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T H E LEM K O R E G IO N

IN T H E SE C O N D PO LISH REPUBLIC

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J A G I E L L O N I A N S T U D I E S I N H I S T O R Y

Editor in chief JanJacek Bruski

Vol. 2

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Ja ro sła w M oklak

TH E LEMKO REG IO N

IN TH E SECOND POLISH REPUBLIC

Political and Interdenominational Issues 1918-1939

Jagiellonian University Press

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The publication of this volum e was financed by the Jagiellonian University in Krakow - Faculty of History

REVIEWER

Paul J. Best, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus, President and CEO C arpathian Research Institute

SERIES COVER LAYOUT Jan Jacek Bruski

COVER DESIGN Agnieszka W inciorek

Cover photography: The celebration o f the Feast o f Jordan, Sanok, 1935. At the h ead of the procession, the Lemko apostolic adm inistrator, Fr. Vasyl M astsiukh [Courtesy of the N ational D igi­

tal Archives (Narodowe A rchiwum Cyfrowe) in Warsaw]

© Copyright by Jarosław Moklak & Jagiellonian University Press First edition, Kraków 2013

All rights reserved

Translated from th e Polish by Tim othy W illiams

No p art o f this book m ay be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any eletronic, mechanical, or other means, now know n or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any inform ation storage or retrieval system, w ithout perm ission in w riting from the publishers

ISBN 978-83-233-3438-5 ISSN 2299-758X

!w y d a w n ic t w o UNIWERSYTETU JAGIELLOŃSKIEGO

www.wuj.pl

Jagiellonian University Press

Editorial Offices: Michałowskiego St. 9/2, 31-126 Krakow Phone: +48 12 631 18 81, +48 12 631 18 82, Fax: +48 12 631 18 83 Distribution: Phone: +48 12 631 01 97, Fax: +48 12 631 01 98 Cell Phone: + 48 506006 674, e-mail: sprzedaz@wuj.pl Bank: PEKAO SA, IBAN PL80 1240 4722 1111 0000 4856 3325

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C ontents

L is t o f i m p o r t a n t a b b r e v i a t i o n s ... 7

I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 9

C h a p te r I: G a lic ia a n d L e m k o s. T he f o r m a tio n o f r e g io n a l p o litic s i n th e y e a r s 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 1 9 ... 11

1. T he o rig in s o f p ro -R u s s ia n s y m p a th ie s ... 12

2. O ld R usyns, M o sc o p h ile s, a n d n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t ac tiv ists, 1 9 0 7 - 1 9 1 4 ... 17

2.1. R u s sia n O r t h o d o x y ... 19

3. T he W o rld W a r a n d th e L e m k o R e p u b lic s... 24

C h a p te r II: M o s c o p h ile s a n d O ld R u s y n s ... 35

1. F o rm a tio n o f th e p ro -R u s s ia n p a r t y ... 35

1.1. T he R u s sia n N a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n , 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 8 ... 36

1.2. T he R u s sia n P e a s a n t O rg a n iz a tio n , 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 3 9 ... 39

2. T ra n s fo rm a tio n s in th e O ld R u sy n m o v e m e n t ... 53

2.1. T he R us A g ra ria n P arty, 1 9 2 8 -1 9 3 1 , a n d th e R us A g ra ria n O rg a n iz a tio n , 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 3 9 ... 54

2.2. L e m k o A s s o c ia tio n (L e m k o S o iu z ), 1 9 3 3 - 1 9 3 9 ... 59

3. T he K a c h k o v sk y r e a d in g ro o m s - d e v e lo p in g lo c a l s t r u c t u r e ... 65

4. O r th o d o x fa ith a n d p o litic a l c o n s c io u s n e s s ... 72

C h a p te r III: T h e U k r a in ia n n a t io n a l m o v e m e n t ... 83

1. T he P ro sv ita S o c ie ty a n d th e L e m k o C o m m is s io n ... 83

2. T he lo c a l in te llig e n tsia a n d o th e r c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s ... 98

2.1. T he U k ra in ia n P e d a g o g ic a l S o c ie ty ( R id n a S h k o la ) ... 101

2.2. T he F a rm e rs ’ S o c ie ty (S ils k y i H o s p o d a r )... 104

3. T he U k r a in ia n N a tio n a l D e m o c r a tic A llia n c e a n d U k r a in ia n P a r lia m e n ta r y R e p re s e n ta tio n in v ie w o f g o v e r n m e n t p o lic y i n th e L e m k o r e g i o n ... 106

3.1. A g a in s t “r e g io n a liz a tio n ” - w ith h o p e fo r “n o r m a liz a tio n ” 109 C h a p te r IV: T h e L e m k o r e g io n i n th e n a t io n a l ity p o lic y o f th e S e c o n d P o lis h R e p u b l i c ... 121

1. T he im m e d ia te p o s tw a r p e r i o d ... 121

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2. A ssim ila tio n : sta te o r n a tio n a l... 126

3. In th e r e a lm o f e d u c a tio n a l a n d e x tr a c u r ric u la r i s s u e s ... 136

4. R e lig io u s issu es in n a tio n a lity p o l i c y ... 143

5. T he e le c tio n s o f 1928, 1930, 1935, a n d 1 9 3 8 ... 151

F in a l r e m a r k s ... 161

S o u rc e s a n d b ib l i o g r a p h i e s ... 165

I n d e x f o r p r o p e r n a m e s ... 171

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List of im p o rtan t abbreviations

A A L - A p o sto lic A d m in is tr a tio n o f th e L e m k o R e g io n A A N - C e n tr a l A rc h iv e s o f M o d e rn R e c o rd s in W a rsaw A B G K - A rc h iv e s o f th e G re e k C a th o lic B ish o p ric in P rz e m y śl A K L - A rc h iv e s o f F a th e r L u k a sh k la v ic h

A P K - S tate A rc h iv e s in K ra k ó w A P P - S tate A rc h iv e s in P rz e m y śl A P R - S tate A rc h iv e s in R zeszów

B B W R - N o n - p a r tis a n B loc fo r C o o p e r a tio n w ith th e G o v e r n m e n t BJ - Ja g ie llo n ia n L ib ra ry

B P - U- P o lis h -U k r a in ia n B u lle tin (B iu le ty n P o ls k o -U k r a iń s k i) C D IA L - C e n tr a l S tate A rc h iv e s in Lviv

D A L O - S tate A rc h iv e s o f Lviv P ro v in c e

H R N O - H a ly c h -R u s s ia n N a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n K G P P - C h ie f G o v e r n m e n t P o lice H e a d q u a r te rs K O S K - D is tr ic t S c h o o l B o a rd o f K ra k ó w M S W - M in is tr y o f th e I n te r io r

M S Z - F o re ig n M in is tr y

M W R iO P - M in is tr y o f R e lig io u s A ffairs a n d P u b lic E d u c a tio n n .d .p . - n o d a te o f p u b lic a tio n

n .p .p . - n o p la c e o f p u b lic a tio n

O O L - O rg a n iz a tio n fo r th e D e fe n se o f L e m k iv sh c h y n a

O O L Z U - O rg a n iz a tio n fo r th e D e fe n se o f L e m k o W e s te rn U k ra in e P K P P - C o u n ty G o v e r n m e n t P o lice H e a d q u a rte r s

p .n .n . - p a g e s n o t n u m b e r e d P P P - G o v e r n m e n t P o lice P o st(s) RP - P o lish R e p u b lic

P R M - P re s id iu m o f th e C o u n c il o f M in is te rs R A O - R us A g ra ria n O rg a n iz a tio n

R A P - R us A g ra ria n P a r ty

R N O - R u s sia n N a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n R SO - R u s sia n P e a s a n t O rg a n iz a tio n

RSRK - A u d itin g U n io n o f R u sy n C o o p e ra tiv e s R S U K - A u d itin g U n io n o f U k r a in ia n C o o p e ra tiv e s R Z N - R u s sia n N a tio n a l U n io n

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S e jm R P - S e jm o f th e P o lish R e p u b lic . S te n o g ra p h ic tr a n s c rip ts S e n a t R P - S e n a te o f th e P o lish R e p u b lic . S te n o g ra p h ic tr a n s c r ip ts S N - N a tio n a lity A ffa ir s (S p r a w y N a r o d o w o ś c io w e )

SP G - C o u n ty D is tr ic t O ffice in G ry b ó w SP N S - C o u n ty D is tr ic t O ffice in N o w y Sącz T SL - P o p u la r S c h o o l A s s o c ia tio n

U L M - U k r a in ia n L e m k o M u s e u m

U N D O - U k r a in ia n N a tio n a l D e m o c r a tic A llia n c e U R P - U k r a in ia n P a r lia m e n ta r y R e p re s e n ta tio n U W K r - K ra k ó w P ro v in c e O ffice

Z U N R - W e s te rn U k r a in ia n N a tio n a l R e p u b lic

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Introduction

A s a r e s u lt o f th e d is p la c e m e n ts o f 1 9 4 4 -1 9 4 6 , a n d in p a r tic u la r O p e r a tio n V is­

tu la in 1947, th e d e m o g ra p h ic s tr u c tu r e o f th e p re v io u s ly e x is tin g L e m k o R e g io n w a s d e s tro y e d , a n d th e re p re s s e d p o p u la tio n fo u n d its e lf in a d iffic u lt so c ia l a n d m o r a l situ a tio n . S ta lin is t p r o p a g a n d a d is s e m in a te d in so c ia list P o la n d to o k aw ay th e U k ra in ia n se n se o f d ig n ity , c o n f e rr in g a n in f e r io r sta tu s o n th e m . T his c u lm in a te d in th e ir fe e lin g a s h a m e d o f th e ir o rig in s a n d a v o id in g n a tio n a l se lf-d e fin itio n . T he p o w e r o f fa m ily tr a d itio n s w as n o t alw ays ab le to o v e rc o m e th is b a rrie r. F o r a p a r t o f th e p o p u la tio n th is gave ris e to c e r ta in fo rm s o f b e h a v io r w h ic h in c lu d e d a p re fe r­

e n c e fo r a p a r tic u la r e th n o g ra p h ic d e s ig n a tio n . In o th e r w o rd s , it w as e a sie r to b e a L e m k o th a n a U k ra in ia n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re w e re p o litic a l tr a d itio n s fro m b e fo re th e w a r w h ic h also r u le d a g a in s t th e u se o f th e n a m e “U k ra in ia n ”; fo r so m e , th e r e w as n o n e e d to av o id th e te rm , sin c e th e y h a d n e v e r u s e d it.

