Experiences in Defense Preparations of Selected Countries

Bernard Wiśniewski

Experiences in Defense Preparations

of Selected Countries

Security Dimensions and Socio-Legal Studies nr 9, 61-73

2013

Bernard Wiśniewski

Experiences in Defense Preparations of Selected Countries

Abstract:

The paper compares defense preparations o f selected countries:

Germany, Finland, the United Kingdom and Sweden. While discussing the

differences, the author also points out the underlying, common basis for

various administrative and legal solutions applied by the states: the need

for ensuring the security of the population and the continued operation of

the multi-level government apparatus.

Key words: defense preparations, international relations, security, admi­

nistration

In order to lay the foundations for deliberations on the subject mat­

ter, it is necessary to define the concept o f “defense preparations.”

According to Mały słownik języka polskiego, ‘essence’ is the “true,

actual side, aspect of something; the fixed order o f something, the crux

of the matter.”1 The word ‘preparations’ refers to “actions, efforts made

in view of something that is to happen.”2 The word ‘defensive’ means

something that ‘defends against something.’3 Whereas ‘defense’ is ‘repul­

sing an attack, usually armed, safeguarding from danger, destruction”4 and

“defending oneself.”5 The Polish word for defense, ‘obrona’, is directly

connected to fighting. “It is etymologically identical to it. According to

A. Brückner, ‘obrona’ (‘defense’) derives from ‘borń’ (bornis) and the 1

2

3

4

5

1

Mały słownikjęzykapolskiego, W. Doroszewski (ed.), PWN, Warszawa 1999, p. 271.

2

See: ibidem, p. 749.

3

Ibidem, p. 527.

4

Ibidem.

5

Słownikpoprawnejpolszczyzny, PWN, Warszawa 1999, p. 543.

common root bor- which means: ‘to fight, strike, struggle.’ In Slavic lan­

guages it also meant ‘quarrel’ (bornis), ‘palisade surrounding a stronghold’

(Rus. zaboralo), and even ‘to hit’ (borjan, bora, bor).”6

Defense preparations comprise a complex process aimed at creat­

ing conditions to counteract something which is difficult, or even impossi­

ble to accurately define. They are also characterized by another important

trait: their quality is only measurable during hostilities. No one can afford

to employ this method. Therefore in that regard a country must draw from

the practice of other states, as well as from its own experiences, especially

relatively recent ones when the state’s preparedness for war was tested.

From the point of view of the subject matter, what is relevant is not the

operation of armed forces but the way the state as a whole functions and

the relationships between organizational assumptions and the effects of

their applications.

The dynamics in the area of threat requires studies, for scientific

cognition will allow for setting a proper direction of the necessary changes

in the field o f defense preparations and those changes that stem from the

environment. Identifying defense preparations solely with the military

sphere does not stand to the test o f time. This approach entails a one-sided

perception of the so-called “defense preparations o f the state” : “It is impos­

sible to separate military threats from non-military ones, mainly because

they occur simultaneously, they supplement one another, and oftentimes

the former cause the latter.”7 The results o f these threats affect not only the

civil population, but also the structures of government, administration and

the territory.

All those components are included in defense preparations, which

are usually undertaken by either the government or by administration. The

presentation of defense preparations of selected countries is based on the

6 A. Skrabacz, Samoobrona powszechna, [in:] Obrona cywilna (niemilitarna) w obronie

narodowej IIIR P, W. Kitler (ed.), AON, Warszawa 2001, p. 222.

7 W. Kitler, Zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa narodowego, [in:] Obrona cywilna (niemilitarna)

w obronie narodowej, op. cit., p. 27.

results of the study o f emergency management, conducted by the author

for eight years. During the study, the issue of defense preparations seemed

to surface spontaneously. The author believes that the experiences relayed

below are most interesting from the point of view of competences. These

are the solutions employed in Germany, Finland, the United Kingdom and

Sweden.

Germany is a federal republic consisting o f sixteen regional states,

which have a high degree o f autonomy.8 As it is in every federal country,

Germany has three public administrations: federal, union, and local go­

vernment.9

Germany’s defense preparations comprise all the necessary con­

stitutional aspects of the defense of the state: political, military and civil

undertakings concerning the nation and allied states.

