Agnieszka Kandzia
At the verge... Sino-Australian
political relations in the 21st century
: the Australian perspective
Pisma Humanistyczne 9, 89-106
A t the verge... S in o -A u stra lia n p o litical relations
in the 2 1 st century. The A u stra lia n perspective
C h in a and A u stralia (besides India and Japan) are the biggest and the m ost relevant countries in the R egion o f South-E ast A sia and Pacific. Relations betw een these giants underline stabilization or d econstruction o f regional p olicy and economy. M utual term s are closer every year. However, last decade show s, that m ain tain ing o f the good relationship is som etim es really tough. Political relations are m uch m ore dependent on econom ic deals than it w as in the last century. The m ain aim o f this article is to reveal how the relations betw een The People’s Republic o f C h in a and Com m onw ealth o f A u stralia look like in the 2 1st century. C ooperation o f these two countries in the region is not simple. Chinese interests in A u stralian m ineral resources force A u stralia to soften its hum an right requirem ents and policy. O n the other hand A u stralia does not see any problem s w ith inviting, i.a. H is H oliness the 14 th Dalai Lam a or Rebiya Kadeer, that is not approved b y the C h inese governm ent. Both countries have totally different political system s and diam etrically dissim ilar w ay o f exercising power. N evertheless, they resem ble each other in aim ing the eco nom ic grow th and having responsibility for the regional issues. The friendship o f A u stralia and C h in a is difficult but really n ecessary for regional stabilization.
Short history of the Chinese in Australia
The begin n in g o f S in o -A u stralian relationship reaches the begin n in g o f A u stralia as a new land in the world. To be precise, since the m om ent w hen southern lands have been discovered. There are a lot o f authors, w ho put M ac a ssan and C h i nese sailors am ong explorers o f A u stra lia n lands (besides European). W ell know n A u stra lia n historian — M an n in g C lark claim s that M acassaan traders and people from Bugi tribes, w ho w ere v e ry interested in trepan g and bird o f paradise flowers (which prices in C h in a w ere high) reached the n orthern coast o f A u stra lia in the
15th cen tu ry1. They probably w ere in contact w ith ethn ic tribes there. N ew ly dis
covered lands th ey n am ed "M areg e”, w h ich m eans "the trepan g lan d ”. Professor
Joseph N eed h am also believes, that C h in ese cam e to Terra A u stra lis in the 15th
century, p robably under the eunuch ad m iral C h in g H o2.
A fte r 14 32, the pow er in B eijing had been taken b y the group o f people w hich w as not interested in foreign trade. That is why, until the 19th century, th ey did not
organized southern far-flung exped itio n s3. A t those tim es England has different
idea w ith regard to that region and A u stra lia n land. In the 18 th cen tu ry B ritish politicians, except con sid erin g A u stra lia as a penal colony, thought that it w ould be the best place, w hich could play a role as a trade agent betw een G reat B ritain
and E ast India, C h in a and Pacific region4.
A lrea d y in the first years o f colonization, C h in ese (few firstly) from G uangdong
p rovince in southern C h in a settled in N ew South W ales5. O ne o f the biggest ship
ow ner and a pioneer o f w ool in d u stry in A u stra lia — John M aca rth u r em ployed three o f them on his farm in 1820. But really huge flood o f C h in ese im m igran ts has cam e w ith the A u stra lia n gold ru sh period. B etw een 1852 and 1889 over 40 thou san ds o f people6 arrived and th ey w ere decoyed b y quite easy com in g into a fortune. They w ere sent to A u stralia by C h inese businessm en (under a credit-tick- et system ) and had to w ork on goldfields until their debt w as paid off. They cam e in groups o f 6 0 0 - 7 0 0 people. They m ade up 3,3% o f the A u stra lia n population. C am e from H ong Kong, Shantou and X iam en , th ey has settled in different parts o f the continent, but the m ost o f them has lived in a sm all tem p o rary cam ps or villages in N ew South W ales, V icto ria and Southern A u stralia. Livin g conditions o f C h in ese-A u stralian s w ere hard. V ery often in one b u ild in g over 300 people lived together^ A d d ition ally there w as a huge am ount o f m en and on ly 1 1 w om en. G old rush offered them a chance o f gain in g great fortun es and h avin g prestige in C h i nese society (when th ey cam e back to the m otherland). Lured by m oney-m aking settled in different p arts o f continent. The biggest group has w orked on goldfields in N ew South W ales and W estern A u stralia. W ith time, in m ajor great A u stra lian cities (Sydney, M elbourne, Brisbane) th ey established C h in ato w n s — C h inese d istricts w ith C h in ese architecture, in frastru ctu re and custom s. This w as really im p ortan t m om ent o f settlin g in A u stralia. However, The W h ite A u stra lia Policy (from 19 0 1 Im m igratio n R estriction A c t to the 1960s and 1970s) had caused a cam paign against C h in ese and alm ost prohibited A siatic im m igration to Australia8.
2 F. Welsh, Australia. A N ew History o f The Great Southern Land, Woodstock & New York 2006, p. 2. 3 Ibidem, p. 8.
4 Ibidem, p. 51.
5 The earliest documented Chinese settler was Mak Sai Ying, who arrived in 1818, and purchased land in Parramatta. He married an English woman Sarah Thompson. In 1823 changed his name to John Shying.
6 The Au stralian go ld rush, Australian Government Official Website, <http://australia.gov.au/abo-
ut-australia/australian-story/austn-gold-rush>, [12.06.2012]. 1 M. Clark, Historia Australii..., op. cit., p. 123.
A lrea d y at the begin n in g o f the 20th cen tu ry a M in ister o f Defence Sir George Foster Pearce adm itted: "[...] W h ilst racially w e are European, geograph ically we are A siatic. O ur ow n sp ecial im m ediate A u stra lia n interests are m ore n early con cerned w ith w hat is happen in g in C h in a and Japan than w hit w hat is h a p p e n in g .
in Belgium , H olland, Poland, or other countries farth er rem oved ”9. But again, the
com m u n ism , C u ltu ra l R evolution w h ich b egan in 1966, V ietn a m (A u stralian s fought on the side o f U nited States) and u n iversal distru st caused that "Sinopho- bia” w as ob served !0.