P o litic al c h a n g e s w h ic h to o k p la c e in P o la n d d u r in g th e “S o lid a rity ” e ra a w a k ­ e n e d th e p o litic a l e n g a g e m e n t o f n a tio n a l m in o ritie s , lo n g h id d e n f ro m th e re a lm s o f c u ltu r e a n d e d u c a tio n . G ra d u a lly th is le d to th e r e b u ild in g in th e L e m k o c o m ­ m u n it y o f th e tw o id e o lo g ic a lly o p p o s e d c a m p s w h ic h h a d p u t r o o ts d o w n in th e L e m k o r e g io n i n th e 19th a n d firs t h a l f o f th e 20th c e n tu r y : th e U n io n o f L e m k o s w ith h e a d q u a r te r s in G o rlice , o n e o f th e U k ra in ia n m in o r ity o rg a n iz a tio n s , a n d th e A s­

s o c ia tio n o f L em k o s, h e a d q u a r te re d in L eg n ica, w h ic h d e c la re d th e L e m k o s’ affin ity w ith th e m o d e r n R u sy n n a tio n (n e o - R u s y n /C a rp a th o -R u s y n ). T his p o la riz a tio n in a ttitu d e s b e a r s w itn e ss to th e c o m p lic a te d p ro c e ss b y w h ic h th e p o litic a l c o n s c io u s ­ n e s s o f th e L em k o p o p u la tio n in P o la n d w as fo rm e d .

T he q u e s tio n o f th e n a tio n a l id e n tity o f L em k o s h a s g iv e n ris e to m u c h c o n t r o ­ versy. T he f u n d a m e n ta l r e a s o n fo r th e d iv e rg e n c e o f v iew s is th e la ck o f th o r o u g h stu d ie s o f th e p o litic a l h is to r y o f th e L e m k o re g io n . T his allow s m a n y m y th s , le g e n d s a n d ste re o ty p e s to fre e ly f u n c tio n , w h ic h th e h is to ria n h a s a d u ty to dem ystify. T he la c k o f sc h o la rly lite ra tu re m e a n s n o t o n ly a g a p in h is to rio g r a p h y a n d a n o p e n field fo r a c tio n to w a r d fillin g it, b u t also e n s u in g d ifficu lties in th e re s e a rc h o f th e re la te d d isc ip lin e s, p o litic a l sc ie n c e a n d sociology, w h ic h are a tte m p tin g to g ra s p th e v a r i­

o u s a s p e c ts o f th e p r e s e n t sta te o f affairs, u n f o r tu n a te ly o fte n in is o la tio n f ro m th e p a s t f ro m w h ic h it h a s issu e d . T his b o o k is a n a tte m p t to p u t in o r d e r th e fac ts o f th e p o litic a l a n d re lig io u s life o f th e re g io n in q u e s tio n . T h ro u g h a n an a ly sis o f th e p ro - R u ssian , O ld R us a n d N a tio n a l- U k ra in ia n p o litic a l c u r r e n ts a n d th e e m e rg in g n a ­ tio n a lity p o lic y o f th e S e c o n d R e p u b lic to w a r d th e L e m k o re g io n , th is b o o k s h o u ld

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s im p lify th e p ro c e ss o f u n d e r s ta n d in g th e in te r tw in e d p o litic a l a n d in te r d e n o m in a ­ tio n a l re la tio n s h ip s in th e y e a rs 1 9 1 8 -1 9 3 9 , a n d also h e lp u n d e r s ta n d th e so c ia l a n d p o litic a l a ttitu d e s o f c o n te m p o r a r y L em k o s.

T he c u r r e n t E n g lis h -la n g u a g e e d itio n is a slig h tly c o n d e n s e d a n d r e v is e d v e rs io n o f th e b o o k p u b lis h e d in 1997 in P o lish . T he d e c is io n to p u b lis h a n E n g lish v e r ­ s io n w as g u id e d b y th e f a c t th a t th e re is a la rg e n u m b e r o f E n g lish -la n g u a g e re a d e rs in te re s te d in th e p ro b le m s o f th e L e m k o re g io n , a n d f u r th e r m o r e in r e c e n t years re s e a r c h i n th is a re a h a s n o t m a d e sig n ific a n t le ap s fo rw a r d so th a t th e b o o k re m a in s u p - to -d a te . T he sp e llin g o f n a m e s o f p e r s o n s c o m p lie s w ith th e g u id e lin e s a p p lie d in E n g lish p u b lic a tio n s , w h ile p la c e n a m e s g e n e ra lly are a s sig n e d a c c o rd in g to official r e c o rd s f r o m th e S e c o n d P o lish R e p u b lic , a lth o u g h so m e m o d e r n U k r a in ia n n a m e s a re also u se d .

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C hapter I: Galicia and Lemkos. The form ation of regional politics in th e years 1849-1919

T he n in e te e n th c e n tu r y w as c h a ra c te r iz e d b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o d e r n n a ­ tio n a l a n d p o litic a l m o v e m e n ts in E u ro p e , w h ic h g re w o u t o f th e tr a d i tio n o f th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n . I n th e firs t h a lf o f th e 19th c e n tu r y th e n a tio n a l id e a w a s e c h o e d in C e n tr a l a n d E a s te r n E u ro p e . T h ese p ro c e sse s w e re in itia te d b y so c io e c o n o m ic ch a n g e s . ^ e c risis o f th e fe u d a l e c o n o m y le d to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p r o d u c tio n o f g o o d s, th e g r o w th o f e x c h a n g e a n d th e e m e rg e n c e o f n e w m o n e y m a rk e ts . P e a s­

a n ts f re e d f r o m s e rfd o m s e ttle d in cities, a n d th e v e rn a c u la r in c re a s in g ly h e a r d in G e r m a n iz e d u r b a n c e n te rs d e e p e n e d th e p ro c e s s o f u r b a n n a tio n a liz a tio n . I n A u s­

tria , a c o u n t r y w ith m u ltip le n a tio n a litie s , th is c a u s e d n a tio n a l co n flic ts, a c c e le ra t­

in g th e f o r m a tio n o f m o d e r n c o n s c io u s n e s s a m o n g its S lavic p e o p le s.

In th e c o u r s e o f th e s e s o c io p o litic a l ch a n g e s, th e id e o lo g ie s o f th e E n lig h te n ­ m e n t a n d R o m a n tic is m p la y e d im p o r ta n t ro les. T he E n lig h te n m e n t, p ro c la im in g th e e q u a lity o f all b e fo re th e law, s p re a d th e c o n c e p t o f th e n a tio n to d iffe re n t so c ial classes. R o m a n tic is m e x p o s e d e le m e n ts o f fo lk c u ltu re a n d b r o u g h t to lig h t e v id e n c e o f a m a rv e lo u s p a s t b e lo n g in g to n a tio n - s ta te s a n d also sta te less n a tio n s . T he a t­

te m p t u n d e r ta k e n in th e la te 18th a n d e a rly 19th c e n tu rie s to ta k e a n e w lo o k a t Slavic c u ltu r a l h e rita g e f o u n d s u p p o r t in th e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e G e r m a n th in k e r J o h a n n G . H e rd e r, w h o s h o w e d th e h is to ric ro le th a t Slavs w e re to p la y in th e fu tu re . T hese c u r r e n ts b r o u g h t a ris e in S lavic se lf-e ste e m a n d le d to th e a c tiv a tio n o f th e in te l­

lig e n tsia in in d iv id u a l n a tio n s w h ic h in th e f irs t h a l f o f th e 19th c e n tu r y s e t a b o u t g a th e rin g relics a n d m e m e n to s o f fo lk c u ltu r e w ith g r e a t e n th u s ia s m . O n e a s te rn G a lic ia n soil th is w as th e sh a re o f th e R u sy n (U k ra in ia n ) in te llig e n tsia .

In 1816 th r o u g h th e e ffo rts o f c a n o n Iv a n M o h y ln y ts k y a n a s s o c ia tio n o f in te lli­

g e n ts ia to o k s h a p e in P rz e m y śl u n d e r th e n a m e C le ric a l A sso c ia tio n , w ith a p u b lis h ­ in g o p e r a tio n in te n d e d to d iffu se e d u c a tio n in R u sy n society. ^ e s e c o n d c e n te r o f R u s y n in te lle c tu a l life w as V ie n n a , to b e p re c ise , th e c le ric a l a n d se c u la r in te llig e n t­

sia c o n c e n tr a te d in th e o r b it o f th e C h u r c h o f St. B a rb a ra , w h ic h k e p t in c o n ta c t w ith P rz e m y śl. H is to r io g r a p h y e v e n re fe rs to a V ie n n a - P r z e m y ś l circ le o f R u sy n sc h o la rs.

A re a l b r e a k th r o u g h c a m e o n ly w ith th e a c tiv itie s o f th e R u th e n ia n T riad , a g r o u p o f e n th u s ia s ts o f R u sy n ( U k ra in ia n ) fo lk c u ltu re , le d b y M a rk ia n S h a sh k e v y c h , Yakiv H o lo v atsk y , a n d Iv a n V ahy lev y ch . T he g ro u p ’s g re a te s t a c h ie v e m e n t w as p u b lis h ­ in g th e R u s a lk a D n is tr o v a (M e rm a id o f th e D n ie s te r) in P e st in 1837, e d ite d in a n

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in n o v a tiv e f o rm in th e v e r n a c u la r tr a n s c r ib e d p h o n e tic a lly . T he R u s a lk a D n is tr o v a r a is e d th e v e r n a c u la r to th e r a n k o f lite r a r y la n g u a g e a n d b e c a m e th e b a s is fo r la te r n a tio n a l a c tiv itie s a m o n g G a lic ia n U k ra in ia n s .