In the sphere of defense preparations, the most important parts are

played by: federal president, federal chancellor, federal government, Fe­

deral Security Council.

“Federal Security Council is an inter-department committee of the

federal government, operating under the chancellor. The members of the

council include the ministers of: defense, foreign affairs, internal affairs,

justice, finances and economy. Besides other ministers, the parties involved

in the works of the Council may include: the chief o f the President’s Of­

fice, the chief of the Chancellery, the chief o f the Press and Information

Office, the general inspector of the Bundeswehr, the representative of the

government for disarmament and arms control, chief of the secretariat and

chief of protocol in the Chancellery, chief of the Chancellor’s Bureau and

a constant representative of the FRG at NATO. Federal Security Coun­

c il... considers questions of security and coordinates the operation o f all

federal ministries in the field of common defense, decides on matters of

military policy and the state’s military preparations, as well as sets the ge- 8

9

8

Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna, t. IV, PWN, Warszawa 1995, p. 457.

9

More: A. Borodo, Samorząd terytorialny. System prawnofinansowy, PWN, Warszawa 2000, p. 15.

neral guidelines of internal security, provided these issues do not fall onto

the government. The Council is serviced by the Chancellery that, on behalf

of the Chancellor, coordinates the issues of internal security... protect­

ing the population, [organizing] civil defense, and, to an extent, economic

defense.”10

In wartime, the federal chancellor assumes the role of commander-

in-chief and head of civil defense. At the same time, federal government

defines the policy in the field of defense and realizes its constitutional tasks

which do not fall within the gestion of Federal Security Council (legisla­

tion, foreign policy, international agreements, directives in the national

dimension).11

The civil component of Germany’s defensive system, as part of de­

fense preparations, undertakes actions of civil defense regarding expected

operations during external threat to the security of the state and war. “It

consists in preparations for:

-

maintaining the continuity of the functions of the state and admi­

nistration (legislation, legal care, functions of the state and admi­

nistration, security and public order, public relations.) Colloquially

this undertaking is known as »defending constitutional order «;

-

defending the population - civil defense (self-defense, warning ser­

vice, building defensive objects, evacuation, health care, defense

of cultural property, extended protection in cases of catastrophes);

-

delivering commodities and services - supplying the society with

essential commodities and services (commodities and services in

agriculture, forestry, food economy; in small-scale commodity

economy; delivery o f power and water, sewage disposal; safe­

guarding postal services and communication; safeguarding work 1

0

1

1

10

W. Kitler, Zadania administracji publicznej z zakresu obrony narodowej wybranych

państw europejskich, [in:] Administracja publiczna a bezpieczeństwo państwa, Z. Pią­

tek, B. Wiśniewski, A. Osierda (ed.), Wyższa Szkoła Administracji, Bielsko-Biała 2007, p. 163.

11

See: ibidem.

64

efficiency; social insurance; financial and monetary insurance);

-

supporting armed forces (of the state and its allies) - delivery of

foodstuffs, power, supplementing and delivering means and trans­

port services, communication services, preparing workforce, resto­

ration services, securing road passage.”12

Finland is a republic with a three-level system o f government.13 On

the central level, the executive power is held by the government, consistent

of the president, State Council and the prime minister’s cabinet. As far as

the organization of institutional administration goes, the solutions applied

in Finland are influenced by Sweden, because “until 1809, it was a part

of Sweden, and after it came under the rule of tsarist Russia, as Grand

Duchy of Finland, the old Swedish law was kept...”14 In the context of

these deliberations, we should note that the president has the decisive role

in matters o f foreign policy and defense. Moreover, he or she serves as

commander-in-chief and appoints the government, upon agreement from

the parliament and high officials.

“Regional administration is divided into provincial and state ad­

ministrative districts. As a result of the reform o f 1996, Finland was di­

vided into five big provinces and the Aland Islands which constitute an

autonomous region. On the provincial level, executive power is held by

the administration of a local government, that is a provincial government

with its own administration, selected by civic centers; and by governmen­

tal administration that manages the ninety state administrative districts,

which comprise, e.g., units of the police. Local government, consisting

in 452 civic centers, is responsible for education, municipal service and

health care.

