Identity and image in media communication Małgorzata Łosiewicz, Anna Ryłko-Kurpiewska, Katarzyna Bałandynowicz-Panfil, Beata Czechowska-Derkacz, Katarzyna Walotek-Ściańska

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Identity and image in media communication

Małgorzata Łosiewicz, Anna Ryłko-Kurpiewska, Katarzyna Bałandynowicz-Panfil, Beata Czechowska-Derkacz,

Katarzyna Walotek-Ściańska

Citation: Łosiewicz, M., Ryłko-Kurpiewska, A., Bałandynowicz-Panfil, K., Czechowska- Derkacz, B., Walotek-Ściańska, K. (2016). Identity and image in media

communication. Kinvara Co. Galway: TrueSign; Gdynia: Wydawnictwo Novae Res.

ISBN 978-83-8083-431-6.

© Korzystanie z tego materiału jest możliwe zgodnie z właściwymi przepisami o dozwolonym użytku lub o innych wyjątkach przewidzianych w przepisach prawa, a korzystanie w szerszym zakresie wymaga uzyskania zgody uprawnionego.

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Management and coordination of the varsity research project:

“Research on identity in diverse social areas”

PhD Małgorzata Łosiewicz PhD Anna Ryłko-Kurpiewska

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IdentIty and Image In medIa CommunICatIon

Kinvara Co. Galway: TrueSign-Gdynia 2016

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Contents

Introduction . . . . 7 Scene 1. The role of the spokesperson as a professional

communicator . . . 10 Scene 2. Can trademark genericisation prove advantageous to the

brand? A few remarks on the strategies pursued by Google^{. .}40 Scene 3. Theatre image on the Internet and new forms of

communication with the audience . . . 68 Scene 4. Citizen journalists. A self-portrait from a diachronic

perspective . . . .104 Scene 5. The importance of the media in shaping the image

of the elderly as consumers . . . .130

About the Authors 153

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7 IntroductIon

T

he issues related to the specificity of the creation of media images (of organisations and people) are ever more willingly discussed in various contexts, both in the public discourse and in academic papers.

The evident diversity of the approaches towards the notion and the features attributed to it triggers public reflection and dialogue among media studies scholars. This includes criteria defining image, the fields in which it appears and the dynamic changes that it undergoes.

The book Identity and Image in Media Communication, now being put by us into the hands of readers, is of interdisciplinary nature and presents five various research approaches to the creation of image as a phenomenon closely related to the identity of an organisation.

The book reflects various views on image, as encountered in the academic and professional literature on public relations, advertising, business, social and political marketing. Given the broad scope of the phenomenon and its evolutionary character, as well as the need to do further research, the publication does not assume a complementary approach to the discussed matters. Rather, it is designed to be an invitation to a discussion on the changing ways of perceiving the image of people and organisations in the media. Hence, instead of a traditional table of contents, the work is divided into “scenes”, presenting different aspects of the same phenomenon. Such an approach is well justified by the meaning and etymology of the word

“scene”, which in theatrical terminology (and in the current language as well) refers to incidents happening at the same place yet requiring a change of setting. The notion of a scene, better than that of an act (as part of the performance), reflects the specificity of the texts contained in the publication. While not making up an integral whole,

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the texts, nevertheless, reveal the existing potential for changing the perspective when it comes to studying the image and identity of organisations in media messages.

The publication adopted the assumption that when analysing image, the specific features of the portrayed object (be it an organisation or a group of persons) have to be taken into account, equally with the intentions and objectives of the communication, the shape of the message itself (including its characteristic features regarding visual identification, the mode of content creation and the way in which persons are presented), as well as the traits of the audience¹. For that very reason the book includes the perspective of the organisation, the public tasks met by it and the pursued business objectives (The role of spokesperson as a professional communicator), the firm and product (Can trademark genericisation prove advantageous to the brand? A few remarks on the strategies pursued by Google), specific features of communication-related activities concerning the medium itself (Theatre image on the Internet and new forms of communication with the audience), or the characteristics of the messages and the contemplated audience group (Citizen journalists. A self-portrait from a diachronic perspective and The importance of the media in shaping the image of the elderly as consumers).

The multifaceted research approaches presented in the book are intended to fuel a discussion on the changing forms and conditions of image creation and its various faces. They are also supposed to serve as an invitation to develop new scenes of the phenomenon by academic circles.

1 Such a perception of image is typical of many papers dealing with this phenomenon. Cf., inter alia, T.J. Dąbrowski, Rola mediów w kształtowaniu wizerunku, “Marketing i Rynek”, 2013, No. 9, p. 10.

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IdentIty and Image

In FIve SCeneS

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Scene 1.

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The role of the spokesperson as a professional communicator¹

AbStrAct

The expanding role of experts in communication prompts reflection on the work of the spokesperson within an organisation.

The expectations towards spokespersons, both on the part of the organisation that they represent and the media, are very high.

Opportunities for communication have increased significantly thanks to modern technology, but the manner of communicating has become increasingly difficult in a time in which the media are developing dynamically, and the key word is “attractiveness” when it comes to any message or release. It is difficult to find a balance between the possibilities that are attainable by a spokesperson, and the expectations of the organisation that he/she represents and of the media that the spokesperson works with. Professionalism is required.

This is also the case in legal matters. A lack of knowledge in terms of the legal regulations that govern the mutual relations of the media and organisations nowadays means that the spokesperson is helpless in daily contacts with journalists, especially in difficult situations involving crises in communication. Also the ethical aspect of the work of the spokesperson (and more broadly of specialists in PR) is

1 The article makes use of the experiences and reflections contained in the book:

The spokesperson. Expectations and possibilities – theoretical and practical perspectives, B. Czechowska-Derkacz, M. Zimnak (eds.), Difin, Warsaw 2015.

The immediate inspiration for writing the article was the first panel of Tri-City spokespersons, which took place at the IV International Conference MEDIA – BUSINESS – CULTURE. Pomorze 2015.