T he re v o lu tio n s o f 1 8 4 8 -1 8 4 9 in t u r n s e t o ff a p e r io d o f p o litic a l in v o lv e m e n t a m o n g R u sy n s. C u ltu ra l a u to n o m y w as m a r k e d th e n a tu ra l b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n P o lish a n d R u sy n (U k r a in ia n ) s e ttle m e n ts in G alicia. T he g e o g ra p h ic d iv is io n o v e r­

la p p e d s u b s ta n tia lly w ith th e n a tio n a lity d iv id e a n d w as c o n d u c iv e to e ffo rts to g a in s e p a ra te a d m in is tra tiv e u n its . T he p la n fo r d iv id in g G alicia in to tw o p ro v in c e s w as r e le a s e d b y th e A u s tr ia n a u th o ritie s in 1847, b u t a y e a r la te r b e c a m e a p o litic a l d e ­ m a n d o f th e S u p re m e R u sy n C o u n c il, w h o stro v e to h a v e th e a re a d iv id e d in to P o ­ lis h a n d R u sy n se c tio n s. In f a c t th e p la n w as n e v e r fulfilled, b u t w as m a n y tim e s r e le a s e d a n e w u p u n til th e fall o f th e H a b s b u r g m o n a rc h y .1

T he R e v o lu tio n s o f 1848, also c a lle d th e S p rin g o f N a tio n s, o p e n e d a n e w e ra o f r iv a lry w ith th e P oles, w h o p o s s e s s e d a lo n g e r n a tio n a l a n d sta te tr a d itio n a n d f ro m w h o m th e R u sy n p e a s a n t p o p u la tio n d iffe re d in so c ia l sta tu s, re lig io u s d e ­ n o m in a tio n a n d la n g u a g e . T he fa ilu re o f th e U k ra in ia n R e v o lu tio n o f 1848 n o t o n ly le ft th e re la tio n s h ip u n c h a n g e d b u t f u r th e r le d to a lo n g p e r io d o f in te r n a l riv a lry in th e R u sy n c o m m u n ity o f G alicia, w h ic h im p e lle d so m e a c tiv ists o f th e S u p re m e R u s y n C o u n c il to lo o k fo r p o litic a l s u p p o r t f r o m R ussia. P ro -R u s s ia n s y m p a th ie s f irs t a p p e a r e d a m o n g th e p o litic a l elite in th e e a s te rn p a r t o f th e c o u n try . D u e to its g e o g ra p h ic p la c e m e n t, th e L e m k o r e g io n a t th a t tim e w as a t th e m a rg in s o f G a li­

c ia n p o litic s a n d u n til th e la te 19th c e n tu r y la y b e y o n d th e r e a c h o f th e in flu e n c e s o f riv a l o rie n ta tio n s : n a t io n a l-U k r a in ia n a n d O ld R u s y n -p r o -R u s s ia n . T h ese c u r r e n ts b e c a m e fu lly f o rm e d in th e 1860s a n d 1870s, b u t d u r in g th e fo llo w in g tw o d e c a d e s th e ir r e p re s e n ta tiv e s to o k a lm o s t n o in te r e s t in th e p o p u la tio n re s id in g in th e are as w e s t o f th e S an River.

1. The origins of pro-R ussian sym pathies

S ta r tin g in th e m id - 1 9 th c e n tu r y th e R u sy n q u e s tio n in G a lic ia to o k o n a n i n ­ te r n a tio n a l d im e n s io n a n d b e c a m e a n e le m e n t in th e r iv a lry b e tw e e n p o w e rs. F o r A u s tr ia th e issu e fu lfille d th e a d d itio n a l f u n c tio n o f a c tin g as a c o n tro l in its in te r ­ n a l p o litic a l b a la n c e . N o n e th e le s s A u s tria w as re la tiv e ly la te in p re c ise ly d e fin in g its b r o a d e r R u sy n p ro g ra m . O n ly to w a rd th e e n d o f th e 1880s d id A u s tr ia c o n s id e r s e c u r in g th e R u sy n s a g a in s t R ussia.

R u ssia fo r its p a r t sin c e th e tim e o f C a th e rin e th e G re a t h a d a d e fin ite a g e n d a fo r G alicia . I n 1828 N ic h o la s I o r d e r e d th a t th e p o litic a l m o o d in G alicia b e v ig ila n tly

1 See J. Kozik, Między reakcją a rewolucją. Studia z dziejów ukraińskiego ruchu narodowego w Galicji w latach 1848-1849 [Between reaction and revolution. Studies in the history of the Ukrainian na­

tional movement in the years 1848-1849], Kraków 1975.

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o b s e rv e d , r e c k o n in g w ith th e p o s s ib ility o f a w a r w ith A u stria . ^ e 1830s a n d 1840s b r o u g h t in te n s ifie d p e n e tr a tio n in to R u s sia n circles, w h ic h w e n t th r o u g h se v eral c h a n n e ls . T he firs t c h a n n e l c o m p ris e d th e a c tiv itie s o f th e P an -S la v ists - a g ro u p o f sc h o la rs g r o u p e d a r o u n d M ik h a il P o g o d in , a h is to ria n , jo u r n a lis t, a n d p ro fe s s o r a t M o sc o w U n iv ersity , w h o tra v e lle d th r o u g h o u t th e S lavic w o rld a n d sin c e 1835 h a d v is ite d G alicia se v e ra l tim e s . P o g o d in c o n d u c te d ta lk s w ith a n a n ti-P o lis h a tti­

tu d e , m a in ly w ith U n ia te p rie sts, w h ic h in th a t tim e o f p ro life ra tin g R u sy n ( U k r a in ­ ia n ) n a tio n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , e m e r g in g th r o u g h stru g g le s w ith P o lish id e n tity , fell o n fe rtile soil. T he s e c o n d d ir e c tio n ta k e n b y T sa rist p e n e tr a tio n in A u s tria w as th e R u s sia n e m b a s s y ’s a c tiv ity in V ie n n a ; its c h a p la in , M ik h a il R aievski, w as c o n d u c t­

in g a g ita tio n w ith th e u se o f th e slo g a n “O n e Tsar, O n e C h u rc h , O n e F aith.” ^ e id e o lo g ic a l a c tiv ity w a s g iv e n fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t to p r e p a re th e g r o u n d fo r th e fu tu re p a r ti tio n o f G alicia. W ilh e lm F e ld m a n in o n e o f h is w o rk s w ro te th a t

M any [...] roubles flow ed into G alicia fro m th e coffers o f th e P etersb u rg B enevolent A s­

sociation an d fro m th e govern m en t; fro m th o se o f ideological fanatics an d fro m th e g e n ­ darm erie, th e y flowed into th e editorial offices o f m agazines a n d into financial in stitu tio n s, c o rru p tin g consciences an d creatin g parasitical form s o f existence [ . ] . 2

A fte r A u s tria ’s d e fe a t a t S ad o v a in its w a r w ith th e P ru s s ia n s o n 3 Ju ly 1866 th e H a b s b u r g m o n a rc h y w a s f o rc e d to m a k e fa r -r e a c h in g in te r n a l re fo rm s a n d in o rd e r to k e e p its s tr o n g p o s itio n i n G alicia e n tr u s te d th e g o v e r n m e n t to th e P oles. T his h a d i m p o r ta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e f o r m a tio n o f R u sy n (U k ra in ia n ) p o litic a l a ttitu d e s.

T he loss o f fa ith in h e lp f r o m V ie n n a w e a k e n e d th e A u s tro p h ile m o v e m e n t a m o n g R u sy n s a n d m a d e th e g r o w th o f th e p r o -R u s s ia n o r ie n ta tio n easier.

In f o rm in g p r o -R u s s ia n sy m p a th ie s, a se n se o f th r e a t f r o m th e P o lish n a t io n ­ sta te , th e h o s tility to w a rd w h ic h w as m u ltid im e n s io n a l a n d r o o te d in social, c u ltu ra l a n d p o litic a l d iffe ren ce s, p la y e d a p r o m in e n t ro le. S o cia l d iffe re n c e s le d to c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e P o lish a d m in is tr a tio n a n d R u sy n p e a s a n try . C u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s r e s u lt­

e d f ro m a b s o lu te id e n tif ic a tio n w ith tw o d iffe re n t tra d itio n s : th e W e s te rn w o rld - L atin , a n d th e E a s te r n - G re e k a n d B y z an tin e. ^ e a n ti-P o lis h a ttitu d e o f th e R u sy n in te llig e n tsia w as n o t, h o w ev e r, a n a g e n d a r o o te d in a n ti-P o lis h p h o b ia s, b u t a im e d a t a c o n s c io u s a n d effective e m p h a s is o n n a tio n a l a u to n o m y .

D is a p p o in tm e n t w ith A u stria , R ussia’s ac tiv e p r o p a g a n d a , a n d th e a n ti-P o lis h a ttitu d e o f R u sy n s w e re th e k e y fa c to rs in th e firs t p h a s e o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f M o s c o p h ilis m .3 A n tip a th y to w a r d th e P o lish n a tio n w as q u ic k to ta k e ro o t. O n e o f

2 W Feldman, Stronnictwa i programy polityczne w Galicji 1846-1906 [Factions and political pro­

grams in Galicia 1846-1906], vol. 2, Kraków 1907, p. 329. See K. Ustianovych, Raievskii i rosiiskyi panslavizm. Spomyny z prezhytoho i peredumanoho, Lviv 1884, p. 7; C. Studziński, Zza kulisów schi- zmatyckiejpropagandy [Behind the scenes of schismatic propaganda], Kraków 1899, pp. 38-40.