12 W. Kitler, Obrona narodowa w wybranych państwach demokratycznych, AON, War­ szawa 2001, p. 146.

13 NowaEncyklopediaPowszechna, op. cit., p. 363.

14 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracja publiczna. Zagadnienia ogólne, Liber, War­ szawa 2004, p. 52.

The highest executive power on the local level is held by the mu­

nicipal committee elected by the city council.”15

Finland’s defense preparations, like their Swedish counterparts, are

based on the concept of total defense. The Council of Defense is the body re­

sponsible for their coordination. It consists in: ministers directing departments

of top importance for the security of the state; Chief of Defense; and Chief of

Staff of Defense. “In order to ensure the cooperation between relatively inde­

pendent ministries, within each of them a Director of Preparedness is appoint­

ed, whose job is to prepare a plan of reaction in emergency situations, detail­

ing the competencies and responsibilities of particular offices and to maintain

a proper level of readiness of any given office to react is such situations, as

well as to ensure cooperation between various offices in this field. Main secre­

taries of particular ministries serve as Directors of Preparedness. Secretary-in­

Chief of the Prime Minister Office is the head of the Chiefs of Preparedness,

and the Prime Minister’s Office coordinates the process of planning in cases

of special threats and defines such other undertakings that are not included

in the legal system and are necessary under states of emergency. Moreover,

within a few branches of the administration there are advisory and coordina-

tive committees, like the National Board of Economic Defense) and Planning

Commission for Defense Information.”16 On the regional level, defense prepa­

rations are coordinated by provincial governments. Whereas on the local level

the responsibility for actions in this field falls to the appropriate mayor.

Defense preparations o f public administration in Finland comprise:

issues o f ensuring the survival of the nation and support of the armed for­

ces in situations of external threat to the state and war.

The United Kingdom17 is a hereditary constitutional monarchy. The

Queen is the head of state, commander-in-chief and the head of the An- 1

5 16 17

15

W. Kitler, J. Prońko, B. Wisniewski, Zarządzanie kryzysowe w wybranych państwach, [in:] Administracjapubliczna a bezpieczeństwopaństwa, op. cit., p. 96.

16

Ibidem, p. 97.

17

Based upon: W. Kitler, B. Wisniewski, J. Prońko, Problemy zarządzania kryzysowego

w państwie. Studium, AON, Warszawa 2000, p. 87-89; and the presentation of the British

delegate Peter Tallentire in PCM-95 (NATO-Brussels) on 25th October 1995.

66

g lic a n C h u rc h . T h e B ritis h p a rlia m e n t is c o m p r is e d o f th e H o u se o f C o m ­ m o n s a n d H o u se o f L o rd s. T h e U n ite d K in g d o m c o n s is ts o f fo u r c o u n trie s , re s p e c tiv e ly d iv id e d into:

- E n g la n d : 9 re g io n s , 4 6 c o u n tie s (in c lu d in g 7 m e tro p o lita n c o u n tie s); - S c o tla n d : 12 re g io n s , 32 a d m in is tra tiv e u n its (c a lle d c o u n tie s ); - W ales: 3 c itie s , 9 c o u n tie s, 10 m u n ic ip a l c o u n tie s;

- N o rth e r n Ire la n d : 2 6 d istric ts .

In th e s y s te m o f p o w e r th e p rim e m in is te r p la y s th e u n q u e s tio n e d le a d in g ro le . H e o r sh e is a ls o th e M in is te r o f C iv il S e rv ic e .18 F ro m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e s e d e lib e ra tio n s , w e s h o u ld n o te th a t b e g in n in g in 1988, th e re f o rm s in tro d u c e d b y M a r g a re t T h a tc h e r h a v e p ro v e d re le v a n t, w h ic h “ c o n s is t in s e p a ra tin g fro m th e m in is trie s [th o se ] g o v e rn m e n t a g e n ­ c ie s [th a t w e re ] s u b je c t to th e m , a p p o in te d to d e a l w ith p re c is e ly d e fin e d c iv il is s u e s a n d m a n a g e d w ith a d e g re e o f fin a n c ia l in d e p e n d e n c e .” 19