Establishing of diplomatic relations and first decades of cooperation
D iplom atic relations and official contacts w ere established on 2 1st D ecem ber 1972 w hen G ou gh W h itlam w as a prim e m in ister in A u stra lia and Z h o u Enlai w as the first p rem ier o f the People’s Republic o f C h in a“ . Shane M alo n ey w rote in 2006: "[...] in Shanghai, Z h o u sent W h itlam a b irth d ay cake. In the interim , Z h o u had m et secretly w ith H en ry K issinger, sh akin g hand s on a deal that ended C h in a’s diplom atic and com m ercial isolation by the u s. B y the tim e W h itlam retu rn ed to A u stralia, the Labor leader’s h igh -risk gam ble seem ed like an act o f sublim e p re scien ce”!2. That risk set to be beneficial for this both and for other states. Firstly, A u stra lia dow ngraded its relations w ith Taiw an. It is w orth to say that C h in a has started to im plem ent the "open door p o licy ”, w hich consists o f open in g m arkets and form in g con n ection s w ith other cou n tries’ econom ies” . N ew e r a o f m u t u a l a c c e p t a n c e and cooperation has began.
A lrea d y in 1978, on A u stralian governm ent’s initiative C h in a-A u stralia C ouncil
cam e into bein g!4. Their m ain goal w as to prom ote m utual relations betw een both
countries and to assist w ith education, cu ltural and econom ic projects. In spite of initial problem s in founding com m on course o f action, progress has been made. Ex changes and cooperation have in creased in vario us Fields. Value o f sales increased from 72 m ln u s d in 1972 to 216 m ln u s d one year later” . In 1984 value o f sales exceeded one billion dollars and C h in a set to be fourth largest expo rt m arket for A u stralia. Besides trade, extensive relations w as observed in education — especially in un iversity studies. A lot o f C h inese students has settled tem porarily in A u stralia.
9 F. Welsh, Australia. A N e w History..., op. cit., p. 408.
10 Ibidem, p. 482. See also on page 485.
11 Mao Zedong was the Chairman of the Communist Party of China.
12 S. Maloney, Gough W hitlam a n d Z h o u Enlai, “The Monthly” no. 13, <http://www.themonthly. com.au/issue/2006/june/1316148095/shane-maloney/gough-whitlam-zhou-enlai>, [12.06.2012]. 13 See: J. Fornalczyk, Chiny w procesie modernizacji — przemiany gospodarczo-społeczne [w:]
Współczesne Chiny: polityka, kultura, gospodarka, ed. M. Pietrasiak, Łódź 2005, p. 193. 14 Now in Department of Foreing Affairs and Trade in Australian Government.
T ian an m en Squ are M assacre in 1989 in d icated the d irectio n o f partnership on the n ext decade. A u stra lia n governm ent in terchangeably condem ned C h inese authority. The P rim e M in ister — Bob H awke cried over victim s at a m em orial ser vice in the G reat H all in Parliam ent. 42 thousand o f C h in ese students (residents in A u stralia) w ere allow ed b y Labor governm ent to stay in A u stra lia and never come back to C h in a16. That w as not on ly the p o ssibility to educate but also an op p ortu n ity for n ew life. It started the second biggest w ave o f m igration to A u stra lia since the gold ru sh era. A t the b egin n in g o f 2 0 11 A u stra lia provided higher education to over 12 6 thousand o f C h in ese students w hich is 26 percent o f all overseas students in A u stra lia i7. A u stra lia is now the biggest m arket for C h in ese students for tertia r y education. Since T ian an m en the h u m an rights issue is v ery im p ortan t th in g in talks betw een Beijin g and C an b erra. A fte r the m assacre, in addition, the num ber o f officials' visits has been reduced and som e o f the preferential trade regulations retreated. "In the process o f China's p ost-T iananm en evolution ary h u m an rights diplom acy changes, A u stra lia w as one o f the countries to be w on over b y C h in a in facilitatin g its p o licy im plem entation. A d m itted ly, C h ina's b ilateral dialogue approach and techn ical cooperation w ith A u stralia and som e other W estern coun tries contributed to the successive failure o f the A m erican attem pt to take m ultilat
eral actions to pass an an ti-C h in a resolution in the u n H um an Rights C om m ission
(replaced by the u n H um an R ights C o u n cil in M arch 2ооб)’П8. A fte r those events
A u stra lia n p olitician s started to ask a question about the place betw een C h in a and U nited States o f A m erica. It w as know n, that both countries w ere the pillars o f A u stra lia n foreign policy. O n one side there is still lucrative econom ic relation ship w ith a risin g but ideologically alien n ew hegem on, on the other side m ilitary force protection and close cooperation in m an y areas w ith the greatest pow er in the world. The w hole decade o f the 90s w as m arked by tension. In 19 91 Paul Keat ing becam e n ew A u stra lia n Prim e M in ister. Despite differences and difficulties he focu sed on general low erin g o f ta riff levels w ith in the A sia-P acific region and tyin g A u stra lia to the econom ic strength o f C h ina, Japan and U. S. Two years later
he visited C h in a and South K orea to cam p aign for strength en ing a p e cU He w as
intent to his quest for deeper econom ic in tegration in the region.
A n im p ortan t point in S in o -A u stralian relations w as a question o f Taiw an. In 1972 A u stra lia declared his p olicy tow ards this island as am bivalent. G en erally b e cause o f the relations betw een A u stra lia and T aiw an w ere episodic. O n the other 16 Children o f the revolution, The Sydney Mornig Herald, <http://www.smh.com.au/artic-
les/2003/i2/25/i072308628745.html>, [12.06.2012].