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Scene 1. The role of the spokesperson as a professional communicator

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of significant importance. They are often thought of as the creators of reality, who deal in half-truths and at times even lies. This article is an attempt to find answers to the key questions associated with the spokesperson’s role in an organisation, with his/her place within its structure, and with the tasks and philosophy involved in the pursuit of this profession.

Key words: spokesperson; public relations; media relations; image;

communicating with the media

IntroductIon

An image that is positive, convincing and in accordance with the expectations of an organisation signifies the possibility of realising public tasks and achieving business aims. It has become a key area both in the achievement of business undertakings of private enterprises and in the public mission that state institutions and non-governmental organisations have to achieve. Consequently, the role of professional communicators has grown significantly in all sectors – state, private and non-profit organisations. In communicating with the media and the broadly understood public, this role is most often fulfilled by public relations specialists (in the private sector) and by spokespersons (in the state sector and in non-governmental organisations). The polarisation of views when it comes to the high expectations concerning effective communication and the possibilities of action, limited by the law and the everyday practice of cooperation with the media, leads to the need for a discussion on the role of the spokesperson in an organisation and on the idea of professionalism in a profession that has such a significant influence on the shape of public discourse². The growing competitive

2 The main areas regarding the work of a spokesperson that require analysis, discussion and deepen theoretical reflection were indicated during the

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13 battle is forcing companies to pay incessant attention to their own image within their environment. It has become evident that good relations with clients and a good image are indisputable assets in successful striving against competition³.

the tASkS of the SpokeSperSon And hIS/her plAce wIthIn the Structure of An orgAnISAtIon – between publIc relAtIonS And mArketIng

One of the most significant problems to be solved is the place of the spokesperson within the structure of an organisation and outlining his/her tasks within the framework of public relations. The effectiveness of his/her actions depends on this. In the private sector (in large and small enterprises, and particularly in corporate systems), the function of the spokesperson is rather rare. These tasks are usually performed by a communications specialist/public relations specialist/

the board’s proxy for communications with the media. Often, these are people who have high positions in the hierarchy of the organisation, often with the rank of deputy director/deputy chairman/director of the PR department. In the public sector, the tasks of communicating with the public are performed by the spokesperson or the proxy

above-mentioned panel of Tri-City spokespersons. These included the tasks of a spokesperson within the framework of public relations activities, the place within the structure of an organisation, the roles and attitudes, finding a balance between informing and persuading and rejecting manipulation and propaganda, the significance of the social role of public relations and, finally, open communication and legal aspects based on the Polish Act on Access to Public Information and the Polish Act on Press Law.

3 M. Łosiewicz, Relacje między mediami i public relations na podstawie badań przedsiębiorstw województwa pomorskiego [Relations between the media and public relations on the basis of research into enterprises in the Pomorskie Voivodeship] in:

Media, Business, Culture, J. Kreft, J. Majewski (eds.), Marpress, Gdańsk 2009, p. 175.

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for communications, functioning within the PR department or the press office. The position within the structure of the organisation and prioritising the tasks of the spokesperson/communications specialist/PR specialist and the departments in which they operate are determined by the nature and size of the organisation.

Determining the significance of the PR and marketing departments within an organisation as well as which of them is “more important”

depends on the nature of the organisation and the research perspective – particularly in terms of economics, social sciences and media⁴. In enterprises where the main area of functioning is the sale of products/services, PR and the spokesperson are often located within the marketing structures. This ensues from the practical understanding of public relations, which becomes a promotional tool intended to increase profit. In newer concepts, including mega-marketing, public relations, alongside the classic marketing tools (the four Ps – product, price, promotion, place), becomes an independent instrument. In this meaning the activities of public relations fulfil a management function⁵. There are five models most commonly singled out for the

4 These issues are often discussed also in the context of the characterisation of the transmitting apparatus and the particular hierarchy of the subjects functioning here, which is shown not only in studies in the field of PR but also in the theory of advertising. Cf. A Ryłko-Kurpiewska, Kontrowersje wokół tradycji badań nad komunikatem reklamowym [Controversies surrounding the traditions of research into advertising communiqués], “Studia Medioznawcze” 2007, No. 4, pp. 51–73.

5 The structure and tasks of public relations in an organisation are analysed in detail in, among others: Z. Knecht, Racjonalne public relations. Budowa działu, instrumenty, studia przypadków [Rational public relations. The construction of departments, instruments, case studies], Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck, Warsaw 2005;

W. Budzyński, Public Relations. Strategia i nowe techniki kreowania wizerunku [Public relations. Strategies and new techniques in image creation], Wydawnictwo Poltext, Warsaw 2008; K. Wojcik, Public relations. Wiarygodny dialog z otoczeniem [Public relations. A credible dialogue with the surroundings], Agencja Wydawnicza Placet, Warsaw 2009.

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Scene 1. The role of a press spokesperson as a professional communicator

15 functioning of PR in an organisation: 1. Marketing and PR are separate fields, managed by directors with a different professional background;

2. The areas of the tasks of marketing and PR overlap, where PR fulfils a purely promotional role; 3. PR is integrated with marketing and is subservient to the broadly understood marketing strategy of the enterprise (the universal model in the private sector); 4. PR is integrated with marketing but the marketing strategy is subservient to the broadly understood PR strategy (often seen in public institutions and non-profit organisations); 5. PR and marketing are equal, interlocking activities and have a common management concept⁶.

Irrespective of the particular model of functioning in an organisation (depending on its size and nature), the most important issue is the synergy of marketing and public relations activities. Every employee and element of the marketing system can thwart the activities in the sphere of PR and vice versa. The best functioning PR department cannot ensure positive image effects in case of a poor quality of products sold at a high price. Similarly, the best marketing department will not cope with an image disaster caused by PR activities.

The next important aspect is understanding the tasks of a public relations specialist and a spokesperson. A PR specialist is an employee of an organisation whose duties should include the management of information that is going out of the organisation as well as internal communication in order to build and maintain the organisation’s image⁷. At the same time, PR activities require understanding the significance of all the groups in the organisation’s environment (the public), cooperating with them and adapting communiqués and public relations instruments to their needs. In most organisations, there is a division into internal and external communications specialists.