“ T h e U n ite d K in g d o m is a sta te in w h ic h o b s e rv in g c e rta in le a d ­ in g ru le s is o b lig a to ry , ru le s th a t are in fo rc e w h e n se rv in g m a n a g e m e n t fu n c tio n s, in c lu d in g d u rin g e m e rg e n c y situ a tio n s. T h e first s u c h ru le is th e c o lle c tiv e re s p o n s ib ility fo r a n y d e c is io n s m a d e , a n d th e r e q u ire m e n t o f d e fe n d in g a n y d e c is io n th a t w a s m a d e . A n o th e r ru le is p o litic a l c o n tro l, c o n d u c te d c o n tin u a lly a n d o n a ll le v e l s ... C o o rd in a tio n is y e t a n o th e r ru le. I t e s s e n tia lly re q u ire s re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f th e s ta te to a s s u m e th e sa m e p o s i­ tio n s , in c e rta in s itu a tio n s, in v a rio u s fo rm s o f a c tiv ity in a n in te rn a tio n a l fo ru m (w ith in s u c h in s titu tio n s a s U N , N A T O , E U , W E U , etc.). I t c a lls fo r re a liz in g v a rio u s ta s k s in th e fie ld o f c o o rd in a tio n o f a c tiv itie s (c o n ­ su ltin g , e x p la in in g ) b e tw e e n th e re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f th e sta te a n d v a rio u s o rg a n iz a tio n s o n d if fe re n t le v e ls o f th e g o v e rn m e n t m a c h in e . F le x ib ility is a ru le th a t d e m a n d s th e a d ju s tin g m e a s u re s o f re a c tio n to m a tc h v a rie d 18 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracjapubliczna..., op. cit., p. 33.

19 Ibidem.

circumstances...”20 Units participating in the United Kingdom’s defense

preparations are:21

-

Foreign Affairs and the Commonwealth Office, responsible for

shaping the policy o f cooperation o f the state with other countries;

-

Ministry of Defence, responsible for armed forces and defense

policy;

-

The Cabinet, responsible for coordinating the policy of the govern­

ment and three subcommittees:

•

Defence and Overseas Secretariat, responsible for publish­

ing and comprehensively relaying decisions to proper imple­

ments;

•

The Joint Intelligence Committee, responsible for coordinating

the activities of intelligence agencies;

•

Civil Contingencies Unit, responsible for directing and coor­

dinating the activities of specialized rescue services (concerns

industrial accidents, floods, fires, etc.).

During the first Gulf War, besides permanent institutions for emer­

gency management, others were appointed, the most important o f which

was the Defence and Overseas Policy Committee. During this crisis var­

ious crisis centers were established, e.g. the Joint Operations Centre of the

Ministry of Defence (charged with informing military and civil employees

of the current situation), Department for Dangerous Situations of Foreign

Affairs and the Commonwealth Office (charged with coordinating diplo­

matic activities), Centre for Activities in Dangerous Situations (overseeing

the activities of particular departments).22 2

0

2

1

2

2

20

W. Kitler, B. Wiśniewski, J. Prońko, Problemy zarządzania kryzyso w eg o ., op. cit., p. 88.

21

See: ibidem.

22

Ibidem.

68

W e s h o u ld a ls o n o te th a t th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d so lu tio n s w e re s u p ­ p le m e n te d b y th e a c tiv itie s o f B ritis h c iv il d e fe n s e , w h o s e re s p o n s ib ilitie s in c lu d e e n s u rin g th e n e c e s s a ry c o n d itio n s fo r m a in ta in in g th e c o n tin u ity o f o p e ra tio n o f a u th o ritie s a n d a d m in is tra tio n , s a f e g u a rd in g th e e ffe c tiv e fu n c tio n in g o f th e e c o n o m y , d e fe n d in g c ru c ia l o b je c ts a n d d e v ic e s, p e r ­ fo rm in g ta s k s p e rta in in g to th e p ro te c tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n a n d g a th e rin g s u p p lie s .23

In lig h t o f th e a n a ly s is o f th e a v a ila b le lite ra tu re , it is e v id e n t th a t th e o b je c tiv e sc o p e o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m ’s d e fe n s e p re p a r a tio n s d o e s n o t d iv e rg e fro m th o s e d is c u s s e d b e fo re .