3 Rusyn [I. Dzieduszycki], Ruś galicyjska, jej separatyzm, przyczyny tegoż, działania i skutki [Galician Ruthenia, its separatism, reasons thereof, actions and effects], Gródek 1888, pp. 57-114; F. Podleski, Rusofilizm a ukrainizm [Russophilism and Ukrainianism], Lwów 1931, p. 22.

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th e m a in re a s o n s w as th e p ro p a g a tio n b y so m e P o lish ac tiv ists o f th e b e lie f th a t R u sy n s c o n s titu te d a P o lish tr ib e w h o d iffe re d o n ly in so c ia l p o s itio n a n d re lig io u s c u s to m . R u sy n la n g u a g e w as s e e n as a d ia le c t o f P o lish , a n d R u sy n c u ltu r e a r e ­ g io n a l v a r ia n t o f P o lish c u ltu re . T he a s s im ila tio n o f R u sy n s w a s c o n s id e r e d a n a t u ­ r a l p h e n o m e n o n a n d g e n e ra lly se lf-e x p la n a to ry , a lth o u g h sig n s o f n a tio n - b u ild in g p ro c e sse s c o n tr a d ic te d su c h a c o n v ic tio n . T he e v e n ts o f 1848, in p a r tic u la r th e P o l­

is h a d d re s s to th e E m p e r o r p a s s in g in sile n c e o v e r th e R u sy n q u e s tio n in G alicia, c a u s e d th e e s tra n g e m e n t o f m a n y R u sy n s f ro m P o lish in d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n ts , w h ic h fin a lly le d to th e re je c tio n o f th e n a m e “R u sy n ” a n d th e a d o p tio n o f th e n a m e

“U k ra in ia n .”

P rio r to th a t d e v e lo p m e n t, h o w ev e r, th e p r o -R u s s ia n o r ie n ta tio n p r e d o m in a te d a m o n g R u sy n s, a n d in th e 1850s a n d 1860s a R u sy n n e g a tiv e a ttitu d e to w a rd P oles w a s c le a rly d e lin e a te d . R u sy n s m a d e d e m a n d s : a p u r e E a s te r n litu rg y , e q u a lity fo r R u s y n la n g u a g e in g o v e r n m e n t offices a n d sc h o o ls, a n d p r o p o r tio n a l a n d fa ir r e p r e ­ s e n ta tio n b y d e p u tie s in th e D ie t o f G alicia a n d th e A u s tria n p a rlia m e n t. T he h e ig h t­

e n e d P o lis h - U k ra in ia n c o n flic t gave ris e to th e e x p re s s io n o f a M o s c o p h ile p ro g ra m . O n 8 A u g u s t 1866 th e p re ss o rg a n S lo vo (W o rd ), p u b lis h e d in Lviv, c o n ta in e d a n a rtic le e n title d “P o h la d v b u d u c h n o s t (A lo o k to th e F u tu re ),” a u th o re d b y Fr. Iv an N a u m o v y c h . T his w e ll-k n o w n p o litic ia n , a n u n d o u b te d R u sy n p a trio t, w ro te : “W e c a n n o t b u ild a G re a t W all o f C h in a to s e p a ra te o u rse lv e s fro m o u r b r o th e r s a n d w ith d r a w f r o m lin g u istic , literary , c h u r c h a n d n a tio n a l u n io n s w ith th e e n tire R u s­

s ia n w o rld . W e are n o lo n g e r th e R u th e n ia n s o f 1848, w e a re tr u e R ussians.”4 A n o th e r le a d in g R u s y n p o litic ia n , K o s t L evytsky, w h o r e p r e s e n te d th e U k r a in ia n o rie n ta tio n , d e fin e d N a u m o v y c h ’s in te r v e n tio n as a f o r m o f d e fe n se f ro m th e P o lish th r e a t, a n in d ic tm e n t o f th e V ie n n e s e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a m a n if e s ta tio n o f in se c u rity , o r la c k o f fa ith in th e c o m m u n ity ’s o w n p o w e rs.

F ears o f P o lo n iz a tio n in m a n y cases le d in to th e a rm s o f R ussia, w h ic h w as n o n e - th e le s n o t a k n o w n q u a n tity . Less w e ll-in fo rm e d s u p p o r te r s o f le a n in g o n th e E a st­

e r n p o w e r d id n o t k n o w its so c ia l s tr u c tu re , n o r th e T s a ris t g o v e rn m e n t’s a ttitu d e to w a r d D n ie p e r U k ra in ia n s , n o r d id th e y k n o w a b o u t th e p e r s e c u tio n w h ic h th e ir c o m p a tr io ts b e y o n d th e c o r d o n h a d faced . Ig n o ra n c e o f th e re a litie s o f R u s sia n life w a s w id e s p re a d , p a r tic u la rly in th e c o u n try s id e . P r o p o n e n ts o f p o litic a l M o s c o p h i- lis m u s e d a r g u m e n ts o f s h a re d O r th o d o x fa ith , th e g re a tn e s s o f R u s sia n c u ltu re a n d th e s tr e n g th o f T s a ris t p o w er. I n th e m in d s o f R u sy n p e a s a n ts , n o t w e ll-v e rs e d in th e la rg e r E u ro p e a n p o litic a l s itu a tio n , th e a r g u m e n t fo r R ussia’s p ro te c tiv e sta n c e u s u a lly f o u n d a c c e p ta n c e . P ro -R u s s ia n a c tiv ism in th e c o u n try s id e w as m a d e e a sie r b y th e n a tu r a l a w a re n e ss o f th e o p p re s s io n o f U k r a in ia n p e a s a n t m a sse s b y P oles, a n a w a re n e ss i n h e r e n t i n th e so c ia l s itu a tio n , w h ic h b r e d h o p e fo r a b e t te r fu tu re in th e R u s sia n s ta te -n a tio n .

4 Quoted from K. Levytsky, Istoria politychnoi dumky halytskyh Ukraintsiv 1848-1914, vol. 1, Lviv 1926, p. 90. See O.A. Monchalovski, Zhyttie i dieiatielnost Ivana Naumovicha, Lvov 1899, p. 61.

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W e fin d p r o -R u s s ia n sy m p a th ie s a m o n g th e p e a s a n t p o p u la tio n in th e L em k o r e g io n re la tiv e ly early. O n e r e v e a lin g fa c t is th e L e m k o s’ s e n d in g a d e le g a tio n to T sar N ic h o la s I in D e c e m b e r 1849 w ith a r e q u e s t “fo r p ro te c tio n .” ^ e d e le g a tio n w as le d b y M y k h a ilo H r y n d a o f S zla ch to w a , o n e o f th e v illages f u r th e s t w e s t a m o n g R u sy n se ttle m e n ts .5

^ e fa ilu re to re a listic a lly assess th e p o litic a l striv in g s o f R u ssia w a s o fte n fo u n d a m o n g th e in te llig e n tsia as w ell. T he G re e k C a th o lic c le rg y especially, th r e a te n e d w ith L a tin iz a tio n o f th e E a s te rn rite , b e c a m e in v o lv e d w ith p ro -R u s s ia n c irc les w ith re la tiv e ease.

M o s c o p h ilis m a m o n g th e c le rg y h a d a tw o fo ld n a tu re . A d e fin ite m a jo rity c o n s is te d o f so -c a lle d “h a r d R usyns,” also k n o w n as O ld R usyns. S o m e o f th e m , o v e r b u r d e n e d w ith a la c k o f se lf-e ste e m a n d ig n o ra n c e o f th e ir o w n h is to r y a n d lite ra tu re , o fte n fo r re a s o n s b e y o n d th e ir c o n tro l, b ro k e th r o u g h th e id e n tity b a r r ie r a n d id e n tifie d w ith R u s sia n c u ltu r a l v alu es. M y k h a ilo H ru s h e v sk y , a n o u ts ta n d in g U k r a in ia n h is to ria n , s tre s s in g th e w e a k se lf-e ste e m a m o n g so m e R u sy n s o f th e p e ­ r io d , w ro te : “f ro m a p s y c h o lo g y o f d e s p a ir in g o f th e p o s s ib ility o f in d e p e n d e n tly liftin g th e m se lv e s u p , th e R u s so p h ile m o v e m e n t a m o n g R u sy n s w a s sp a w n e d .”6 Iv an F ra n k o d e fin e d th e p h e n o m e n o n th u sly :

[...] seeing th e fruitlessness, th e ig n o m in y an d th e v an ity o f efforts o f a sm all h a n d fu l o f individuals, seeing h o w n o n eth eless at every step rivals com pete w ith us fro m b o th sides, h ow w e fall b e h in d in th e m o s t card in al m atters, even th e h o tte st R usyn p a trio t th in k s to h im self w h e th e r it m ig h t n o t be b e tte r to a b a n d o n th is hopeless struggle for n atio n al in d e ­ p en d en ce an d jo in his stronger, richer, b etter-o rg an ized n eighbors?7

T he la ck o f se lf-e ste e m F ra n k o f o u n d to b e th e “p sy c h o lo g ic a l f o u n d a tio n ” fo r n o t o n ly M o s c o p h ilis m , b u t P o lo n o p h ilis m as well.