The spokesperson’s tasks, in turn, include planning, coordinating

6 K. Wojcik, op. cit., pp. 168-174.

7 Leksykon public relations [A lexicon of public relations], J. Olędzki, D. Tworzydło (eds.), Wydawnictwo Newsline and Bonus Liber, p. 157.

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and implementing contacts between the represented organisation (public institutions, state treasury companies, commercial firms) and the media: the press, radio, television, information agencies and broadly understood internet media (social websites, social press, thematic, general and trade portals, etc.)⁸. Therefore, the spokesperson is a specialised public relations employee in the field of media relations and this means that the tasks of the PR specialist and team are broader than those of the spokesperson and the press team. An understanding of this relationship and the division of competences, as well as the provision of teams of appropriate sizes to realise a long-term PR strategy, will condition the effectiveness of the organisation’s communications activities. It is not possible, however, to unambiguously separate the tasks of the PR department and the spokesperson. The press office and the PR department and their respective employees have to cooperate efficiently and closely, without conflicts. Common tasks of overriding priority include managing the reputation and ensuring a positive, desired image of the organisation, in accordance with the accepted long-term PR strategy.

One of the most important issues to be resolved in practice is the “distance” between the spokesperson and the boss. The further away he/she is positioned and the more multi-layered the structure of relationships within the organisation, the more difficult it is to realise media relations in accordance with the mission of the organisation and the vision of its authorities.

8 Słownik terminologii medialnej [A dictionary of media terminology], W. Pisarek (ed.), Unversitas, Cracow 2006, op. cit., p. 192.

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17 the effectIveneSS of the ActIvItIeS of the SpokeSperSon – between perSuASIon And propAgAndA

In the context of the role played by the media nowadays in communication, the tasks of the spokesperson, who is to concentrate on an effective positive message, are ever harder to realise. How should relations with the media be built when it is above all the attractiveness of the message that decides about the interest of the recipients?

William Randolph Hearst, the press magnate and creator of a media empire, at the end of the 19th century gave the following indicators about preparing an article: “The reader is interested above all in events which contain elements of his own primitive nature. These include:

1. The self-preservation factor; 2. Love and procreation; 3. Desire and ambition. Reports which include one of these elements are good. If they include two, they are better. Those, however, which include all three constitute ‘first-class’ information material”⁹. Joseph Pulitzer, Hearst’s main rival in the battle for readers in times when fights between reporters at the scene of an event were commonplace, and today associated with the prestigious journalism award, is the author of the saying which he brought to life in “The New York Times”: “The world is the most sensational place and its sensations have to be sold sensationally”¹⁰.

What drives the media today is not much different from the 19^th century pointers from Hearst and Pulitzer. There are still controversial subjects, critical situations, disasters, defeats, catastrophes and dramas. In the positive field – unique and untypical things, ideally experienced personally, and spectacular successes. The effectiveness

9 G. Honigmann, William Randolph Hearst, czyli dzieje pewnego skandalisty [William Randolph Hearst, the history of a certain scandalist], Wydawnictwo Książka i Wiedza, pp. 317–318.

10 M. Iłowiecki, Krzywe zwierciadło. O manipulacji w mediach [A distorting mirror. About manipulation in the media], Wydawnictwo Gaudium, p. 145.

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of media relations depends on understanding the differences in the world-views of journalists and PR people, which are best shown by the universal conviction that, for the media, information that

“dog bites man” is banal but “man bites dog” is headline news. In today’s media, a great change has occurred – primarily influenced by new technologies. This has its positive dimension, written about by media researchers indicating future directions, such as the so- called media futurologists Alvin Toffler, Henry Jenkins, Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist, Nicholas Negroponte, Jean Baudrillard¹¹. These changes also have a negative aspect, including concentrating on sensational messages, manipulating the messages, a disturbed agenda-setting, practising infotainment, creating instead of reporting events, aggressive story-telling and enhancing the media message¹².

The adaptation of PR specialists to such functioning media mechanisms means that it is easy to cross the boundaries between persuasion and manipulation, to succumb to the temptation of constant propaganda instead of information. The spokesperson, when choosing between the four basic communication models

11 The author writes about the changes in contemporary media in the context of creating images and their positive and negative aspects in the chapter Media i polityczne wizerunki [in:] Magia politycznych wizerunków w mediach. Aleksander Kwaśniewski i Andrzej Lepper – studium przypadków [Media and political images (in:) The magic of political images in the media. Aleksander Kwaśniewki and Andrzej Lepper – case studies], Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 2011, pp. 13–75.

12 B. Czechowska-Derkacz and M. Łosiewicz conduct research in the field of the image of an academic in the media, taking into account the media perspective of the dichotomous description of reality and the realisation of the dualistic image strategies. Cf.: Czechowska-Derkacz B., Łosiewicz M., Funkcjonowanie dualizmu wizerunkowego polskich naukowców w przekazach medialnych, [in:]

Komunikowanie o nauce, [The functioning of image dualism of Polish academics in media transmissions (in:) Communicating about science], E. Żyrek-Horodyska, M. Hodalska (eds.), Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Cracow 2016, p. 195–212.

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19 – information transfer, agreeing on meanings, creating a community or persuasion¹³ – most often chooses the last one, treated as an instrument of influence. This can be implemented successfully and in accordance with ethical principles, on the condition of excluding another instrument of influence – propaganda. In the negative connotation, propaganda means the manipulation of symbols and the exploitation of psychological mechanisms to objectify the individual¹⁴. It assumes the use of hidden manipulation techniques. Persuasion, on the other hand, is overt. This is a process of constant persuading, urging and convincing with the use of argument. Its aim is to convince about the rightness of one’s argument in a discussion, its condition is the overt intention of the transmitter of the communication¹⁵. Only persuasion, thus understood, in the activities of a spokesperson can bring benefits to both sides – the organisation and public opinion.

The daily practice of many institutions, enterprises and the worlds of politics and celebrities shows, however, that PR has become

13 S. P. Morreale, B. H. Spitzberg, J. K. Barge, Komunikacja między ludźmi.

Motywacja, wiedza i umiejętności [Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge and Skills], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, pp. 33–43.