S w e d e n 24 is a c o n s titu tio n a l m o n a r c h y w h o s e c o n s titu tio n is n o t a sin g le le g a l a c t as it c o m p r is e s fo u r d o c u m e n ts: th e In s tru m e n t o f G o ­ v e rn m e n t, F re e d o m o f th e P re s s A c t, th e A c t o f S u c c e ss io n , a n d th e F u n ­ d a m e n ta l L a w o n F re e d o m o f E x p re ss io n .

In S w e d e n , e x e c u tiv e p o w e r is w ie ld e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t. P u b lic a d m in is tra tio n in S w e d e n is c h a ra c te riz e d b y o rig in a lity . “A s fa r as c e n tra l a d m in is tra tio n g o e s, th e m a in fe a tu re o f th e S w e d is h m o d e l is th e s e p a r a ­ tio n o f th e g o v e rn m e n t fro m c e n tra l a d m in is tr a tio n ... T h is se p a ra tio n r e ­ s u l t s ... in th e s c a n tin e s s o f th e m in is try a p p a ra tu s , a s w e ll as th e fo c u s o n le g is la tio n in th e o p e ra tio n o f th e m in is trie s - th e y c o n c e n tra te o n d ra ftin g b ills a n d a d m in is tra tiv e a c t s . A n o th e r S w e d ish tr a d itio n is th e w id e ra n g e o f c o lle g ia lly m a d e d e c is io n s .” 25

S w e d e n a d h e re d to th e c o n c e p t o f to ta l d e fe n s e , w h ic h e s s e n tia lly m e a n s th e c o o rd in a tio n a n d c o o p e ra tio n b e tw e e n c iv il a n d m ilita r y r e s o u r­ c e s, e n a b lin g th e in c r e a s e d e ffic ie n c y a n d th e d e fe n s iv e n e s s o f th e c o u n try in a b r o a d se n s e o f th e te rm . “A c c o rd in g to th e in te n t o f b ill o f T o ta l D e- 23 24 25 23 More: Obrona Cywilna Wielkiej Brytanii, [in:] Informator o obronie i ochronie cy­

wilnej niektórych państw europejskich, Urząd Szefa Obrony Cywilnej Kraju, Warszawa

1997, poz. 15.

24 The part o f this paper concernign Sweden does not include the changes in Swedish de­ fense system which came into force in 2009. This was done deliberately for comparison and research purposes.

25 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracjapubliczna..., op. cit., p. 52-53.

fe n se , a m e n d e d in 1996, th e c ru c ia l is su e s o f th e n e w a p p ro a c h to w a rd th is fie ld are: re a ffirm in g th e ru le o f a c tio n o f c o m b in in g c iv il (n o n -m ilita ry ) d e fe n s e w ith m ilita r y d e fe n s e (c o n tra ry to c o m m o n ly m a in ta in e d , e rr o ­ n e o u s o p in io n o f th e ir se p a ra tio n ); e n s u rin g a q u ic k a d a p ta b ility o f to ta l d e fe n s e to th e c h a n g in g th r e a ts to se c u rity ; a n e w a n d e x te n d e d d e fin itio n o f se c u rity , in c lu d in g d a n g e ro u s th r e a ts in th e tim e o f p e a c e a n d a g re a te r a tte n tio n to in te rn a tio n a l th r e a ts .” 26

