen for waste management as quality raw materials.

4.3. Applying recycling for waste electrical and electronic equipment

An example of recycling used electrical and electronic equipment might be good practice in the implementation of a circular economy. The EC regulations on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) require manufacturers and importers to collect and recycle discarded household items. The requirements of the European Union regarding the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment are regulated by Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and the European Commission of 27 January, 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).

Table 1. Collection and recycling of discarded electric and electronic equipment Tabela 1. Odbiór i recykling zużytych urządzeń elektrycznych i elektronicznych

Large devices

Refrige- rators &

freezers

Small household

devices

Information technology

Screens

&

Television Light Professional electronics Total

Dutch market 131 64 125 50 42 4 24 440

Discarded

equipment 106 49 106 50 61 4 17 392

- Export 4 10 4 10 12 0 0 44

- Wecycle &

ICT Milieu 31 25 26 10 31 2 0 125

- Documented

otherwise 46 6 24 12 10 0 1 110

- Not

documented 24 7 25 9 12 0 0 75

- Incineration 0 0 27 9 0 2 0 38

Recycling in percentages of collected aquipment in 2014

Via Wecycle &

ICT Milieu

Large devices

Refrigerat ors &

freezers

Small household devices

& Information technology

Screens &

television Light - Regulatory

aim 75 75 63 65 80

- Realised 85 85 78 84 92

Source: Huisman, J, van der Maesen M, Eijsbouts RJJ, Wang F, Baldé CP and Wielenga CA. (2012). The Dutch WEEE Flows. United Nations University, ISP – SCYCLE, Bonn, Germany; Wecycle (2016). Objectives and results. Recycle results Wecycle per fraction in 2014 (in Dutch) Online publication.

The Directive also introduces the principle of the extended producer responsibility, which states that operators introducing devices to the market bear responsibility for any waste re- sulting from production processes as well as waste which is produced after the end of

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exploitation thereof. This action should encourage designing and manufacturing electrical and electronic equipment in such a way so that they can be repaired, modernized, reused, dismantled and recycled. A basic instrument for achieving the objectives of the directive regarding proper management of electronic waste is an obligation to achieve recovery levels, and reuse or recycle waste. The levels were set separately for recovery, and reuse and recycling, and fall between 50 and 80% of the average device weight. In order to settle obligations related to achieving recovery and recycling levels correctly, the member states should require manufacturers or entities acting on their behalf to record data regarding the mass of used equipment and its components, materials or substances when introducing or removing them from processing plants, or recovery or recycling facilities [36].

Table 1 presents an overview of the quantities of collected and recycled products.

According to Huisman et. al (2010), 10% of collected devices are exported for recycling.

Umair et. al (2016) showed that discarded computer devices are mostly recycled by informal companies under difficult conditions [37].

5. Conclusions

The European Union suggested raising the recycling rate to 70% by 2030. Currently we process approximately 42% of municipal waste and we aim to increase this level up to 50% by 2020.

It is also proposed to prohibit landfill of biodegradable and recyclable materials (such as paper, glass, metal and plastic) by 2025, and to completely eliminate landfill of recoverable waste by 2030. In addition to a target threshold of 70% for recycling and preparation of municipal waste treatment infrastructure, the above conclusions also include a gradual increase in the level of individual recycling so that it will have reached the level of 90% by 2025 for paper and the level of 60% by 2030 for plastic, 80% for wood and 90% for ferrous, aluminum and glass. The Commission also requests the member states to reduce the amount of food waste by 30% by 2025 [38].

The currently applied linear economy model of ‘take, open and throw away’ which is based on large quantities of cheap, easily available materials and energy, is placed at the center of industrial development, becoming a catalyst for growth on an unprecedented scale.

Price volatility, risk of supply shortages, and declining resources force us to change the way of thinking about the use of materials and energy [39]. Hence, the European Commission puts strong emphasis on implementing solutions of a circular economy, which provides for shifting to a sustainable, low-carbon and resource-efficient economy. Due to this approach, the value of products, materials and resources in production is maintained as long as possible [40].