14 The word “propaganda” itself, coming from the Latin propagandum (that which is to be propagated), has neutral or positive connotations – for example, propagating charitable activities or positive social attitudes, etc. According to the dictionary of the Polish language Nowy słownik języka polskiego [A new dictionary of the Polish language], E. Sobol (ed.), Wydawnictwo PWN, Warsaw 2003, “propaganda” means the dissemination of certain attitudes, political or economic slogans in order to attract large groups of supporters, i.e. the dissemination of propaganda, but also the text of a speech, programme, film, etc. to realise certain aims, i.e. a deluge of propaganda, while “to propagate” means to disseminate, universalise some ideas, slogans, thoughts to win someone over to certain ideas, activities. It was only under the influence of the criminal political systems of the 20th century (Nazism, Leninism, Stalinism) that the term acquired negative connotations and is now associated with brain-washing, demagogy or manipulation.

15 Słownik terminologii medialnej [A dictionary of media terminology], W. Pisarek (ed.), op. cit., p. 144–145.

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a collection of manipulation techniques in order to attain higher sales of products, political victory or popularity with the help of the media as an intermediary. Such a way of understanding public relations is known as “popular PR”¹⁶ and there is no agreement on it either among researchers nor among the majority of practitioners. This dichotomy – the theory and the practice of PR – became the source of crisis in the PR and spokesperson professions, as practitioners were perceived to be professional manipulators and charlatans who sugar-coated what smelled and looked nasty.

Researchers argue about definitions and the possibilities to differentiate in practice between manipulation, propaganda and persuasion. They indicate, however, one common denominator which allows boundaries to be defined – the subjective treatment of people.

In objective treatment, manipulation becomes an instrument for steering people without their knowledge¹⁷. For this reason, it is utmost important that a spokesperson uses overt, persuasive communication with a clearly defined aim. This builds not only positive relations with journalists but also, most importantly, the trust of the public opinion towards the organisation.

In practice, however, differentiation between such notions as persuasion, propaganda and manipulation is very difficult nowadays. We are living in a world full of communiqués and it is becoming increasingly difficult to choose the important ones (the notion of information smog is universally used). Information itself is not a value (because access to it has become easy), but the knowledge and the context which allow us to understand and exploit it, are. Moreover, not many people are perfecting

16 Public relations. Społeczne wyzwania & English supplement Public relations.

Across Borders [Public relations. Social challenges & English supplement Public relations. Across Borders], J. Olędzki (ed.), Uniwersytet Warszawski, Instytut Dziennikarstwa, p. 7.

17 J. Puzynina (ed.), Etyka międzyludzkiej komunikacji [The ethics of interpersonal communication], Wydawnictwo Naukowe Semper, p. 203.

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21 the art of using arguments, in the sense of rhetoric, preferring to replace it with the difficult but very useful techniques of public speaking, usually in the media, in order to make a good impression in journalists’

“sound bites”¹⁸. The art of argumentation has been replaced by “noisy and spectacular television images and persuasive communiqués in the form of advertisements, which, in the dense communicative environment, attract the attention of the receiver but at the same time transform complex problems into a vulgar black-and-white caricature of reasoning”¹⁹. Older cultures regarded the ability of argumentation as elementary knowledge that every citizen ought to possess in order to participate in the country’s matters – nowadays rhetoric and logic are being marginalised in educational programmes and are becoming elite skills, often used for manipulation²⁰. A spokesperson, however, has to possess this elite skill and apply techniques of exerting influence in accordance with the principles of ethics and also for the benefit of the represented organisation.

The condition for the activities of a spokesperson to be ethical is the rejection of lies, propaganda, manipulation and hidden persuasion techniques. Effectiveness is guaranteed by professionalism.

A professional spokesperson can choose from many public relations and media relations tools. He/she has to use them efficiently. The media can be exploited as a helpful intermediary to communicate with the environment, thanks to which the intended public relations

18 An expression used with reference to television or radio journalist material, which nowadays lasts 30 to 40 seconds and consists of one person’s words. The Polish term “setka” (100) refers to the fact that is an unedited report (100% of sound and image).

19 A. Pratkanis, E. Aronson, Wiek propagandy. Używanie i nadużywanie perswazji na codzień [Age of Propaganda. The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion], translated by J. Radzicki, M. Szuster, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw 2005, p. 20.

20 Ibid., p. 22.

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aims can be achieved. This can be attained by creating an “agenda setting”, seeking interesting subjects from the media point of view but also by co-creating a media discourse, undertaking important topics and threads, without simplifications that can be summarised in the catchy slogans so preferred by the media. This requires the spokesperson to be committed, creative and to reject routine.

A professional spokesperson also has to move efficiently within the binding legal regulations in the field of trade legislation, the Act on access to public information, the Act on press information and the Act on copyright and related rights. Knowledge of the law is essential, particularly in a time of communications crisis, when the spokesperson has to, for example, use tools such as correction and has to protect the good name of the organisation. This is, however, also necessary in everyday relations with the media, when the range of offered public information has to be determined (in accordance with the law but not to the detriment of the organisation), responses have to be given in the time determined by the law or use made of the right to authorisation.

Ignorance of the law in the field of binding acts on access to public information and on press law is the source of many misunderstandings and legal problems. It must be emphasised here that the lack of legal foundations in this area is exhibited by both journalists and spokespersons. The former often demand information protected by the law, for example by trade, medical or legal secrets or by the act on personal data protection, violating the right to privacy and broadening the category of persons fulfilling public functions to include almost all officials working in public institutions. The latter do not know how to defend themselves in this situation and apply the tactic of

“a fort under siege”. On the one hand, journalists abuse the authority of the media and, on the other hand, spokespersons, in both public and private institutions, hinder or even block access to information, contradicting the very idea of their profession. A consequence of this is often believing in the effectiveness of disclaimers and the

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23 abuse of this instrument as a remedy for problems with the media.