T h e a b o v e m e n tio n e d d o c u m e n t d e fin e d th e m a in ta s k o f to ta l d e ­ fe n se , th a t is o p p o s in g a rm e d a g g re s s io n w h ic h w a s a s s e s s e d to b e th e b ig g e s t th r e a t to S w e d is h secu rity . I t is n o ta b le th a t in S w e d e n d e fe n s e (a n d n o t n a tio n a l d e fe n s e ) w a s v ie w e d in a w a y s im ila r to P o lish , th a t is, a s d e fe n s e a g a in s t a rm e d a g g re s s io n , m a in ta in in g in d e p e n d e n c e a n d n e u ­ tra lity , e n s u rin g p o litic a l stab ility , p ro te c tio n fro m c o n flic ts a n d p re v e n tin g th e m , p ro m o tin g p e a c e a n d h u m a n ita r ia n h e lp , p a rtic ip a tin g in th e in te rn a ­ tio n a l c o o p e ra tio n in th e fie ld o f s e c u r ity (in c lu d in g d e fe n s e ), p ro m o tin g th e a b ilitie s a n d p re p a ra tio n s to c o u n te r a c t v a rio u s th r e a ts a n d w a r a m o n g th e s o c ie ty (in c lu d in g e x te rn a l th r e a ts to th e s ta te ’s se c u rity ). W h a t sh o u ld b e u n d e rlin e d is th e e m p h a s is o n o b je c tiv e s re la tin g to s e c u rity o f p e o p le a n d c itiz e n s in a ll c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d s ta te s o f o p e ra tio n s o f th e co u n try . T h e se in c lu d e d , a m o n g o th e rs , p ro te c tin g c iv il p o p u la tio n fro m th e re s u lts o f m ilita r y a c tio n s, s a fe g u a rd in g su p p lie s (c o m m o d itie s n e c e s s a ry fo r th e s u rv iv a l o f th e p o p u la tio n ), a n d s u p p o r tin g h u m a n ita r ia n m issio n s. U n ­ d o u b te d ly , h o w e v e r, a “ s t i f f ’ p e rs p e c tiv e o n th e s ta te ’s d e fe n s e a n d o n b u ild in g a d e fe n s iv e s y s te m s tric tly in m ilita r y a sp e c ts w a s a lr e a d y g r a d u ­ a lly fa d in g fo r a fe w y e a rs . I t w a s e v id e n c e d , a m o n g o th e rs , b y d o c u m e n ts is s u e d b y th e S w e d is h A g e n c y fo r C iv il E m e rg e n c y P la n n in g .27

In S w e d e n ’s d e fe n s e p re p a ra tio n s , a p a rtic u la r ro le w a s p la y e d b y d e fin e d c o o rd in a tio n b a s e d o n s tric t ru le s, th e m o s t im p o rta n t o f w h ic h 26 W. Kitler, J. Prońko, В. Wiśniewski, Zarządzanie kryzysowe w wybranych..., op. cit., p. 78 and next.

27 Robustness in the physical environment, The Swedish Agency for Civil Emergency Planning, Stockholm 1999, p. 9.

re s u lte d fro m “th e p re p a r e d n e s s o f th e sta te a n d th e e n tire s o c ie ty to e f­ fic ie n tly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly u s e a ll re s o u rc e s in o rd e r to m a in ta in in d e p e n ­ d e n c e a n d m in im a liz e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f w ar. T h e re fo re w a r is c o n s i­ d e re d to b e a s p e c ia l k in d o f c h a lle n g e , d e fin in g th e a b ility to k e e p n a tio n a l a c tiv ity , fo r in a tim e lik e th a t a ll s u b je c ts o f th e sta te (re g a rd le s s o f th e ir le g a l s ta tu s) c o o p e ra te to e n su re th e s u rv iv a l o f th e so ciety . A ls o in a tim e lik e th a t o n e o f th e m o s t fu n d a m e n ta l o b je c tiv e s o f c iv il activ ity , th a t is th e s u p p o r t fo r a rm e d fo rc e s, g a in s p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e .” 28 T h e M in is try o f D e fe n c e r e m a in e d th e k ey , c e n tr a l o ffice o f th e sta te , b o th fo r m ilita r y a n d c iv il d e fe n s e . It w a s d iv id e d in to th re e fu n d a m e n ta l e le m e n ts : D e p a rt­ m e n t fo r C iv il A ffa irs, D e p a rtm e n t fo r M ilita ry A ffa irs a n d D e p a rtm e n t fo r S e c u rity a n d In te rn a tio n a l A ffa irs .29 O n th e c e n tra l le v e l, s itu a te d lo w e r in th e h ie r a rc h y th a n M in is try o f D e fe n c e , w e re : th e S w e d is h A g e n c y fo r C iv il E m e rg e n c y P la n n in g , a u th o ritie s re s p o n s ib le fo r c e rta in fu n c tio n s in th e c iv il sp h e re a n d c o m m a n d e r- in -c h ie f as w e ll a s th e s t a f f o f th e a rm e d fo rc e s in m ilita r y d e fe n s e 30 th a t w a s a im e d a t c o u n te ra c tin g c o n d itio n s o f e x te rn a l th r e a t to th e s ta te ’s s e c u rity a n d w ar. T h e h ig h e r re g io n a l le ­ v e l c o m p r is e d d ire c to rs o f re g io n s fo r c iv il d e fe n s e a n d c o m m a n d e rs o f c o m b in e d c o m m a n d s. O n th e lo w e r re g io n a l le v e l th e re s p o n s ib ility fe ll to g o v e rn o rs o f th e c o u n tie s (w h o re p r e s e n te d g o v e rn m e n t a d m in is tra tio n ), c o u n ty c o u n c ils (w h o re p r e s e n te d lo c a l g o v e rn m e n t) a n d c o m m a n d e rs o f d e fe n s e d is tric ts . T h e lo c a l le v e l c o n s is te d in c ity a n d c o m m u n a l e x e c u tiv e b o a rd s a s w e ll a s m ilita r y c o m m a n d e rs .