17 Ph. Ivanov, Australia and China's higher education revolution, The Interpreter, Lowy Institute for International Policy, <http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2011/07/26/Australia-and-Chi- nas-Higher-Education-Revolution.aspx>, [13.06.2012].
18 Hou Minyue, The Post-Tiananm en H um an Rights Issue in C h in a -A u stra lia Relations, [w:]
“Asian Journal of Political Science”, vol 15, no 3, December 2007, p. 344. 19 The People's Republic of China joined a p e c in 1991.
hand in teresting in gain in g C h in a as a partner in regional p olicy and econom y w as great. The K eatin g governm ent has still tried to m ain tain proper relations w ith Taiw an. The econom ic cooperation betw een these tw o coun tries has been car ry in g out behin d C h in a. U nited States' su p p ort given to T aiw an dem ocratization process has caused in tensification in A u stra lia n Taiw anese contacts. This am ong others brought about A u stra lia n reaction on 1996 T aiw an Straits C risis. A u stra lia supported the u s ' reaction to that situation. A lexan d er Dow ner, w ho w as the new foreign m in ister under the H ow ard governm ent20 said that C h in ese firin g m issiles tests near the m ain p orts and influence on presidential election should be lim ited. A fter this announcem ent the n ext diplom atic crisis has been observed. The aid that has been given by A u stra lia to U nited States w as judged as intervention in C hinese internal affairs. C h in a blocked official visits to A u stra lia and "froze m ovem ent on alm ost an y com m ercial negotiations w ith A u stra lia n firm s’Th N evertheless, A u s tralia started to straigh ten relationship w ith C h in a v ery quickly. A lrea d y in 1997 both countries established The C h in a-A u stralia H um an R ight D ialogue. It start ed the process o f enhancing m utual tru st and fin d in g concrete w ays to cooperate on relevant issues. T ill Ju ly 2 0 12 there w as fourteen m eetings d u rin g w hich a lot o f deals w as discussed. C h in ese officials have to attend courses in international h um an righ ts law at A u stra lia n universities. A ll publications connected w ith hu m an righ ts should be tran slated in both languages. A c tiv ity o f A ll C h in a W om en's Federation relates to prevention o f dom estic violence and train in g in w om en's and
children's righ ts2 2. These are on ly few exam ples o f the cooperation. It w as benefi
cial for both states (especially in econom ic area). But also in political field. In 1997 C h in a gained an ally in H ong K ong issue. A gain , the p eriod o f "m utual resp ect” becam e to real. Jo h n H ow ard has claim ed that C h in ese econom ic developm ent and gro w th and rein forcem en t o f national defence o f this co u n try is not a threat to A u stralia, but on the other hand he didn't w an t to straigh ten ties at m ilitary and political areas.
Milestones and problems in the 21st century
B etw een 1996 and 200 7 Jo h n H ow ard visited C h in a six tim es (m ost o f all A u stra lian Prim e M inisters). To m ake th in gs w orse, it has caused that relationship w ith The M iddle C o u n try since that tim e has been inseparable and m uch stronger than
20 John Howard was the Prime Minister of Australia from 11.03.1996 to3.12.2007.
21 G. Dobell, The D ow ner legacy: N ortheast Asia, The Interpreter — Lowy Institute for Internatio nal Policy, <http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2009/09/14/Downer-seminar-Northeast-Asia. aspx>, [12.06.2012].
22 Second M eeting O f The A u stra lia-C h in a H um an Rights Dialogue: 1 0 - 1 1 August 1998, Depart
ment of Foreign Affairs, <http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/releases/1998/fa108_98.html>, [12.06.2012].
ever before. Econ om ic reform s in itiated b y D eng X iao p in g at the end o f the 1970s (e.g. ru ra l reform s and agricu ltu ral grow th, sp ecial econom ic zones, open in g up the private sector, open in g to the outside world) caused, that China's dem and for raw m aterials has begun to increase rapidly. A n intensive im p ort o f coal, iron, steel, refined petroleum , alu m in iu m and n atural gas has been for C h in a a precondition for long-term developm ent. A u stra lia w hich is rich in resources has becom e the ideal p artn er for the C h inese. The A u stra lia n and C h in ese econom ies are now stro n gly com p lem en tary in the region o f South East A sia and Pacific O cean. For m er Prim e M in ister Bob Howke said: "I m ade m y first visit to C h in a in 1978. N o w [A. K. — 2009] after 81 visits, I have had the opportun ity first hand — over the whole o f the p eriod o f this m ove to a m arket e co n o m y — to w itn ess the im pact o f that decision upon C h ina, the region and the w o rld ”23. A cco rd in g to A u stra lia n sta tistics, tw o -w ay m erch an dise trade has grow n from 113 a u d m illion in 1973, just
after the establishm ent o f diplom atic relations, to 78,2 a u d billion in 2009 and to
117,714 a u d b illio n in the end o f 201224. A n d to a large extent this is due to John H ow ard's period. The last decade w as the m ost intensive in m utual trade and in vestm ents (C hart 1).
Chart 1. Australia's exports to China (in a u d billion)
Data source: A u s tra lia ’s export to C h in a 2 0 1 1 - 2 0 1 1 , Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, p.i, <http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/stats-pubs/australias-exports-to-china-2001-2011.pdf>,
[20.10.2012].
23 B. Howke, Looking back on C h in a ’s relations with Australia, EastAsiaForum — Economics, Po litics and Public Policy in East Asia and the Pacific, <http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2009/09/27/ looking-back-on-chinas-relations-with-australia/>, [12.10.2012].