Meanwhile, the institution of disclaimers guaranteed in the act on press law is not an effective instrument in communicating with the media. On account of its legal limitations, it does not fulfil the role of the polemical message with which we wish to reach our receivers. The legal limitations particularly concern the premises of the legislator, since a disclaimer concerning imprecise or untrue information contained in press material has to be concrete and refer to facts²¹. This means that the text of the disclaimer has to be dry and very matter-of- fact: in practice, it is a kind of list of errors and the associated true and precise information. As much as it can be assumed that the receiver will read/listen to/watch the material from the media headlines where the untrue or suggestive half-true information was published, it very rarely happens that the receiver reads the disclaimer – particularly as it is quite often published on the back pages among the obituaries (which is obviously a legal infringement). The link between a media story and a succinct disclaimer text published long after the original appearance of the article is very difficult to make, and finding a cause- and-effect relationship between these two distant forms requires a search for the original material, without which the information in the disclaimer is unreadable. What is also of importance is the existence of the mechanisms of contemporary media, particularly the internet, which means that once-published untrue information is subject to the so-called snowball effect and is therefore propagated quickly and widely – a disclaimer is not able to overturn the effect of the negative image. As a means of communication with the mass receiver, a disclaimer actually acts in accordance with the principle

21 The institution of disclaimers is regulated by articles: 31a, 32 and 33 of the Act on Press Law of 7 February 1984 (Journal of Laws 1984.5.24 with later amendments).

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described by Winston Churchill: “A lie can travel halfway around the world while the truth is putting its shoes on”²².

An important aspect of professionalism in a spokesperson’s work is knowledge of the specific nature of journalistic work, which does not mean that a successful spokesperson has to have experience in journalism. However, such experience can undoubtedly facilitate contacts, shorten the road to understanding the journalistic way of thinking and exploiting this knowledge for the good of the organisation. But it is not a sine qua non condition for success in this profession, although, in the context of the changes in the media, their focus on sensation and, quite often, their manipulation of information, it is experience that can be extremely useful.

According to a research study conducted in the Silesian Voivodeship at the turn of 2011 and 2012, as many as 83.3% of the journalists participating in the research project considered that experience in journalism gives a spokesperson a greater chance of success²³. The key factor here is knowledge of the specific nature of the media. Being able to navigate well through the media with which the

22 The author has written more extensively on disclaimers as an instrument of PR in an article entitled Próba dochodzenia prawdy w mediach, czyli o sprostowaniu jako narzędziu komunikacji z punktu widzenia zawodowych komunikatorów – rzeczników prasowych [An attempt to discover the truth in the media, i.e. about disclaimers as a communication tool from the point of view of professional communicators – spokespersons], published on the website Proto.pl: http://

www.proto.pl/artykuly/info?itemId=134919&rob=Beata_Derkacz,_rzecznik_

prasowy_Uniwersytetu_Gdanskiego,_Czlonek_Zarzadu_Stowarzyszenia_

PR_i_Promocji_Uczelni_Polskich__#8222;PRom_#8221;__Proba_dochodzenia_

prawdy_w_mediach,_czyli_o_sprostowaniu_jako_narzedziu_komunikacji_z_

punktu_widzenia_zawodowych_komunikatorow__#8211;_rzecznikow_prasowych (accessed in July 2016).

23 Krystian Dudek, Rola rzeczników prasowych w komunikacji masowej [The role of spokespersons in mass media communication], Wydawnictwo Humanitas, Sosnowiec-Praga 2015, p. 217.

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25 spokesperson cooperates, the ability to exploit various groups of the media (dailies, trades, lifestyle magazines, opinion-forming weeklies, etc.) for the purpose of realising image and information aims, and also knowledge of the daily functioning of the media, the time frameworks in which the particular editorial teams operate, the specific nature of newsrooms, thematic editorials, journalists’ daily duties, is not only an asset in the work of spokespersons, but a condition of their professional activity. Many years of experience in journalism does not, however, seem to be necessary in order to know and understand the media’s specific nature, although working in the media could make the tasks easier. On the other hand, it could also be a kind of burden. A PR specialist, particularly in media relations, who does not understand the role to be played within the organisation and who works in accordance with the media principles, bringing journalistic customs to the organisation, will not be able to achieve success. Undoubtedly, and this is worth repeating again, it is necessary to understand the specific nature of the media to help journalists in their work, if only to remember that the text is the most important for the press, the sound for the radio and the image for television. But also, as Henry Jenkins noticed with respect to technological changes in the media, it is important not to concentrate on what the media can do for us but on what we can do with the media²⁴. Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to exploit the functioning of the media in the public space for the good of our organisation and for a better cooperation with groups in our environment. Over the last few years the media have undergone substantial transformations within the sphere of receiver information service. One of the main ethical principles for journalists,

24 H. Jenkins, Kultura konwergencji. Zderzenie starych i nowych mediów [Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide], translated by M. Bernatowicz, M. Filiciak, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warsaw 2007. Journalistic Custom Code of the Association of Journalists of the Republic of Poland.

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which appears in almost all Polish and foreign ethical codes, i.e. the priority of the receiver’s good²⁵, is passing into oblivion. The economic race connected with increasing (or, in the case of traditional media, maintaining) readership, listening or viewing figures means that information is changing, including in media regarded as opinion- forming, into infotainment, which is “produced” under the pressure of time. Succumbing to this pressure and seeking “news” in every item of information leads to reactive activity, solely for the needs of the media, and has nothing to do with management of the image, the brand or the presence of the organisation in the media. And it is the spokesperson who should manage the presence, not the other way round. And at the same time the spokesperson will always have to seek understanding and cooperation in the area of the rhythm and style of work of the organisation and the media. This is becoming increasingly significant in understanding the role of the spokesperson within an organisation since, as indicated by the aforementioned research, 33.6%

of spokespersons from the Silesian Voivodeship indicated that they have an education in the field of journalism and only 32.7% in the field of public relations²⁶. Nowadays, a spokesperson often also fulfils the role of a PR specialist – a lack of knowledge regarding the foundation of PR activities and tools, in tandem with journalistic work habits, can have catastrophic effects – self-advertising, reactivity and ceding the management of information in the organisation to the media.