Transition to a circular economy creates a possibility to gain a lasting competitive advantage as this approach protects business entities from resource shortages or price fluctuations. It also gives an opportunity to develop innovation, while pursuing sustainable production and consumption. A circular economy could bring the European Union significant benefits in line with the triad of sustainable development, i.e. environmental, social and economic benefits. In order to use resources effectively, create new work places, achieve a low-carbon growth, healthy environment, natural and non-polluting industry, and sustainable consumption, it is essential to take a holistic look and take action, including different policy areas. Meeting the current problems partially will not allow the European Union to enjoy the benefits of a circular economy.

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6. Acknowledgments

This publication was financed with subsidies for maintaining the research capacity granted to the Faculty of Commodity Science and Product Management of The Cracow University of Economics.

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Summary

The purpose of this article is to indicate possible applications of recycling in a circular economy. The article focuses on the issue of designing a recycling strategy, which, despite being practically at the end of the R hierarchy, provides an opportunity for waste management, which at this moment cannot be eliminated at the production stage and at the end of the product life cycle.

Magdalena WOJNAROWSKA Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie

Wydział Towaroznawstwa i Zarządzania Produktem Katedra Technologii i Ekologii Wyrobów

ZNACZENIE RECYKLINGU W GOSPODARCE O OBIEGU ZAMKNIĘTYM

Streszczenie

Celem artykułu jest wskazanie możliwości zastosowania recyklingu w gospodarce o obiegu zamkniętym. W artykule położono nacisk na zagadnienie projektowania nastawionego na wykorzystanie strategii recyklingu, która pomimo iż znajduje się praktycznie na końcu hie- rarchii R, to daje możliwości zagospodarowania odpadów, których na ten moment nie jest się w stanie wyeliminować na etapie produkcji oraz w końcowej fazie użytkowania produktu.

dr inż. Magdalena WOJNAROWSKA Cracow University of Economics Faculty of Commodity Science and Product Management

Department of Technology and Ecology of Products ul. Rakowicka 27, 31-510 Cracow, Poland

e-mail: magdalena.wojnarowska@uek.krakow.pl

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Krystyna LISIECKA Univeristy of Economics in Katowice Dobrochna SZTAJERSKA

State Higher School of Vocational Education in Oswiecim

Food safety management maturity and production profitability

Received: September 22, 2017; accepted: December 29, 2017

DOI: 10.19202/j.cs.2018.02.02

Key words: food safety management maturity, production profitability, efficiency.

Słowa kluczowe: dojrzałość zarządzania bezpieczeństwem żywno- ści, opłacalność produkcji, efektywność.

1. Introduction

Maturity of the food safety management – one of the methodical basal constructs described in the paper – from the very name emerges as a key construct It is due to the fact that it has a desirable medium, which can be described by such maturity synonyms as: responsibility, cautiousness, prudence, rationality or sustainability It seems this is the reason why (even if maturity is the attribute of the enterprise) it is most important from the point of view of the food business operators’ interested parties.

The systematic review of the literature ranging from 1990 to 2014 and including 61 out of 2899 maturity models (MM) that were described in the literature during the period mentioned above, disclosed that the state of the research into MM is still in the initial phase, and the scientific literature is lacking in the methodical basis to implement many of the popular models [17].

As far as the profitability is concerned, the discourse should be approached from the efficiency as the classical category used to assess the organization Some authors suggest that the profitability is one of the synonyms of the efficiency [5] Others suggest such an approach is not proper due to, not only subjective matters, but most of all because of the lack of hierarchical order among the concepts What is more, different domains use different names for the same concepts or interpret the same terms in a specific for the domain way [6, 9–11, 14, 15] In this paper it is assumed that the profitability represents the measure of the economic, financial and social efficiency The construct, especially in its economic and financial dimension, seems to be more important for the enterprise itself and the economics in general However, considering the food as conventional and functional – so adding a value, there is also another issue – the social dimension.

Food safety is a phenomenon concerning every food consumer It is due to its nature as essential to human life and able, because of its ingredients (natural or added), to influence positively and negatively the human body In order to prevent the problems connected with the food safety all the enterprises are to implement programs and procedures regarding food safety (FS) based on HACCP principles [13] The process is facilitated by the facultative tools of the organizational character, elabo- rating this principles These

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2018

Spis treści

Contents

P r z e d m o w a

P r e f a c e

The importance of recycling in a circular

economy

Food safety management maturity and production profitability

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