24 Trade and Investment, Australian Embassy, <http://www.china.embassy.gov.au/bjng/relations2.
In 20 04 Fu Y in g took office as the am bassador to A u stra lia (she w as later a dep uty m in ister o f foreign affairs in China). A t the begin n in g o f her visit in A u stralia she has presented m ain areas o f potential cooperation betw een A u stra lia and C h i na in the 2 1st century. The docum ent has been accepted b y A u stra lia n side — es p ecially b y the opposition p a rty (then Labor Party). Som e o f the prepositions are below:
- cooperation in en ergy sector — im p o rt o f A u stra lia n raw m aterials, m ain ly coal (huge C h in ese dem and could be appeased),
- cooperation in agricultu re — A u stra lia n experience and ad vanced agricu l ture tech n ology could be helpful for C h in ese agriculture, w h ich w as then belated,
- cooperation in science and tech n o lo g y — w ith puttin g strong em phasis on biotechnology. A u stra lia as one o f the leaders in this field could be helpful in b u ild in g C h in ese scien ce-research-developm en t parks and specialized research and test labs,
- cooperation in environm ental m an agem en t— w ith putting strong em phasis on w astew ater treatm ent — usin g advanced tech n ology (very com m on in Australia),
- cooperation in education — w ith p articu lar reference to teach in g English art a basic level, and youth and student exchanges.
In return, A u stralia w ould gain a finan cial profit and a strong, solid, and reliable partner in trade and in politics in the region o f East-South A sia and the Pacific. It w ould also gain in the futu re w ell-educated w orkforce. A ll o f these points have been im plem ented for m an y years. In fact, this long-term and advanced coopera tion is based on these pillars.
O n A p ril 2005, A u stralia and C h in a agreed to com m ence negotiations on a Free
Trade A greem en t (f t a) follow ing consideration o f a join t f t a Feasibility Study. The
stu dy w as com pleted in M arch 2005, and concluded that there w ou ld be sign ifi cant econom ic benefits for both A u stra lia and C h in a th rou gh the negotiation o f an f t a. Ju st before getting dow n to the negotiations president H u Jintao said that C h in a-A u stralia relations have achieved new progress in recent years w ith rem ark able results achieved in the exchanges and cooperation in vario u s fields25. The first round o f negotiations w as held on 23rd o f M ay 2005 in Sydney and w as related to the form al and p rocedu ral issues. A u stra lia com m itted itse lf to ca rry out am ong C h i nese officials a lot o f effective com m u nication and negotiation train in gs. D u ring the second round both countries exchanged in form ation about m utual trade and investm ent system s. Four w orkgroups cam e into being. They debated on:
- agriculture (agriculture techn ology and trade o f san itary and p h yto san itary system s, as w ell as barriers in agricultu re products trade),
25 H u Jintao meets with Au stralian Prim e Minister, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Re public of China, <http://www.ambchine.mu/eng/xwdt/t194278.htm>, [2.10.2012].
- trade in goods (tariffs, n o n -tariffs b arriers, the ad m in istratio n custom s, rules o f origin and public procurem ent),
- trade in services (education, tourism , telecom m unications, finance, tra n s portation, professional services and m in ing, and also regulation s for tem p o ra ry en try o f people),
- intellectual p ro p erty rights, com petition policy, tran sp aren cy and conflicts settlem en t2 6.
Every tim e the negotiations are com plex. Subsequent m eetin gs w ere focused on the developm ent o f a d raft agreem ent. F u rther progress w as m ade in talks on
the m ovem ent o f goods and tech n ical barriers to trade (t b t) and cu stom s p roce
dures. However, the debate w ill be continued at the n ext m eeting. A t the end o f 2 0 12 th ey are before the n ineteenth round, but n obod y can be sure o f the positive results. D u rin g this tim e a lot o f events could be destructive for the negotiations.
There w ere a lot o f scrapes betw een H ow ard and H u Jintao. A t the end o f John H ow ard's p rem iership in 200 7 H is H oliness The D alai L am a cam e to A u stra lia w ith an official visit. E very tim e, w hen this typ e o f visit is held, C h in ese authorities react negatively. C h in a w arn ed C an b erra that the D alai Lam a's visit there could h arm bilateral ties. Foreign M in istry spokesm an Q in G a n g told jou rn alists: "We have expressed our strong dissatisfaction and staunch opposition to the A u stralian side for allow ing the D alai Lam a to A u stra lia to engage in splittist activities [...] The D alai Lam a is not a sim ple religious figure. He is a long-tim e p olitical exile engaged in sp littist activities and d estro yin g n ation al u n ity''2 7. The 11-d a y v isit brough t about a diplom atic dispute. A u stra lia alw ays tries to exploit this typ e o f events to put pressure on Beijing on h u m an rights. That's why, despite criticism from China, John H ow ard m et w ith The D alai Lam a. H ow ard has provoked a diplom atic ro w at a m om ent w hen trade links w ith C h in a have never been closer. O n the other hand A u stralian officials tried to placate Beijing by sayin g that the Buddhist icon had not
been using A u stra lia as a platform to prom ote T ib etan independence2 8. It th rew
C h in ese into con fusion and the con flict w as not v ery deep and didn't last long. The year 20 0 7 brough t hope o f change — im provem ent in relations not on ly econom ic, but also political. A u stralian new Prim e M in ister K evin Rudd — trained sinologist, w ho speaks M an d arin fluently has im m ediately becam e a "friend o f the
26 A u stra lia-C h in a f t a Negotiations. Second R ound o f Negotiations, Australian Government De
partment of Foreign Affairs and Trade, <http://www.dfat.gov.au/fta/acfta/050901_subscriber_ update.html>, [15.12.2010].
2y China warns Australia over Dalai Lama, The Sydney Morning Herald, <http://www.smh.
com.au/news/world/china-warns-australia-over-dalai lama/2007/06/12/1181414278558.html>,
[12.06.2012].
2* Alexander Downer felt obliged to ask China to respect different political system and culture in
Australia, adding that the Dalai Lama is considered to be a significant religious personality and his visit does not affect the position of Canberra on the issue of Chinese sovereignty over Tibet.