T h e fu n d a m e n ta l d u tie s o f th e c iv il c o m p o n e n t o f th e s ta te ’s d e ­ fe n s e p re p a r a tio n s in c lu d e ta s k s in:

- p ro te c tin g c iv il p o p u la tio n in tim e s o f w a r;

- e n s u rin g b a s ic c o m m o d itie s in s itu a tio n s o f e x te rn a l th r e a t to th e s e ­ c u rity o f th e sta te a n d w ar;

28 W. Kitler, Zadania administracji publicznej z zakresu obrony narodowej..., op. cit., p. 130.

29 Ibidem.

30 See: W. Kitler, Obrona narodowa w wybranych państwach demokratycznych, AON, W arszawa2001,p. 101-102.

- p ro te c tin g o b je c ts r e le v a n t to th e s ta te ’s se c u rity ; - e n s u rin g th e c o n tin u ity o f o p e ra tio n o f p u b lic se rv ic e s;

- s u p p o rtin g a rm e d fo rc e s d u rin g o p e ra tio n a l d e p lo y m e n t a n d h o s tili­ ties.

T o c o n c lu d e th e s e d e lib e ra tio n s , w e sh o u ld sta te th a t in th e m a n y v a rio u s , in d e p e n d e n t so lu tio n s re g a r d in g th e is s u e s o f d e fe n s e p r e p a r a ­ tio n s, th e re are n u m e r o u s s im ila ritie s. I t is n o te w o rth y th a t in fu lfillin g ta s k s in th e fie ld o f d e fe n s e p re p a ra tio n s , sp e c ific c o u n trie s m a in ta in th e ir in d iv id u a l c h a ra c te r th a t re s u lts fro m th e ir h isto ry , tra d itio n , g e o p o litic a l lo c a tio n , a d m in is tra tiv e d iv isio n . T h e se a n a lo g ie s c o n c e rn m a in ly th e fa c t th a t d e fe n s e p r e p a r a tio n s a re b a s e d o n c o m m o n ly a p p lic a b le la w o f th e h ig h e s t ra n k ; th a t p u b lic a d m in is tra tio n o p e ra te s w ith th e n o tio n o f e x e c u ­ tin g p o w e r in th e s ta te ’s in te re s t a n d in v ie w o f th e v a lu e s w h ic h are fu n d a ­ m e n ta l to th e sta te as a w h o le ; th a t re s p o n s ib ilitie s a n d c o m p e te n c e s o f o n a n y g iv e n le v e l o f a d m in is tra tio n are u n e q u iv o c a lly d e fin e d ; a n d th a t th e re are fo rm u la s fo r c o o p e ra tio n b e tw e e n p a rtic u la r b o d ie s o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d p u b lic a d m in is tra tio n .

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