Finally, the professionalism of the spokesperson requires understanding the social dimension of public relations, which is realised in a two-way communication between the organisation and the public. This is activity “for the common good”, as advocated by one of the founding fathers of contemporary PR – Ivy Ledbetter

25 Cf.: Declaration of Principles of the International Federation of Jurnalists, Ethical Charter of Media, The Code of Jurnalistic Ethics of the Association of Polish Jurnalists, the ethical principles adopted by the BBC, Telewizja Polska, etc.

26 K. Dudek, op. cit., p. 155.

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27 Lee, a journalist and the press agent of the oil magnate John D.

Rockefeller, who opposed the words of the owner of a railway company, Cornelius William Vanderbilt – “The public be damned!”

– with his own statement: “The public should be informed”²⁷. He sent his Declaration of Principles to the press, in which he assured that he intended to“frankly, and openly, on behalf of business concerns and public institutions, to supply the press and public of the United States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects which it is of value and interest to the public to know about”²⁸.

The communication with the public conducted by a spokesperson must be in accordance with the historical roots of PR – open, friendly and sincere – without hidden intentions, with the use of open persuasion based on convincing arguments. This excludes lies (with the proviso that the spokesperson always knows what he/she is saying but for the security of the organisation never says everything that he/she knows). Public communication relations mean information available to everyone²⁹. As Jerzy Olędzki adds, “If during a discussion it transpires that the views of one side are not as rational as those of the other, we are inclined to admit right and we do not avoid finding ways to compromise. This art requires the virtue of humility and a broad knowledge of society, its behaviours, consciousness, aims and material status. Thanks to this standpoint, we show respect to the public, to the people with whom we are speaking and to the environment that interests us – those whom we want to interest”³⁰.

27 Quoted after: K. Wojcik, op. cit., p. 191.

28 http://chriskeirns.weebly.com/uploads/7/0/0/3/7003580/ivy_lee_paper.pdf.

(accessed in October 2016).

29 Cf.: J. Olędzki, Public relations jest społecznym dialogiem, [in:] Public relations.

Społeczne wyzwania… [Public relations is a social dialogue (in:) Public relations.

Social challenges…], op. cit., p. 7.

30 Ibid., p. 17.

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The spokesperson understanding the social role of public relations is crucial for the extent to which the represented organisation will be open to the media and to society, what the quality of its communication will be and, finally, whether the spokesperson will be able to use professionalism and knowledge against the ignorance of the media, his bosses and all those who treat PR exclusively as a remedy for increasing profit and for crises.

the roleS And phIloSophy of the SpokeSperSon’S profeSSIon – between mInImAlISm And ActIvIty There are many typologies of the roles of a spokesperson, which can also be called work models in relation to the organisation and the media. All come with advantages and disadvantages. Most have been collected by Krzysztof Gajdka in his publication Rzecznik prasowy w otoczeniu mediów. Teoria i praktyka [The spokesperson in the media environment. Theory and practice]³¹. For example:

Herold [Herald] (helps superiors with releasing information and commenting on it); Brytan [Mastiff] (polemicist, attacks journalists, corrects information); Zderzak [Bumper] (guards access to the boss, appears in crisis situations); Cenzor [Censor] (only he/she gives information on behalf of the organisation); Organizator [Organiser]

(model logistician); Kompan [Companion] (befriends journalists, maintains informal contacts); Owczarek [Sheepdog] (plays on two fronts – flatters journalists and at the same time informally criticises his/her bosses); Sztabowiec [Staff Officer] (background spokesperson, good organiser, influences the boss and his decisions);

and Spowiednik [Confessor] (improves his/her boss) – this is Jarosław

31 K. Gajdka, Rzecznik prasowy w otoczeniu mediów. Teoria i praktyka [The spokesperson in the media environment. Theory and practice], Towarzystwo Autorów i Wydawców Prac Naukowych UNIVERSITAS, Cracow 2012.

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29 Flis’s categorisation. Andrzej Drzycimski gives a categorisation of the spokespersons of the Polish Presidents: Informator [Informer]

(fulfils the information mission in the most important state matters);

Mediator [Mediator] (fulfils the role of an intermediary and mediator, presenting the arguments of various sides while retaining his/

her freedom and dignity); Manipulator [Manipulator] (protects the boss, resorts to half-truths or even lies); Świadek [Witness]

(witness of history, interpreter of events). Bogusław Feliszek gives a categorisation according to the degree of competence and usefulness of the spokesperson’s work to the media: Papierowy [Paper]; Drewniany [Wooden]; Porcelanowy [Porcelain]; Srebrny [Silver]; Perłowy [Pearl]; Złoty [Golden]; and Diamentowy [Diamond].

Krzysztof Gajdka’s own typology is as follows: Antyrzecznik [Anti- spokesperson] (lacks competence and concentrates on writing corrections and polemics); Rzecznik reaktywny [Reactive] (becomes active only when receiving questions from journalists); Rzecznik minimalista [Minimalist] (does what he/she is supposed to do to a minimal degree); Rzecznik odpowiedzialny [Responsible] (creative, displays his/her own initiative in cooperating with the media, maintains constant relations); Rzecznik proaktywny [Proactive] (is creative and active, just like Odpowiedzialny [Responsible], and is also the co-author of the organisation’s image structure); Rzecznik partner [Partner] (has the features and competence of Proaktywny [Proactive] and is also a member of the organisation’s management or is the boss’s trusted advisor, knows the principles of diplomacy, becomes the “brand ambassador” for the organisation)³².

All of these roles can be gathered into three main attitudes towards journalists and the organisation: Rzecznik komunikator [Communicator], a kind of “traffic director” who establishes who gives information, agrees on dates, monitors authorisation, passes on contacts, is “behind the boss and the management” but arranges

32 Ibid., pp. 43–49.

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their presence in the media; Rzecznik ekspert [Expert] who often appears in the media on the front pages, particularly in promotional circumstances, represents the organisation on the radio and on TV, appears in live programmes; Rzecznik bufor [Buffer] who is in the firing line in crisis and conflict situations and reins in the impetus of the media³³. There is no universal role suitable for every situation. Each role can be successful depending on the time, place and circumstances – all must, therefore, be used. The role of the buffer spokesperson works in crisis situations – the crisis has to have the spokesperson’s face so that successes can have the bosses’ faces.