C h in ese people"29 and q uickly gain ed p o p u larity w ith the C h in ese public. G oo d contacts w ith East A sia w ere am ong the three p illars o f his governm ent's foreign policy. C h in ese p o licy élites had great hope that the S in o -A u stralian relationship could becom e a m odel for the relationship betw een C h in a and the W est. A t the begin n in g o f the prem iership he an n ounced that respects the o n e-C h in a p olicy and w ill not interfere in the dispute in the T aiw an Strait. A lot o f polite speeches and kin d letters w ere directed from A u stra lia to C h in a and inversely. D u rin g the m eetin g on A p ril 2008 K evin Rudd and H u Jintao agreed that "the political rela tions betw een A u stra lia and C h in a are developing w ell and the engagem ents and dialogues betw een the leaders o f the tw o countries are m ovin g deeper and further, w hich have strongly boosted the developm ent o f bilateral relations. A u stralia views C h in a as a long-term p artn er”30. It started the bilateral strategic dialogue. Both sides reached agreem ent in five issues (very sim ilar to those w hich are the basis of f t a ) : to strengthen high level exchange and enhance m utual tru st in politics, to ex pand m utual interest and deepen bilateral cooperation, to expand peoples' contacts and increase frien d ly exchange in cu ltu ral and educational sectors, to strengthen dialogue and com m u nication and care about the sensitive issues o f both sides and to strengthen regional cooperation to m utually prom ote regional peace and stabili-
t y3\ H ow great m ust have been their surp rise w hen K evin Rudd, during the lecture
at Beijin g U n iversity in 2008, paid attention to sign ifican t problem s w ith hum an righ ts in T ib et and expressed his deep an x iety about this issue. "The cu rren t situ ation in T ib et is o f con cern to A u stralian s. W e recogn ize the need for all p arties to avoid violence and find a solution th rou gh dialogue. A s a lon g-stan din g frien d o f
C h in a i intend to have a straigh tfo rw ard discu ssion w ith China's leaders on th is” 3 2
he said. C h in ese m edia, w hich is under control o f leading party, did not m ention it at all. In spite o f it, m an y businessm en had m isgivin gs about the fact, that a lot o f deals can be suspended. There w ere not sign ifican t consequences, because M r Rudd w as too valuable for the C h in ese governm ent at that tim e. He has supported C h in ese aspiration to strengthen their role in G 20 and he w as the m ediator b e tw een W estern countries and C h in a in talk s about em ission cuts. In 2009, C h in a signed an agreem ent for the purch ase o f 2,25 m illio n tonnes (per year) o f liquefied natural gas from the G orgon field in A u stralia. It w as then one o f the largest com
2® For Kevin Rudd and for journalists this definition was not as polite as the Chinese would like it
to be. In history they named some people in the same way e.g. Joseph Stalin, Norodom Sihano uk — Cambodian ex-king, Hugo Chavez.
3° Chinese President Hu Jintao Meets with Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, Ministry of Fo
reign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, <http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/bmdyzs/ xwlb/t425256.shtml>, [12.08.2012]
31 China, Australia hold first strategic dialogue, “China View”, <http://news.xinhuanet.com/en- glish/2008-02/05/content_7574457.htm>, [17.06.2012].
32 Beijing University speech by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, The Australian, <http:// www.theaustralian.com.au/news/kevin-rudds-speech-at-beijing-uni/story-e6frg6n6-
m ercial tran saction s in A u stralia's history, w orth 50 a u d billion. C h in a becam e the m ost im p ortan t trade p artner and m arket for A u stra lia (C hin a has overtook Japan). B ecau se o f the trade contacts w ith C h in a A u stra lia did not suffer from econom ic and global crisis. E xp o rt to C h in a has m ade C an b erra in 2009 a trade surplus o f 5.5 billion a u d. For C h in a A u stra lia is n inth trade partner. Since this m om ent China's econom ic gro w th contributes d irectly to A u stralia's prosperity.
Inspite o f this good econom ic and statistical data 2009 w as rather difficult year in m utual relations. Firstly because o f the A u stralian Defence W h ite Paper. China's rise in econom ic, political and m ilitary term s has becom e m ore evident. That's w hy the outlook o f m ilita ry and defence has changed — the docum ent said 33. A u stralia sees U nited States o f A m e ric a as the m ost pow erfu l and in fluential strategic ac tor over the p eriod to 2030. The paper declared C h in a w ould be A sia's strongest m ilita ry pow er ''by a considerable m argin'' and w arn ed the pace and scope o f its gro w th had the potential to give its neighbours cause for concern i f not properly
explain ed34. It p roposed a substan tial b oost in A u stralia's air and naval pow er in
response to China's in creasin g m ilita ry presence in the region. Initially, the reac tion o f C h in ese authorities w as not exposed. But secret notes (from u s a and A u s tralia) posted on W ik iL eak s show s that governm ent in C h in a w as agitated after the publication o f the W h ite paper and had threatened A u stra lia w ou ld ''suffer the consequences'' i f references to C h in a w ere not w atered d o w rf5. C o olin g o f political relations had little im pact on econom ic contacts.
Two large en ergy com panies C h in alco and Rio Tin to w ere about to finish nego tiations and finalize the con tract for investm ents and sup p lyin g o f iron ore. W h en suddenly in June 2009 the Rio Tinto agents had rejected the offer (C hinalco w anted to bu y the p art o f the com pany), C h in alco accused them o f corruption and stealing trade secrets (but officially it has nothin g in com m on w ith the offer rejection). Four em ployees (three C h in ese and A u stra lia n — the H ead o f D e le g a tio n 6) w ent to jail on charges o f disclosure o f states secrets (but not econom ic espionage, w hat w as suggested b y som e publicists). The arrest o f Rio Tin to sta ff caused serious diplo m atic frictio n betw een C an b erra and Beijing, esp ecially that the p art o f the trial (despite the resistance o f the M in istry o f Foreign A ffa irs o f Australia) has been held behin d closed doors. The accused con fessed to receivin g ben efitspro perty and the cou rt sentenced them to p rison for 7 to 12 years. A t the sam e tim e, Rio Tin to and C h inalco have resolved the diplom atic problem s, reached an agreem ent and signed another contract trade, cu tting them selves o ff from the corru p tion disclosm W 7.
33 Defending A u stralia in the A sia Pacific Century. Force 2030, Department of Defence, Common wealth of Australia 2009, p. 19 .