^ i s w as th e d r a m a o f th o s e R u sy n s w h o s o u g h t a n esca p e fro m th e c u ltu r a l cu l- d e -s a c o f th e ir o w n p e o p le . T he tr a p w as illu s o ry a n d n o t ju s tifie d b y h isto ry , sin c e th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f R u sy n (U k ra in ia n ) c u ltu re e x iste d a n d c o u ld p ro v id e th e n e e d e d b a sis fo r a se n se o f w o r th a n d m e rit. N o t w id e ly d iss e m in a te d , it d id n o t e n c o u ra g e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e n a tio n a l id e a . F u rth e rm o re , activ ists in th e n a tio n a l m o v e ­ m e n t w e re tr y in g to m a in ta in a fa c a d e o f a ttitu d in a l u n a n im ity a m o n g R usyns. ^ e y e x p e c te d M o s c o p h ilis m to d is a p p e a r as th e U k r a in ia n se n se o f n a tio n a l id e n tity b e ­ c a m e m o r e w id e s p re a d . ^ e p r o -R u s s ia n d e m o n s tr a tio n in 1866 c ru s h e d th o s e h o p e s a n d fo rc e d th e n a tio n a l a c tiv ists to ta k e decisive in itiativ es. A t th e e n d o f th e 1860s a n d b e g in n in g o f th e 1870s th e tw o c h ie f U k ra in ia n e d u c a tio n in s titu tio n s to o k fo rm :

5 See Karpatorusskii Kalendar Lemko-Soiuza za hod 1960, Yonkers, NY, pp. 87-92.

6 Quoted from J. Kozik, Moskalofilstwo w Galicji w latach 1849-1866, na tle odrodzenia narodowego Rusinów [Moscophilism in Galicia in the years 1849-1866 in the context of the Rusyn national revival], MA thesis (typescript), Jagiellonian University, Kraków 1958, p. 64.

7 I. Franko, Nieco o stosunkach polsko-ruskich [A few words on Polish-Rusyn relations], Lwów 1895, p. 6.

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th e P ro sv ita S o c ie ty in 1868 a n d th e S h e v c h e n k o S cien tific S o c ie ty in 1873. T hose in t u r n le d to th e M o sc o p h ile c r e a tio n o f th e K a c h k o v sk y S o c ie ty in 1874.8 T hose in s titu tio n s d e v e lo p e d w id e n e tw o rk s o f p o p u la r r e a d in g ro o m s th r o u g h o u t E a s te rn G alicia, a n d b e g in n in g in th e la te 19th c e n tu r y th e n e tw o rk s e x te n d e d in to W e ste rn G alicia (th e L em k o re g io n ). T h ey s ta rte d u p th e ir o w n p u b lis h in g h o u se s a n d p ress o rg a n s. T h e ir e m e rg e n c e s e t in m o tio n th e e ra o f in te r n a l riv a lry b e tw e e n U k ra in ia n s a n d M o sc o p h ile s, w h ic h la te r P o lish r u lin g circles w o u ld jo in .

In 1890 th is c u lm in a te d in a P o lish -R u sy n a g re e m e n t to b r e a k u p R u ssia n in flu ­ e n c e s in th e St. G eo rg e ’s c o n s is to r y in Lviv, th e m a in c e n te r o f G a lic ia n M o sc o p h i- lism , a m o v e w h ic h in itia te d th e p ro c e ss o f th e m o v e m e n t’s d e c lin e in E a s te rn G a li­

c ia a n d h a d m o m e n to u s c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e L em k o re g io n . F ro m th a t tim e o n as a r e s u lt o f lim ite d o p p o r tu n itie s fo r a c tio n in e a s te rn G a lic ia n areas, M o sc o p h ile s b e g a n p e n e tr a tio n o f p o litic a lly v irg in te rrito rie s , tr a n s f e rrin g th e a g e n d a s o f th e ir e d u c a tio n a n d p o litic a l so c ieties th e re . In th e L e m k o r e g io n th e ir ta s k w as e a sie r sin c e th e n a tio n a l activ ists w ere th e n ap p ly in g th e ir e n e rg ie s to th e e a s te rn re g io n o f th e c o u n try . A sig n o f th e w e a k e n in g o f th e p ro -R u s s ia n c u r r e n t w as th e te x t o f th e m a n i­

festo p u b lis h e d i n D e c e m b e r 1899, in w h ic h M o sc o p h ile s d e c la re d th e e q u a lity o f th e

“L esser R u th e n ia n ” la n g u a g e w ith R u ssian . This re fle c te d a c o m p ro m is e b e tw e e n th e p r o -R u s s ia n a n d O ld R u sy n id e a s a n d h e r a ld e d th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e M o s c o p h ile - O ld R u sy n b lo c , w h ic h w o u ld la s t u n til th e p a r lia m e n ta r y e le c tio n s o f 1907.9

T he w e a k e n in g o f M o s c o p h ilis m in th e la te 19th a n d e a rly 2 0 th c e n tu r ie s w as also c a u s e d b y a c h a n g e in th e p o s itio n o f R ussia, w h ic h a t th a t tim e w a s re v e rs in g th e d ir e c tio n o f its F ar E a st f o re ig n p olicy. T his w as n e g a tiv e ly p e rc e iv e d n o t o n ly a m o n g G a lic ia n M o sc o p h ile s, b u t also in p r o -R u s s ia n m o v e m e n ts a m o n g o th e r Slavs o f th e H a b s b u r g E m p ire . T he h is to ric a l m o m e n t w a s ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f b y n a tio n a l a c tiv ­ ists w h o a c h ie v e d a d o m in a n t p o s itio n in th e c e n tra l a re a s o f G alicia. T he p ro -R u s ­ s ia n o r ie n ta tio n in A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y e x p e r ie n c e d a re n a is s a n c e a fte r R ussia’s d e fe a t in its w a r w ith Ja p a n in 1 9 0 4 -1 9 0 5 . A s p a r t o f th e ir d o c tr in e o f N e o -S la v ism R u ssia n c irc les c u ltiv a te d ac tiv e p e n e tr a tio n a m o n g Slavs in th e H a b s b u r g te r r ito r ie s a n d in th e B a lk a n s. In G a lic ia th e y lo o k e d to th e so -c a lle d “y o u n g m e n ” - th e e x tre m e p r o -R u s s ia n w in g le d b y V o lo d y m y r D u d y k e v y c h , a la w y e r in K o lo m y ia, th e re b y c o n trib u tin g to th e re v iv a l a n d in te n s ific a tio n o f th e U k ra in ia n -M o s c o p h ile riv a lry in th e p e r io d p r e c e d in g th e o u tb r e a k o f th e F irs t W o rld W ar.

8 J. Moklak, Relacje między ukraińskim ruchem narodowym a moskalofilstwem w Galicji Wschodniej w latach 1866-1890 [Relations between the Ukrainian national movement and Moscophilism in Eastern Galicia in the years 1866-1890], MA thesis (typescript), Jagiellonian University, Kraków 1985, p. 80; by the same author “Mychajło Kaczkowśkyj i czytelnie jego imienia na Łemkowszczyź- nie” [Mykhailo Kachkowsky and the eponymous reading rooms in the Lemko region], Magury ’87 (Warszawa) 1987, pp. 53-64.

9 W Kołpaczkiewicz, “Na granicy wieków (Jeden etap ewolucji myśli politycznej starorusinów)” [At the centuries’ frontier (One stage in the evolution of Old Rusyn political thought)], BP-U 1938, no. 5, p. 50.

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2. O ld Rusyns, M oscophiles, and national m ovem ent activists, 1907-1914

In e a rly 1907 in A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y a n e w e le c to ra l la w to o k effect w h ic h h a s te n e d th e d is in te g r a tio n o f e x is tin g p o litic a l c o n fig u ra tio n s . T he c o n s e rv a tiv e p o s itio n , w h ic h h a d th e re to fo re d o m in a te d , w as d e s ta b iliz e d . A fte r th e e le c tio n s to th e I m p e ­ r ia l C o u n c il, P o lish r e p r e s e n ta tio n in th e V ie n n e s e p a r lia m e n t w a s ta k e n o v e r b y th e N D (N a tio n a l D e m o c ra ts ). T his c h a n g e in th e c o n f ig u ra tio n o f p o w e r b r o u g h t m a n y c h a n g e s w ith re g a rd to R u sy n s (U k ra in ia n s ). T h e y r e s u lte d f ro m th e N D ’s p o litic a l p r o g ra m , w h ic h - a im in g to re b u ild th e P o lish n a tio n - s ta te - r e p r e s e n te d a p r o -R u s s ia n id e a, w h ic h d ic ta te d c o m b a tin g th e m o n a rc h is t U k ra in ia n m o v e m e n t a n d s u p p o r tin g M o s c o p h ilis m . T he N D ’s s u p p o r t fo r M o sc o p h ile s in c re a s e d th e ir p o litic a l im p o r ta n c e in G alicia.

In th e p e r io d p r e c e d in g th e 1907 e le c tio n s in b o th M o s c o p h ile - O ld R u s y n a n d n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t circles, th e p la n fo r a n a g r e e m e n t o n e le c tio n s w as d isc u sse d .

^ e f o rm e r d e m a n d e d a b a s e n u m b e r o f se ats re s e rv e d fo r v o tin g b y R u sy n s, i.e. 14, a n d in o n e d is tr ic t fo rc e d th e c a n d id a c y o f V. D u d y k e v y c h , a d e c la re d R u ssian . F u r­

th e rm o r e , th e y e x p e c te d s u p p o r t f ro m th e f u tu r e d e p u tie s fo r th e R u s sia n d e c la ra ­ tio n w h ic h th e y in te n d e d to s u b m it to th e I m p e ria l C o u n c il. F o r th o s e i n th e n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t, th e s e c o n d itio n s w e re u n a c c e p ta b le , so n o a g re e m e n t w as re a c h e d . O n ly in s o m e d is tric ts w e re ta c tic a l a g re e m e n ts c o n c lu d e d a n d s h a re d s u p p o r t p ro ffe re d to c a n d id a te s . I n th e S a n o k a re a th e e le c tio n c a m p a ig n d isp la y e d a s tr o n g r iv a lry b e ­ tw e e n th e n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t a n d M o sc o p h ile s, in c lu d in g so m e e v e n ts o f a b r a w l­

in g n a tu r e .10 ^ e L e m k o r e g io n c o m p o s e d d is tric ts 48 (N o w y S ącz), 49 (Jasło), 50 (K ro s n o ) a n d 51 (S a n o k ). ^ e L e m k o p o p u la tio n c o n s titu te d a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e in th e s e d is tric ts a n d M o s c o p h ile c a n d id a te s in th e firs t th r e e w e re n o t e le c te d . O n ly in S a n o k C o u n ty d id ju d ic ia l c o u n s e llo r V o lo d y m y r K u ry lo v y c h w in . T he n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t p u t f o r th a c a n d id a te o n ly in S a n o k (R o m a n Z alo zetsk y , p ro fe s s o r a t th e Lviv P o ly te c h n ic ), a fa c t w h ic h rev e a ls th e w e a k n e ss o f th e U k r a in ia n m o v e m e n t in th e L e m k o r e g io n in th e f irs t d e c a d e o f th e 20 th c e n tu ry .