The role of the communicator is essential in the realisation of the permanent strategy of the organisation’s presence in the media – it facilitates contacts with experts commenting on current events, helps establishing permanent relations, is an element of controlling the organisation’s management presence in the media and allows for obtaining expert opinions, thus building the organisation’s opinion- forming image. The role of the expert becomes significant in everyday relations with journalists (there is not always time to reach the experts and not everyone wants to or should speak directly to the media) – this is also an element of managing the organisation’s media presence³⁴.

When summarising the role of the spokesperson, it is worth noticing the strategies which have been adopted by spokespersons in Poland when dealing with the media and their organisations and which have arisen from observations over the last twenty years, i.e. since the time of the systemic transformation. There are thirty such strategies, all with their own advantages and disadvantages.

They were gathered by Krzysztof Gajdka, who included in his considerations journalists, PR people and spokespersons as well as future practitioners of these professions. These are rather extreme

33 B. Czechowska-Derkacz’s own typology.

34 Cf. Rzecznik prasowy… [The spokesperson…], B. Czechowska-Derkacz, M. Zimnak (eds.), op. cit., p. 41.

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31 attitudes, but they indicate the problems faced by spokespersons if they do not gain the necessary competencies to perform their function and if they do not work out the optimal style of working with journalists. These strategies are as follows: Mentor [Mentor];

Dementor, [Denier] Panegirysta [Panegyrist]; Sługa dwóch panów [Servant of two masters]; Protegowany [Protégé]; Nieobecny [Absent]; Oddelegowany [Delegated]; Cerber [Cerberus]; Urzędnik [Clerk]; Luzak [Laidback]; Lojalista [Loyalist]; Gospodarz [Host];

Niespełniony dziennikarz [Unfulfilled journalist]; Dżentelmen [Gentleman]; Wykładowca [Lecturer]; Eliminator [Eliminator];

Arogant [Arrogant]; Narcyz [Narcissus]; Spoufalony [Fraterniser];

Adiutant [Adjutant]; Faworyzowany [Favoured]; Komunikatywny inaczej [Communicatively challenged]; Powiernik [Confidant];

Zagończyk [Advanced guard]; Reżyser pseudoeventów; [Pseudo-event director] Miss/Mister [Miss/Mister]; Dowódca kontrataku [Counter- attack leader]; Adwokat [Advocate]; Funkcjonariusz [Functionary];

Ekspert [Expert]³⁵. Based on the above, one can compile a sizeable catalogue of the most frequent spokesperson errors, such as a clerical attitude, unavailability and lack of flexibility, no knowledge of the organisation’s structure and specificity, ignorance of the trade field in which the organisation operates, instructing and “educating”

journalists, concentrating on polemics and corrections, seeking conspiracy theories in every critical opinion and item of information, panegyrics to the bosses, political commitment, blocking access to the bosses, censoring all statements by the organisation’s representatives, lack of loyalty towards the organisation, arrogance and lack of good manners, lack of self-restraint and allowing emotions to rule, advertising instead of propagating a positive image of the organisation, and manipulating information.

Irrespective of the choice of role or attitude in working with journalists, spokespersons must have a critical attitude towards

35 K. Gajdka, op. cit., pp. 189–271.

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their organisation. No one else can effectively show the bosses the faults in its functioning. Such an attitude gives a chance for change, requires courage (because some bosses will not want to hear that they are not infallible) and professionalism, which in this case means differentiating between one’s professional tasks and a positive identification with the organisation, and empty panegyrics and heated discussions.

Researchers and practitioners, both spokespersons and journalists, indicate the characteristics and skills that PR specialists should possess. Among them the following can be distinguished: an above- average ability to establish and maintain contacts with people, which translates into communication skills; a natural and unassuming way of behaving that inspires confidence and translates into an ability to address the public; a correct way of using language; clear and simple ways of expression; the ability to explain difficult issues in a simple way; creativity; inventiveness; a non-standard way of thinking;

imagination; the ability to think long-term and creatively – planning;

analysing; researching; the ability to notice new phenomena and trends; commitment; using one’s own initiative; social motivation;

organisational abilities; tact and discretion; physical and mental endurance, which translates into being able to work under time pressure; control of one’s emotions; quick reactions; distance to oneself; a sense of humour; perceptiveness; inquisitiveness; the ability to think critically; a positive attitude towards work and people;

optimism; regularity and accuracy at work; the desire to constantly improve one’s qualifications and education.

Almost all of these characteristics can also refer to spokespersons.

Although some skills, including (despite general opinion) communication skills and those connected with resistance to stress, can be acquired and trained, while other personality features, such as ease of communicating with people or openness, are a natural gift, which help greatly in the work of a spokesperson. Some of them are even a necessary condition for the work effectiveness of

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33 spokespersons. Persons who cannot relate to other people or cannot work under the pressure of time and tasks will certainly not be able to cope with the work of a spokesperson or at least will not be effective in such a function.

the perSpectIve of the medIA And the orgAnISAtIon – between expectAtIonS And poSSIbIlItIeS

Expectations, those of the media and organisations, towards spokespersons are very high. Information efficiency, supplying interesting content, knowledge of the trade and the institution, the ability to appear in the media, professionalism of activity, full availability, enabling contacts with management, the authorities and experts, help with understanding the activities and principles functioning within the institution – these are the expectations most often articulated by journalists towards spokespersons. Initiating and maintaining positive relations with the media, creating and professionally managing press office activities, the ability to create the desired image of the organisation and its authorities in the media, managing internal and external information, solving communication crises, the ability to realise image strategies, cooperation with groups in the environment, monitoring information in the media – these in turn are the most often found expectations expressed by institutions and companies.