34 Ph. Dorling, R. Baker, C h in a ’s fu r y a t Defence Paper, The Sydney Morning Herald, <http://www. smh.com.au/national/chinas-fury-at-defence-paper-20101209-18rel.html>, [12.06.2012]. 35 Ibidem.
36 Stern Hu — the Head of the Delegation, Liu Caikui, Ge Mingqiang, Wang Yong.
C h in ese try to find n ew m arkets and n ew global brands. The greatest invest m ents th ey m ake in the energy sector but also locate their capital in the housing and con struction sector and m ore often in tou rist services and the food industry. A u stra lia n s are interested in in vestin g in m in ing, agriculture, banking, finan cial services, telecom m un ication s and m edia, but C h in ese authorities tries to lim it it. A u stra lia -C h in a Busin ess C o u n cil (founded in 1973) actively prom otes tw o -w ay trade and investm ent and calls both countries to balance their m utual investm ents. W h at is really im portant, A u stra lia w ill probably becom e in 20 13 the th ird country to establish d irect cu rren cy trad in g w ith C h in a (which m oves tow ard in ternation alizin g its currency).
A t this tim e also non-governm ent links has played a vital role in the A u stra- lia -C h in a relationship. A u stra lia has becom e one o f C h ina's m ajor p artn ers in term s o f train in g and developm ent o f talents and scientific innovation. Betw een 2005 and 2 0 11 315 7 31 C h in ese student has got their n ew visas and could com e to A u stra lia to gain education^. But students from A u stra lia choose C h in ese univer sities less often. A fte r frictio n over violence again st In dian students in M elbourne and Sydney, the num ber o f A sia n student esp ecially from India and C h in a had de creased (C hart 2). But still A u stra lia is first destination am ong C h in ese students.
Chart 2. Chinese student visa applications granted (from 2004-05 to 2010-2011). 6 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0
2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011
Source: Own elaboration based on Stu den t visa program trends 2 0 0 4 -0 5 to 2 0 10 -11,
Department of Immigration and Citizenship, p. 18
Współczesna Azja Wschodnia. Wybrane zagadnienia, red. K. Żakowski, Łódź 2011, p.113. 38 Student visa program trends 2 0 0 4 -0 5 to 2 0 10 -11, Department of Immigration and Citizenship,
A lot o f organizations w ere established to help people in settlin g in the new place, fin d in g the language schools and startin g n ew life in the com m u n ity and culture (e.g. The A u stra lia -C h in a Youth A ssociatio n , C h in ese Studies A ssociatio n o f A u stralia, A u stra lia n C h in ese C o m m u n ity Association).
In student exchange, both countries agree th ey should develop a safety hand book for C h inese students in A u stralia, w hile C h in a w ill also explore effective ways to increase the n um ber o f A u stra lia n students in C hina.
A n oth er event, w hich w as held in 2009 had a big influence on Sin o-A u stralian relations. Beijing did not accepted the visit o f Rebiya Kadeer. She is the leader o f the W orld U igh ur C o n gress (w u c) and C h in ese officials tried to persuade A u stralia not to go ahead w ith her speech39. A s The G u ard ian sais: "M elbourn e international film festival's R ichard M oo re fielded a phone call from an an g ry cu ltu ral attaché at the C h in ese consulate in the city, over the inclusion o f the film about bu sin ess w om an K adeer”40. He w an ted to w ith d raw the film from the festival. It did not happen. C h in ese students encouraged to boycott the festival but there w ere not any far-reaching consequences. The Rio Tinto case and Rebiya Kadeer visit are con sidered to be the w orst points in S in o-A u stralian relations for the past few years.
The end o f K evin Rudd's p rem iership w as not v ery popular in C h ina. H is era w as difficult for both countries but the M an d a rin sp eakin g p rem ier focu sed on proper relations alw ays gu aran teed stabilization. He could do and say m ore than anyone else, but on the other hand he at last m ade concessions. Ju lia G illard who overtook Rudd in the m iddle o f 2 0 10 w as before the M in ister for Education and D eputy P rim e M in ister and she w as w ell kn ow n in C h in a. She w as expected to
m ain tain the cooperative relations4\ From the v ery begin n in g strategic partn er
ship w ith C h in a has alw ays been a high p rio rity for Prim e M in ister G illard. W hen G illard visited C h in a for the first tim e as A u stra lia n prim e m in ister in A p ril 2 0 11, she m entioned in p assin g to her hosts the need for a m ore stru ctu red relation ship. In M arch 2 0 12 in the letters to President H u Jintao she p roposed the regular high-level dialogue.
Before her first visit to C h in a social attitudes w ere not v ery good. 44 % o f A u s tralian s expressed in the su rvey for L o w y Institute that th ey fear C h in ese m ilitary threat. A t that tim e Jullia G illard has em phasized that the m ost im portan t strategic
39 Chinese authorities believe that World Uighur Congress is a front for terrorists pushing for a separate East Turkistan homeland.
40 B. Child, Rebiya K adeer row engulfs M elbourne film festival, The Guardian, <http://www.thegu-
ardian.com/film/2009/jul/15/rebiya-kadeer-melbourne-film-festival>, [10.10.2012].
41 Chinese side expected her first visit to the Middle Country. USA wanted her to come to Ame
rica. To reconcile both partners Julia Gillars choose Brussels as her first destination as Prime Minister. During this visit she told: “Foreign policy is not my passion. It's not what I've spent my life doing”. See: T. Wald, Foreign affairs not my thing says Prim e M in ister Ju lia G illa rd on Europe trip, <http://www.news.com.au/national-news/foreign-affairs-not-my-thing-says-prime-
partner for A u stra lia is U nited States. O ther countries are fu rth er away. However, in A p ril 2 0 11 after talks w ith C h in ese officials Prim e M in ister an nounced a "new strategic p artn ersh ip ” betw een A u stra lia and C h in a (during the m eetin g in C h in a
betw een Ju lia G illard and Li K eqiang — china's p rem ier a 1,6 billion a u d deal w as
signed to develop w in d farm s across A u stra lia and 1,5 billion a u d deal to devel
op lead and silver m in es in Q ueensland^). O n the other hand in 2 0 12 the G illard
governm ent has introduced the carbon ta x (of 23 a u d per tone o f carbon dioxide
em ission. They created the list o f 294 m ost n on -green com panies. For C h in ese com panies w ith their shares in A u stra lia it is a sign ifican t increase in production costs. C om p lem entarity o f the tw o econom ies is undeniable and ties betw een them are m uch stronger every year.