T he n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t c a m p fo c u s e d its a tte n tio n m a in ly o n E a s te r n G alicia.

T he e le c to ra l c a m p a ig n w a s d ir e c te d b y th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e in Lviv, le d b y K o st L evytsky. I n th e e le c to ra l p r o g ra m it w as stip u la te d th a t th e re w o u ld b e a g r a ria n r e fo rm , re p e a l o f ta x e s (e x c e p t fo r th e p ro g re ssiv e in c o m e ta x ), r e d u c e d ta x e s o n th e a rm y a n d in c re a s e d ta x e s o n e d u c a tio n , a rise in th e n u m b e r o f U k ra in ia n i n ­ te rm e d ia te sc h o o ls a n d th e c re a tio n o f a U k r a in ia n u n iv e rs ity in Lviv, a n d fin ally

10 chairman of the Ukrainian Electoral Committee in Sanok was Fr. O. Konstantynovych, and the secretary V. Buchatsky, see V. Buchatsky, Moskvofilstvo na Lemkivshchyni [Moscophilism in the Lemko region], New York 1955, pp. 11-13; I. Winiarski, Rusini w Radzie Państwa 1907-1908 [Rusyns in the Imperial Council 1907-1908], Lwów 1909, p. 8.

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th e d iv is io n o f G alicia in to P o lish a n d U k ra in ia n re g io n s, w ith a s e p a ra te ex e c u tiv e b r a n c h a n d a D iet.

O n b a la n c e th e p a r lia m e n ta r y e le c tio n s o f 1907 b r o u g h t v ic to r y fo r th e n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t, w h ic h o b ta in e d 2 0 seats, w h ile th e M o s c o p h ile - O ld R u sy n c a m p g o t o n ly five.11 N o n e th e le s s , M y k o la H lib o v y ts k y a n d D m y tro M ark o v , c o n fid e n t in th e s u p p o r t o f P o lish N D circ les a n d s u p p o r te d b y T sa rist d ip lo m ac y , u n d e r to o k a n a t­

te m p t to o p e n a R u s sia n C lu b in th e V ie n n e s e P a rlia m e n t. T h ey tr ie d to o p e n th e w a y to w a r d it th r o u g h a f a i t a c c o m p li, w ith M a rk o v m a k in g a sp e e c h in R u s sia n o n 9 Ju ly in te n d e d to le a d to r e c o g n itio n o f th a t la n g u a g e in th e c o u n try . A w e e k la te r th e M o s c o p h ile p a r ty h e ld a c o n g re ss o f “p riv a te a g e n ts” in Lviv, a t w h ic h it w as officially a n n o u n c e d th a t G a lic ia w as in h a b ite d b y “tw o p e o p le s o f Rus: U k ra in ia n a n d R ussian,”12 a n d a r e s o lu tio n w a s a d o p te d c a llin g d e p u tie s to re s ig n f ro m th e R u th e n ia n C lu b (R u th e n is c h e r K lu b ) , th e m e m b e rs o f w h ic h w e re also in th e n a ­ tio n a l m o v e m e n t. T he M o s c o p h ile -O ld R u sy n c a m p w as n o t u n a n im o u s , w h ic h in th e e n d d o o m e d M a rk o v ’s a c tiv itie s to failu re . V asyl D av y d ia k , M y k h a ilo K o ro l a n d V o lo d y m y r K u ry lo v y c h h a d c o n s id e ra b ly less r a d ic a l view s, th o u g h th e firs t tw o fin a lly a g re e d to th e re s o lu tio n ’s c o n te n ts . T he p o s itio n o f K u ry lo v y c h is re m a rk a b le , as a d e p u ty f r o m th e L e m k o r e g io n w h o in f a c t le ft th e R u th e n ia n C lub, b u t d id n o t j o in M a rk o v a n d H lib o v y tsk y . M a rk o v ’s a p p e a ra n c e in th e I m p e r ia l C o u n c il a n d th e c o n g re ss o f M o sc o p h ile s in Lviv in Ju ly 1907 re v e a le d th e g o a l a n d b a ttle ta c tic s o f t h a t c a m p . T he V ie n n e s e g o v e r n m e n t w as able, h o w ev e r, to sk ilfu lly leave th e m a tte r as th e D ie t o f G alicia’s re sp o n sib ility , c o n s id e rin g th a t it w as a lo c a l issu e, n o t c o n ­ c e r n in g th e n a tio n as a w h o le.

In 1908 su c ce ssiv e p o litic a l e v e n ts s tr e n g th e n e d th e p o s itio n o f th e p ro -R u s s ia n c a m p . A t th e b e g in n in g o f th a t y e a r in e le c tio n s to th e lo c a l D ie t M o sc o p h ile s g o t

10 seats, le d b y D u d y k e v y c h , w h ile th e s tr o n g e r n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t m e m b e r s a n d r a d ic a ls g o t b a re ly 11. T his w as a v isib le r e s u lt o f th e in flu e n c e o f th e P o lish r ig h t o n in te r n a l U k r a in ia n p o litic a l re la tio n s, w h ic h p a v e d th e w a y fo r a n a tte m p t o n th e life o f g o v e r n o r A n d rz e j P o to c k i. I n July, d u r in g th e S lavic c o n g re ss in P ra g u e , a P o lis h -R u s s ia n r a p p r o c h e m e n t w as re a c h e d in th e fo rm o f th e D m o w s k i- B o b r in - sk i a g re e m e n t, se a le d b y a b a n q u e t g iv e n in Lviv in h o n o r o f th e R u s sia n g u ests.

T he d e te r m in a tio n w ith w h ic h R u s sia n c irc les a n d M o sc o p h ile s in th e a re a s p ra n g in to a c tio n c a u s e d c o n c e r n in th e M o s c o p h ile - O ld R u s y n c a m p itself, w h ic h - as m e n tio n e d e a rlie r - w as n o t u n a n im o u s a n d c o m p ris e d w ith in its e lf th e a ttitu d e s o f so -c a lle d H a r d R usyns, o f a n ti- U k r a in ia n d is p o s itio n , b u t n o t p ro -R u s s ia n . T his s o o n le d to a b r e a k w ith in th e p a rty . In 1909 th e O ld R u sy n s r e m a in e d w ith th e ir o ld p re ss o rg a n , th e H a ly c h a n y n , w h ic h e s p o u s e d o n ly “c u ltu r a l u n ity ” b e tw e e n R u sy n s in G alicia a n d R u ssian s. T he g ro u p o f r a d ic a l M o sc o p h ile s, o n th e o th e r

11 Fr. V. Davydiak (Stryi), M. Hlibovytsky (Zolochiv), M. Korol (Rava Ruska), V. Kurylovych (Sanok), D. Markov (Brody); see K. Levytsky, op.cit., vol. 2, Lviv 1927, p. 444.

12 Ibid., p. 453.

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h a n d , a s se m b le d a r o u n d th e n e w p u b lic a tio n , w ritte n in R u s sia n lite r a r y la n g u ag e , e n title d P r ik a r p a ts k a ia R u s ’. T he h is to ric a l lite r a tu r e g e n e ra lly d e s ig n a te s th e first as th e s ta r o k u r s n y k i ( o ld c o u rs e ), re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f a n o ld e r o r ie n ta tio n , w h ile th e f irs t are c a lle d n o v o k u r s n y k i (n e w c o u rs e ), p re s e n tin g a n e w c o u rs e o f a c tio n o r n e w te n d e n c y . T his d iv is io n re fle c te d th e m o o d s in th e c o m m u n ity . T he “o ld ” g r o u p p r e ­ d o m in a te d , le d b y D av y d ia k , b u t th e “y o u n g ” w e re v e r y e n e rg e tic , a n d th e re fo re p la y e d a la rg e r ro le in G a lic ia n p o litic s in th e y ea rs im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g th e o u t­

b r e a k o f th e F irs t W o rld W a r.13

D e sp ite e x te rn a l s u p p o r t (fro m R u ssia a n d th e P o d o lia n N D ) th e M o sc o p h ile s d id n o t d a re to jo in in o n e m a ss w ith th e R u s sia n la n g u a g e . T h e y la u n c h e d a p u b ­ lic a tio n sp e c ia lly fo r th e p e o p le , c a lle d H o lo s N a r o d a (V oice o f th e P eo p le ), p u b ­ lis h e d in a d ia le c t clo se to U k ra in ia n . O n e o f th e m a in r e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e n e w s tra in , M a ria n G lu sh k e v y c h , a L e m k o b y b ir th , s u m m e d u p th is d ir e c tio n o f a c tio n in th e fo llo w in g w ay: “I f th e re isn ’t a w a r [ ...] th e re is n o th in g left b u t to jo in th e U k ra in ia n s .” 14 T he p e rs p e c tiv e o f w a r a n d o f th e a rriv a l o f R u s sia n a rm ie s o n G a li­

c ia n te r r ito r y m a r k e d th e n o v o k u r s n y k s ’ p o litic a l v isio n , a n d th e y sk ilfu lly f o u n d a b a s is fo r a p r o -R u s s ia n c a m p a ig n in G alicia, v ig ila n tly o b s e rv in g th e so c ia l a n d re lig io u s m o o d o f th e p o p u la tio n th e re .