The perspective of reconciling these expectations in practice often involves a contradiction. An example could be the anti-ranking of spokespersons prepared by the “Press” monthly (journalists assess the work of spokespersons). The most common accusations against spokespersons include the lack of availability, blocking information or access to management, ignorance and arrogance, lack of activity.

Those things which are indicated by journalists as the main faults of spokespersons often constitute assets from the point of view

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of the organisation’s interests, such as defending the image of the management during a media crisis, managing the presence of the organisation in the media (it is the spokesperson who manages this, not the journalists), avoiding stereotypical attitudes to problems and phenomena, making catchy commentaries, exploiting promotional opportunities to appear in the media, propagating positive messages, praising own successes, assertiveness, self-confidence, and finally, such organisation of work in order to avoid 24/7 availability for journalists.

Research shows that radio and television stations and online services that operate 24/7 have a problem with filling their time with content and editors often create their own news and information. The phenomenon of “cannibalisation” is becoming more common in the media – feeding off the same information and occupying their minds with the media in the media. The work rhythm in an organisation is different – it involves designing, planning, implementation, working stage-by-stage in defined time periods, etc. 24/7 availability of the spokesperson is neither necessary nor desirable. What is necessary is good work organisation so that information can be transmitted to the media efficiently. However, should all information be made available? How can the image of the organisation be managed (which is the foremost expectation of the authorities of the organisation as far as the spokesperson is concerned) without propagating the strategy for its development, underlining the most important areas that we want the organisation to be associated with?

In the cooperation between the media and spokespersons, the mutual lack of confidence, manifested in the conviction about the use of manipulation, is an obvious hindrance. In the aforementioned research on the relations between journalists and spokespersons in the Silesian Voivodeship, journalists, when asked whether in their opinion spokespersons attempt to manipulate in their contacts with the media, the majority (50.9%) replied that they sometimes do so, often – 21.3%, rarely – 23.1% and never – 0.9%. In turn, more than half of the surveyed spokespersons, when asked if and how often they

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35 had encountered attempts of manipulation by journalists, replied:

sometimes – 51%, often – 12.7%, very often – 4.5%, rarely – 26.4%, never – only 5.4%³⁶. The belief that spokespersons manipulate is therefore shared by 95.3% of the surreyed journalists³⁷, while over 68%

of the spokespersons think that journalists attempt to manipulate³⁸. This constitutes a real problem and requires a search for a model of mutual relations. It also gives researchers a broad area for analysing media and public relations. It is worth, however, looking at this from both perspectives – of the organisation and the media. In particular, the role of the spokesperson is usually described from the point of view of benefits to the media. This is how media training for spokespersons and research on the mutual relations are orientated.

The media perspective is important because the spokesperson establishes media relations through cooperation with journalists.

However, the perception, of the role of a spokesperson exclusively as a service to the media is erroneous. The spokesperson represents the organisation and the task is to communicate with the environment through mediators, i.e. the media, in order to inform about the most

36 K. Dudek, op. cit., p. 162.

37 Ibid., p. 239.

38 It must be mentioned here that research studies on the relations between PR and the media have already been conducted. Cf.: S. Gawroński, Media relations.

Współpraca dziennikarzy i specjalistów PR [Media relations. Cooperation between journalists and PR specialists], Rzeszów 2006; S. Gawroński, Media relations służb mundurowych w Polsce. Analiza wybranych formacji [Media relations in the uniformed services in Poland. An analysis of selected formations], Cracow- Rzeszów-Zamość 2011; A. Krawczyk, Rzecznicy prasowi jako element procesu komunikacji społecznej urzędów, instytucji publicznych oraz firm komercyjnych [in:]

Media i komunikowanie masowe w społeczeństwie demokratycznym [Spokespersons as an element in the process of social communication in offices, public institutions and commercial firms (in:) The media and mass communication in a democratic society], S. Michalczyk (ed.), Sosnowiec 2006.

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important tasks/intentions/successes of the organisation and, in the longer term, to create and maintain the organisation’s positive image.

SummAry

This article (like the monograph on which it is based³⁹) is the result of a surprising observation. While the literature concerning public relations is very extensive (from valuable publications to stereotypical advice), there are not many publications concerning the narrower specialisation of the spokesperson. The quality of public discourse in the era of the universal mediatisation of all spheres of public life has become dependent on professional communicators, which also include spokespersons. It is their professionalism and responsibility that condition the participation of public opinion in the functioning of an organisation – equally in state institutions, non-governmental organisations and in private enterprises, and the understanding of their significance – local, regional as well as global. This determines the necessity for analysing the model of spokespersonship, deepened by theoretical and practical reflection. The main thesis, ensuing from the many years of experience and research conducted by the author⁴⁰, is the statement that the performance of the spokesperson’s tasks is a constant movement “between”. Between work for the organisation and a social mission, between the attractiveness and accuracy

39 Rzecznik prasowy… [The spokesperson…], B. Czechowska-Derkacz, M. Zimnak (eds.), op. cit.

40 The author was a journalist for many years and for the last thirteen years has been the spokesperson for the University of Gdańsk. She is active in the Association of PR and Promotion of Polish Universities “PRom“, which is the biggest trade association for spokespersons and the employees of promotion departments of universities. This gives her the possibility to gain additional experience. As an assistant professor at the Institute of Philosophy, Sociology and Journalism, she conducts research on the role of the spokesperson in organisations as well as media and image strategies.

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37 of the transmitted information, between the expectations of the media as well as employers and the possibilities of action. Based on this, good professional practices and a professional model for the performance of this profession can be developed. A spokesperson with many decades of experience in one organisation is still an exception, although such cases do occur. Employment for over a dozen of years in one organisation has ceased to be a rarity. What does professionalism mean, however, in relation to a spokesperson’s activities? Is it moving efficiently between theory and practice, remaining a good craftsperson, or an authority or expert? This article does not exhaust the multi-aspect role of the spokesperson in an organisation. It is merely a contribution to the discussion on the subject of the significance of professional communicators in building social relations through the mediation of the media.

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38

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Scene 2.