In reg io n al p o lic y relation s b e tw een A u stra lia and C h in a are clear. The O n e-C h in a p o licy is accepted b y politician s from southern partner. A u stra lia has becom e the m iddle pow er and has a v ery strong position betw een C h in a and U nit ed States and is actively engaged in the region. Is the bridge from W est to East. The G reat Pow er clash in the East-South A sia and Pacific Region gives A u stra lia the new role. It has to m ain tain the stability, secu rity and peace there. Both A u stra lia and C h in a have strong and en during interests in a stable, secu re and prosperous region (which is one o f the fastest gro w in g region in the world). In N ovem ber 2 0 11 President B arack O bam a m et w ith Ju lia G illard and th ey an n ou nced plans for the first sustain ed A m e ric an m ilita ry presence in A u stralia. He im plied that C h in a should be subm itted the u s p o licy in this p art o f the w orld43. C h in a has not been satisfied w ith the A u stra lia n agreem ent for u s troops station, but econom y is still behind. There w ere som e accusation s o f w an tin g to isolate the largest partner, but an y sudden m ovem ent should be m ade. Ju lia G illa rd com peten tly balances betw een the tw o partners. N ext year she is going to B eijing to secu re closer ties w ith C hina.
For m an y years in the press the greater publicists show their satirical im ages that are the co m m en tary on the curren t p o licy and governm ents' com m itm ent in b u ild in g region al relationships betw een A u stralia, C h in a and U nited States of A m erica. They often see A u stra lia as a servan t or assistant for C h in a in the re gion o f East-South A sia and Pacific. It is sim ilar to the situation in the 90s. w hen A u stra lia w as called "The deputy sh eriff o f A m e rica”. Som e exam ples are below.
42 Ph. Hudson, Julia Gillard strikes deal with China to boost Australian ties, news.com.au, <http:// www.news.com.au/national-news/federal-election/julia-gillard-strikes-deal-with-china-to- boost-australian-ties/story-fnho52ip-i2266i6203387>, [20.10.2012].
43 A. Kandzia, a n z u s— the history, current situation a n d perspectives o f the strategic partnership between A u stralia a n d U. S. [w:] “Antypody. A Quartery Magazine of Australia, New Zealand and Oceania Research Association”, Issu no. 6, Kraków 2012, p. 26.
Picture 1. Author: Suzanne White, by: T. Harcourt, Sino-the-times in labour market and economy, The Sydney Morning Herald, <http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/politics/sino-
thetimes-in-labour-market-and-economy-20091117-ijb5.html>, [12.06.2012].
Picture 2. Author: Paul Kelly, by: The dangers o f mounting us-China rivalry,
<http://www.a-w-i-p.com/index.php/2010/08/12/ the-dangers-of-mounting-us-china-rivalry>, [12.06.2012].
Picture 3. Author: Peter Nicholson, His own collection of pictures, <http://nicholsoncar- toons.com.au/kevin-rudd-chinese-lessons-wen-jiabao-6oo.html>, [12.06.2012]
Picture 4. Author Alan Moir, by: Wei Yuan Min, The Bermuda Triangle: In between
America and China. Australia’s balance and juggling game, The 4th Media, <http://ww-
w.4thmedia.org/2012/06/16/the-bermuda-triangle-in-between-america-and-china-austra- lia%E2%80%99s-balance-and-juggling-game/>, [16.06.2012].
Picture 5. Author: M. Morgenstern, by: Australia’s Chinese entaglement, The Economist,
W e can n ot forget in this article about cu ltu ral and tourist ties betw een our two countries. A cco rd in g to the A u stra lia n Bureau o f Statistics — in 2 0 10 the num ber o f C h in ese tou rists in A u stra lia reached 454 thou san d44. 337 thou san d o f A u stra lian s w ent to C h in a at the sam e tim e. The ongoing econom ic boom s in A sia, and m ore directly, C h ina, continued to bu oy the A u stra lia n tourism industry. A s it w as told before m an y students w an t to stu d y in A u stra lia and th ey gain their v i sas. C h in ese is from 2 0 11 the biggest im m igration group am ong all nationalities. Both countries have em bassies (in C an b erra and Beijing) and consulates in m ajor cities (China's in Sydney, M elbourne, Brisban e and Perth; A u stralia's in Shanghai, G u an gzh ou and H ong Kong).
O ver the last 10 years, the prop ortion o f the A u stra lia n population w ho were b o rn in C h in a in creased from 0,8 percent to 1,8 percent45. C h in ese m in o rity in A u stra lia has ow n com m unes, ow n schools and in stitutions. V ery often th ey use the sam e in stitution s as A u stra lia n s and try to m elt into the A u stra lia n society. Lots o f them are born in A u stralia already. There are m an y organizations that make life easier in A u stralia, e.g. A u stra lia C h in ese C o m m u n ity A ssociatio n , w h ich has d epartm ents in every state. It organizes a lot o f events to prom ote C h in ese culture am ong A u stra lia n s. To facilitate com m u n icatio n and livin g a lot o f A u stra lia n w ebsites are w ell-translated to C h in ese language. C om p anies and hospitals have a C h in ese lan guage speaker on staff. "A ustralia's p articip atio n in the Shan ghai W orld E xpo in 2 0 10 projected an in form ed con tem p orary im age o f A u stra lia and strengthened C h in ese perceptions o f A u stra lia as innovative, creative and dynam -
ic”46. N on -official links play an im p ortan t role in un derstan din g each other and
elim in atin g stereotypes.