2.1. R ussian O rth o d o x y

T he g r o w th o f E a s te r n O r th o d o x y in E a s te r n G alicia a n d in th e L e m k o r e g io n in th e e a rly 2 0 th c e n tu r y w a s p a r t o f a w id e s p re a d p o litic a l c a m p a ig n e x e c u te d b y th e T sa rist re g im e a n d th e H o ly S y n o d o f th e R u s sia n O r th o d o x C h u rc h . T he a c tiv ­ ity h a d tw o so u rc e s - N o r t h A m e r ic a a n d R ussia. T he c e n te r o f a c tio n w as Z h y to - m yr, c a p ita l o f V o lh y n ia p ro v in c e . I n th e y ea rs 1 9 0 2 -1 9 1 4 th a t d io c e se w as m a n a g e d b y A rc h b is h o p A n to n ii K h ra p o v itsk y , a n d a fte r h e w as tra n s f e r r e d to K h ark o v , b y A rc h b is h o p E vlogii G eorg iev sk y . T he P o c h a iv M o n a ste ry , d ire c te d b y A rc h im a n ­ d r ite V ita lii M a k sy m e n k o , p la y e d a sp e c ia l ro le in th e p ro c e ss. F ro m th e re R u ssia n e m issa rie s s e t o ff fo r G alicia, a n d th e m o n a s te r y h a d d e v e lo p e d a p u b lis h in g o p e r a ­ tio n w h ic h w a s w id e in scale. D e liv e rie s o f th e P o c h a iv L y s to k (P o c h a iv N e w sle tte r), s e n t o u t f r o m G a lic ia n citie s b y M o s c o p h ile a c tiv ists, c a m e in th e m a il to th e a d ­ d re sse s o f R u s y n p e a s a n ts , in c lu d in g L em k o s. R u s sia n p ro p a g a n d a p r o c la im in g th e slo g a n o f “lib e ra tio n ” fo r G a lic ia n R us’ h a d p a r tic u la r p o w e r o f in flu e n c e . A ze alo u s a d v o c a te o f th is p r o g r a m w as V la d im ir B o b rin sk i. U n d e r h is aeg is b r a n c h e s o f th e G a lic ia n -R u s s ia n A s s o c ia tio n w e re e s ta b lis h e d in R ussia, a n d fin a n c ia l a id w as s e n t

13 W Kołpaczkiewicz, “Na granicy wieków. Staroruski Guliwer na falach polityki wszechświatowej”

[At the centuries’ frontier. The Old Rusyn Gulliver in the sea of universal politics], BP-U 1938, no. 9, pp. 93-95.

14 See S. Shakh, Mizh Sianom i Dunaitsem [Between the San and the Dunajec], Munchen 1960, p. 81.

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to G alicia, a lo n g w ith p e r io d ic a ls a n d b o o k s fo r th e p u r p o s e o f r e in f o r c in g a n ti­

C a th o lic a n d a n ti- U k r a in ia n c o n v ic tio n s.

A t th e S lavic c o n g re ss in P ra g u e in 1908, a t w h ic h d eleg a tes f ro m R u ssia a n d G a lic ia n M o s c o p h ile s to o k p a r t, R u sy n s w e re officially re c o g n iz e d as R u ssian s. T his r e s o lu tio n e n e rg iz e d p r o -R u s s ia n circ les in G alicia, w h o s e t a b o u t b u ild in g u p th e ir in s titu tio n s , i.e. th e K a c h k o v sk y Society, th e S ta u ro p e g io n In s titu te , a n d th e P e o ­ p le’s H o m e in Lviv. I n d is tric ts re s p o n s ib le to c o u n ty ju r is d ic tio n s o -c a lle d “p riv a te a g e n ts” w e re active. T h e y f u n c tio n e d as lia iso n s b e tw e e n h e a d q u a r te r s a n d p r o p a ­ g a n d a c e n te rs lo c a te d in G re e k C a th o lic p a ris h e s , a n d tr a n s m itte d c o r re s p o n d e n c e a n d in s tru c tio n s , as w ell as m o n e y c o m in g f ro m R u ssia a n d f ro m R u s sia n c e n te rs in A m e ric a . A sid e f ro m th e se c u la r in te llig e n tsia , a sig n ific a n t p e r c e n t o f th e s e ag e n ts w e re G re e k C a th o lic clergy. I n th e ca se o f th e L e m k o r e g io n th e c a m p a ig n w as d e ­ v e lo p e d o n th e b o r d e r lin e o f G o rlic e a n d Jasło C o u n tie s . “P riv a te a g e n ts” th e re w e re Y aroslav K a c h m a rc h y k , la w y e r a n d d ir e c to r o f th e L e m k o v s k a K a ssa (L e m k o S av­

in g s B a n k ) in G o rlic e a n d th e fo llo w in g G re e k C a th o lic p rie sts: T e o d o r D u r k o t o f Z d y n ia , M a r ia n M y sh k o v sk y o f R o s ta jn e a n d M y k h a ilo Y u rc h a k e v y c h o f C z a rn e . In th e c o u n tie s o f K ro s n o a n d S a n o k a g ita to rs w e re g r o u p e d a r o u n d D e p u ty K u ry lo - vy ch , w h o in s e a rc h in g fo r h is n a tio n a l id e n tity s tr a d d le d D u d y k e v y c h a n d D av y - d ia k ’s g ro u p s.

D ire c t a c tio n in th e a re a w as u n d e r ta k e n b y s tu d e n ts v is itin g t h e ir h o m e villages a n d lo c a l f a r m - h a n d s in d u c e d b y m a te r ia l g a in . T h e y m a d e p la n n e d v isits to lo c al p a r is h e s a n d e s ta b lis h e d K a c h k o v sk y r e a d in g r o o m s th e re . O n e o f th e m o s t e n e r ­ g etic w as V asyl K o ld ra f r o m Ś w iątk o w a W ielk a . A t m a s s m e e tin g s w h ic h h e o rg a n ­ iz e d h im se lf, h e a w a k e n e d a n ti-P o lis h fee lin g s a m o n g L em k o s a n d c a lle d th e m to

“e n d u r e in th e s tru g g le a g a in s t P o lish n e ss a n d C a th o lic ism .” H e p o s ite d th e m ig h ty p o w e r o f T sa rist R u ssia a n d R u s sia n O r th o d o x y as th e a n tid o te to th e th r e a t fro m P o les a n d th e R o m a n C a th o lic C h u rc h . H e h a d p o r tr a its o f R u s sia n T sars a n d p r in c ­ es, a n d p a tria r c h s o f th e R u s sia n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h d is trib u te d in p e a s a n t h u ts .15

H a v in g s u p p o r t in se v e ra l re g io n s in th e a re a b e s id e s th e L e m k o r e g io n , a n d also in th e c o u n tie s o f B rody, Kosiv, a n d S okal, a m o n g o th e rs , D u d y k e v y c h ’s s u p p o rte r s u n d e r to o k a n a tte m p t to u se O r th o d o x y as a m e a n s to im p le m e n tin g th e p r o g ra m fo r u n if ic a tio n w ith R ussia. O n 3 A u g u s t 1911 a s e c re t c o n fe re n c e m e t in th e P o c h a iv c lo is te r to d isc u ss w ay s to s p r e a d O rth o d o x y to G a lic ia n G re e k C a th o lic p a rish e s.

T he c o n fe re n c e p a r tic ip a n ts w ere: a r c h im a n d r ite V. M a k sy m e n k o , m in is te ria l c le rk fo r sp e c ia l affairs in th e R u s sia n g o v e r n m e n t R a zu m o v sk y , B o b rin s k i’s p riv a te se c­

r e ta r y B estu zh ev , a n d g u e s ts f ro m G alicia: D u d y k e v y c h a n d M ark o v , tw o e d ito r s o f P r ik a r p a ts k a ia R u s ’ a n d a n a sso c ia te o f th e p u b lic a tio n N o v o e V r e m ia (N e w T im e ),

15 AP P, ABGK, ref. # 9445, Istoriia pravoslavia v seli Hrabi pered svitovoiu viinoiu [History of Eastern Orthodoxy in the village of Hrab before World War I], pp. 16, 43; ibid., ref. # 437, Schizma - misje 1911-1914 [Schism - missions 1911-1914], pp. 81, 206, 207. Other students worked with Koldra, e.g. I. Vislotsky and I. Kushvara. Among farm-hands, an outstanding worker was 19 year-old K. Fe- dorko of Gładyszów.

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D m y tr o V e rh u n . D u rin g th e ir c o n v e rsa tio n s, th e “R u s sia n G a lic ia n s” d e c la re d th a t th e y w o u ld h a v e n o d iffic u lty o rg a n iz in g 2 0 - 3 0 O r th o d o x m u n ic ip a litie s in G alicia, i f a d e m o n s tr a tio n w e re d e s ire d . T h e y a d d e d , h o w ev e r, th a t th e la ck o f O r th o d o x c h u r c h e s a n d lo c a l O r th o d o x c le rg y w o u ld d e p riv e th e m o v e m e n t o f d u ra b ility . T he g r o u p jo in tly d e te r m in e d th a t th e firs t o rd e r o f b u s in e s s w as m a k in g e ffo rts to p r e ­ p a r e c a d re s o f O r t h o d o x c le rg y in R u ssia fro m y o u n g m e n e n lis te d in G alicia. T he P o c h a iv c o n fe re n c e ’s re s o lu tio n s r e s u lte d in th e R u s sia n sid e a llo ttin g sp e c ia l fu n d s to d e fra y th e e x p e n se s o f G a lic ia n c a n d id a te s , ch ie fly in th e O r th o d o x s e m in a ry in Z h y to m y r. T he n u m b e r o f a lu m n i f r o m G alicia ro s e f ro m y e a r to year. In 1911 th e re w e re o v e r 10 s tu d e n ts a t th e Z h y to m y r se m in a ry , in 1912 a b o u t 20, a n d th e p re ss r e p o r te d th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a n o th e r 50 c a n d id a te s . T he m a jo r ity w e re r e c ru ite d in th e b o r d e r c o u n tie s , w h ile tw o c a m e f ro m th e L e m k o re g io n : M . D e n io v s k y (Ż e g ie stó w ) a n d M a k s y m S a n d o v y c h ( Z d y n ia ) .16

T he m o s t fa v o ra b le c irc u m s ta n c e s fo r th e g r o w th o f O rth o d o x y e x iste d in th o s e G re e k C a th o lic p a r is h e s w h e r e th e re w e re o n g o in g d is p u te s b e tw e e n c h u rc h g o ­ e rs a n d re c to rs . T h a t w as th e s itu a tio n in th e c o u n tie s o f E a s te r n G a lic ia (Sokal, Z o lo c h iv ) a n d in th e W e st o f th e re g io n . I n th e p a r is h o f G ra b in Jasło C o u n ty , th e f irs t c e n te r o f R u s sia n O r th o d o x y in th e L e m k o re g io n , a c o n flic t h a d g o n e o n fo r se v e ra l years, f o m e n te d b y M o sc o p h ile s, b e tw e e n th e fa ith fu l a n d th e ir re c to r, Fr.