Resume
"O f all the im p ortan t relationships that A u stra lia has w ith other countries, none has been m ore greatly tran sfo rm ed over the last 10 years th an our relationship
w ith C h in a” 47 told John H ow ard in 20 0 6 du ring the m eetin g in C h ina. C h in a has
been one o f the key countries, relations w ith w hich have occupied the centre stage 4 4 Short-term visitor arrivals, Australian Bureau of Statistics, <http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATs/
abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/3401.0Feature%20Article1Dec%202010?opendocument&tabname- =Summary&prodno=3401.0&issue=Dec%202010&num=&view=>, [20.10.2012].
4® Australia’s population by country of birth, Australian Bureau of Statistics, <http://www.abs. gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/84074889D69E738cCA257A5A00120A69?opendocument>, [20.10.2012].
4® Australia’s Bilateral Relationships, Australian Bureau of Statistics, <http://www.abs.gov.au/aus- stats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/1301.0~2012~Main%20Features~Australia%27s%20bila- teral%20relationships~210>, [10.10.2012].
4y R. Bowden, Concerns Expressed Over Australia's U ranium D ea l With China, <http://www. worldpress.org/Asia/2327.cfm>, [10.10.2012].
in the A u stra lia n foreign policy. It is inevitable for both countries. E con om ic ties m ean that both A u stra lia and C h in a w an t to m ain tain stab ility and peace in the region. They alw ays stress that th ey are the m ost im p ortan t and p ow erfu l nations in A sia and Pacific (besides India and Japan). The positive trends can be observed in these relationships, but also they have to face the challenges and difficulties. Luck o d em o cracy in C h in a and rather little effective discussion s on hum an righ ts are problem atic for A u stra lia to go p olitically closer to C h ina. However, curren t rela tions are on a frien d ly footing. Sensitive issues are discu ssed in a proper way. Polite diplom acy is givin g both a lot o f benefits. Each tim e all difficulties w ere m anaged to solve. It is w orth to say that both nations have solid foundation for cooperation. N ever had any border w ar (what is obvious), never ran another w ar as d irect ene m ies (besides A n g lo -C h in e se w ar 18 5 9 -18 6 0 and the episode in Vietnam ), never had to break official diplom atic relations. They alw ays v iew the bilateral relation ship from a long-term and strategic perspective, expan d com m on interests, and advance the dialogues, exchanges and cooperation in all fronts. They both try to face opportun ities in th is partnership. The developm ent o f people — to — people relations is key to the future. A lth ou gh, C h in ese need stronger public representa tion in com m unes and in federal parliam ent. The tw o countries should in ten sify the cu ltu ral and education exchanges and con solidate the social foundation o f C h in a-A u stralia relationship.
A u stra lia has had form al diplom atic relations w ith C h in a for four decades. To preserve the long-term interests w ith a key trad in g p artn er A u stra lia n eeds to create a C h in a-in form ed generation o f p o licy m akers and business professionals across sectors48. In the end o f 2 0 12 A u stralian politicians describes C h in a as a part ner in secu rin g peace in the A sia-In d o -P acific region. They w an ted to in crease m ilita ry engagem ent w ith C h in a (and at the sam e tim e not to m ove aw ay from the U nited States). C an b erra and Beijin g kn ow that their activities in the region are cru cial and kn ow v ery w ell how to take advantage o f this partnership m utually.
4* K. Brown, Australia — China: Strategic Partners, The University of Sydney's China Studies Centre (csc) Submission to Australia's China Strategy in the Asian Century, <http://www.dfat. gov.au/issues/asian-century/submissions/061%20-%20China%20-%20University%20of%20Syd-ney%20China%20Studies%20Centre.pdf>, [10.10.2012].
# ABSTRAKT $
W yd arzen ia x x w. pokazały, ja k w ażne dla polityki regionalnej w każdym zakątku św iata jest utrzym an ie dobrych relacji p om ięd zy n ajw iększym i krajam i regionu. Tak też jest w p rzyp ad ku obszaru A z ji Południow ej i W schodniej oraz Pacyfiku. C ztery najw ażniejsze kraje — Chiny, Indie, Japonia i A u stra lia od kilk u n astu lat n iezw ykle in ten syw n ie dbają o zachow anie stabilizacji w regionie. Relacje p oli tyczne coraz bardziej uzależnione są od kontaktów gospodarczych. C elem owego artyku łu jest ukazanie zaw iłych stosunków politycznych (będących rów nież pokło siem relacji ekonom icznych) p o m ięd zy C h iń sk ą Republiką Ludow ą a Zw iązkiem A u stralijsk im w końcu x x i na początku x x i w. O ba pań stw a, tak odm ienne pod kątem system ów politycznych i sposobu spraw ow ania władzy, m ają podobne nasta w ienie w obec u trzym yw an ia w zro stu gospodarczego na w yso k im poziom ie oraz chcą brać odp ow ied zialn ość za sp raw y regionu. K ażd y z dw ójki p artn erów m usi pójść i idzie na pew ne ustępstw a. Przyjaźń A u stra lii i C h in jest trudna, jed n ak n ie zw ykle potrzebna dla utrzym an ia stabilizacji politycznej i gospodarczej w regionie.
Agnieszka Kandzia — Doktorantka nauk o polityce na Uniwersytecie Śląskim
w Katowicach. Asystent w Zakładzie Teorii Polityki Instytutu Nauk Politycznych i Dziennikarstwa uś. Stypendystka Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego. Jej zainteresowania badawcze koncentrują się wokół systemu politycznego i systemu partyjnego Związku Australijskiego oraz ruchów republikańskich i monarchistycz- nych w tym kraju. Zajmuje się również badaniem relacji pomiędzy Australią, a kra jami regionu Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i Pacyfiku. Jest członkiem Towarzystwa Naukowego Australii, Nowej Zelandii i Oceanii.