F y ly m o n K ysilovsky; th e c o n flic t a ro se fro m th e c o sts o f c o n s tr u c tio n o f p re s b y te ry b u ild in g s , c h u r c h r e p a ir a n d o th e r b u ild in g w o rk s o n p a r is h la n d . T he M o sc o p h ile s V asyl K o ld ra a n d Iv a n K u sh v ara, as w ell as p a r is h r e c ru its M y k h a ilo H o sh k o , Syl­

v e s te r P av e lc h a k a n d o th e rs , a n ta g o n is tic a lly d is p o s e d to w a rd th e ir re c to r, aw o k e a n in te r e s t in a c h a n g e o f fa ith a m o n g th e p o p u la tio n , p ro m is in g to b u ild a n e w c h u rc h a n d co v e r th e c o sts o f k e e p in g a n O r t h o d o x p r ie s t fo r e a c h p a r is h .17 T he m a te r ia l iss u e w as o n e o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t fa c to rs in d ra w in g p e o p le ’s sy m p a th ie s to R u s­

s ia n O rth o d o x y . M o s t a p p lic a tio n s fo r c h a n g e o f d e n o m in a tio n w h ic h a r riv e d at c o u n ty offices in G alicia in th e y ea rs 1 9 1 1 -1 9 1 4 w e re filed b y th e e c o n o m ic a lly p o o r p o p u la tio n . T he f a c t th a t th e r e c to rs h a d n o t a d d re s s e d th e p o p u la c e ’s d e m a n d fo r th e ir n a tio n a lity to b e n o te d w ith a d o u b le “s” (ss) in p a r is h b o o k s , a n d fo r th e w o rd

“O r t h o d o x ” to b e u s e d in th e litu rg y , d e m a n d s re je c te d b y m a n y G re e k C a th o lic p rie sts, p la y e d a n im p o r ta n t ro le in th is d e v e lo p m e n t.18

In th e a u tu m n o f 1911 th e g r o u n d fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f R u s sia n O rth o d o x y in G a lic ia h a d b e e n p r e p a re d . T he firs t O rt h o d o x p rie sts, ra is e d in G alicia, th e so n s o f G re e k C a th o lic s a n d u n til re c e n tly G re e k C a th o lic th e m se lv e s, d r a w n in to R u s­

s ia n N e o -S la v ism as y o u n g b o y s, a r riv e d f r o m R ussia. T h ey in c lu d e d Fr. Y u liian Il-

16 (X.Y.Z.), Prawosławie w Rosji i jego podłoże w Galicji [Orthodoxy in Russia and its foundations in Galicia], Lwów 1913, p. 7; J. Borodzicz, Na Rusi galicyjskiej Schyzna się gotuje [A Schism is being prepared in Galician Rus], Chrzanów 1911, p. 54.

17 AP P, ABGK, ref. # 9445, passim.

18 See Chynnosty i rishennia provintsiialnoho Soboru v Halychyni 1891 r. [Acts and decisions of the provincial Cathedral in Halychyna], Lviv 1894, p. 170.

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ec h k o , s e n t to S o k al C o u n ty , Fr. T sy m b a la to Z o lo c h iv C o u n ty , Fr. I h n a tii H u d y m a , w h o h a d lo o k e d a fte r th e p a s to ra l n e e d s o f th e O r th o d o x fa ith fu l in Z a lu c h o n th e C h e re m o s h River, a n d Fr. M a k sy m S a n d o v y c h , r e tu r n in g to h is n a tiv e L e m k o r e ­ g io n . S a n d o v y c h ’s a rriv a l in G ra b o n 2 D e c e m b e r 1911 r e in f o r c e d th e p o s itio n o f M o s c o p h ile s th e re . H is p io u s lifesty le (in v o lv in g m a n y lo n g p ra y e rs) w o n o v e r m a n y p a r is h io n e r s , w h o c lu n g m o r e to th e p e r s o n th a n to th e n e w c h u rc h in s titu tio n . A c ­ c o r d in g to c o n te m p o r a r y re p o rts , S a n d o v y c h w as a d e e p ly d e v o u t a n d h u m b le m a n . H is a u th o r ity w as b u ilt u p th r o u g h fre e d is trib u tio n to b e lie v e rs o f b o o k s , b ro c h u r e s a n d p ic tu re s o n re lig io u s th e m e s , p r e s e n tin g R u s sia n c h u rc h e s a n d clo iste rs. C o lle c ­ tio n s f r o m c h u r c h se rv ic e s w e re g iv e n to th e p o o r, w ith th e e x p e c ta tio n in t u r n th a t th e y w o u ld n o t r e t u r n to th e G re e k C a th o lic c h u r c h .19

In D e c e m b e r 1911 Jasło d is tric t a u th o ritie s re c e iv e d o v er 2 0 0 a p p lic a tio n s fo r c h a n g e o f d e n o m in a tio n , sig n e d b y re s id e n ts o f G ra b a n d W y szo w atk a. T he a p p lic a ­ tio n fo rm s w e re d is tr ib u te d b y “p riv a te agents.” C a m p a ig n s c o lle c tin g s ig n a tu re s fo r a p p lic a tio n s w e re c a re fu lly p re p a re d . It so m e tim e s h a p p e n e d th a t p e a s a n ts re fu s e d to sig n a n d w e re e n c o u ra g e d to c o n v e r t w ith a b r ib e o f m o n e y , o r e v e n - a c c o rd in g to G re e k C a th o lic so u rc e s - s c a re d in to d o in g so th r o u g h th e u se o f fo rc e .20

T he im m e d ia te ly e v id e n t m a te r ia l b e n e fits o f c o n v e rs io n c a u s e d O rth o d o x y to p ro life ra te a m o n g L em k o s. T he ex a m p le s o f G ra b a n d W y szo w atk a, w h e re c o n s tr u c ­ tio n m a te ria ls w e re b o u g h t w ith R u s sia n m o n e y to b u ild a n O r t h o d o x C h u rc h , a n d p a y m e n t fo r p a s to ra l se rv ic e s w as n o t o b lig a to ry , e n c o u ra g e d th e p o p u la tio n s o f n e ig h b o r in g m u n ic ip a litie s to c o n v e rt. I n la te 1911 a n d e a rly 1912 th e m a jo r ity o f re s id e n ts in th e v illages o f C z a rn e , D łu g ie , L ip n a , N ie z n a jo w a a n d R a d o c y n a i n G o r­

lic e C o u n ty d e c la re d a c h a n g e o f c o n fe ssio n . G ro u p s o f R u s sia n O r th o d o x fa ith fu l a p p e a r e d in o th e r to w n s as well.

M a d e a n x io u s b y th e ris in g im p o r ta n c e o f th e n o v o k u r s n y k i, re g io n a l a u th o ritie s s e t a b o u t ta k in g ste p s to o p p o s e th e m , w h ic h w as e a sy sin c e R u s sia n O rth o d o x y d id n o t h a v e legal s ta tu s in A u s tria -H u n g a ry . F u rth e rm o re , sin c e M ic h a ł B o b rz y ń s k is a c c e ssio n to th e f u n c tio n o f g o v e rn o r -g e n e ra l in G alicia, th e p o litic s o f th e r e g io n h a d c h a n g e d . I n r e la tio n s w ith U k ra in ia n s th e n e w g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l m a d e a n effo rt to re a c h a n u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith th e n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t. T h a t m e a n t a s h a rp e n in g o f p o s itio n to w a rd M o sc o p h ile s, th e m o r e so as te n s io n in R u s s o -A u s tria n re la tio n s w a s g ro w in g . A few c o n s p ic u o u s ac tiv ists w e re a rre ste d , in c lu d in g V. K o ld ra , a c t­

in g in th e w e s te rn L e m k o r e g io n .21 T he a rre s ts also to u c h e d O r th o d o x p rie sts. In A p ril 1912 M . S a n d o v y c h w as a rr e s te d o n a c h a rg e o f e s p io n a g e in th e se rv ic e o f R ussia, a n d a few d ays la te r h is d ep u ty , Fr. Iv a n S olovii.22 T he P rz e m y śl G re e k C a th o ­ lic o r d in a r ia te also re a c te d , in itia tin g d is c ip lin a ry p ro c e e d in g s a g a in s t s u b o rd in a te

19 AP P, ABGK, ref. # 437, pp. 49-50.

20 Ibid.

21 D.A. Markov, Russkaia i ukrainskaia ideia v Avstrii [The Russian and Ukrainian Idea in Austria], Moskva 1915, p. 60.

22 AP P, ABGK, ref. # 437, pp. 1, 90.

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