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William Smith O’Brien in Poland and Lithuania

in the 1860s

K A T A R Z Y N A G M E R E K

W illiam S m ith O’B rien (1 8 0 3 -1 8 6 4 ), Iris h n a tio n a lis t M P a n d le a d e r o f th e Young Irelan d Movement, seem ed to a ttra c t m o re a tte n tio n fro m fo re ig n th a n Irish re s e a rc h e rs in th e late 20th century.1 R ichard D avis fro m th e U n iv e rsity o f T a sm a n ia a n d h is w ife M a r ia n n e d eserv e to be com m ended h ere fo r e d itin g O’B rien’s p ris o n jo u r n a l fr o m V an D ie m e n ’s L a n d , a n d for o th e r published w orks in c lu d in g a n im p o r ta n t bio g rap h y . B lan ch e T u o h ill h a s also p u b lish e d a b io ­ graphical b o o k on th e life o f W illiam S m ith O’B rien .2 T he p rim a ry e m p h a s is in th e s e w orks is on his role in Irish h istory, h is p a rtic ip a tio n in th e R ep eal A sso ciatio n fo u n d e d by D an iel O’C onnell in order to appeal th e Act o f U n io n o f 1800, h is in v o lv e m e n t in th e Y oung Ire la n d M o v em en t an d his penal exile in A u stralia. M o re recen tly , R ic h a rd D avis h a s p u b lis h e d Travels o f W illiam Sm ith O’Brien w hich in clu d es a d e s c rip tio n o f O’B rien’s voyages a n d jo u r n a ls .3

Since c o m p letin g m y d o c to ra l th e sis, 1 have stu d ie d th e P olish c o n ta c ts o f S m ith O’B rien and, although m y o p in io n on h im is p e rs o n a l, it is as a re s u lt o f a d e e p in te re s t in h is life a n d study o f various h isto rical sources. L o o k in g a t h im fro m th e P olish view p o in t gives m e a d ifferen t sense of his im p o rta n c e in h is to ry to th a t d e riv e d fro m th e Irish o r A m e ric a n p e rsp e c tiv e , an d co n v in c­ es m e th a t w ritin g a b o u t h is P olish jo u rn e y s h as a validity. In th is a rtic le 1 a m u sin g th e content from my p rev io u s w orks, in c lu d in g th e 2012 o n lin e a rtic le 4 w h ic h d re w on th e m aterial in th e jo u rn als o f W illiam S m ith O’B rien h e ld in th e N a tio n a l L ib rary o f Ire la n d 5, a n d also th e c o n te n t from m y p a p e r given at a c o n feren ce in B ulgaria, V eliko T y rn o v o (20 0 7 ), o n th e Irish rebellion o f 1848 an d th e 1863 in s u rre c tio n in P o lan d . Som e new in fo rm a tio n h as b e e n a d d e d from o n -going research. For th e p u rp o s e o f th is p a p e r I h av e c o n su lte d O’B rien’s trav el jo u rn a ls fro m S ep tem b er 1861, w h en he saw P o la n d for th e first tim e , as I b eliev e it w ill c o m p lete th e p ic tu re I w ish to p resen t h ere.6

W illiam S m ith O’B rien (1 8 0 3 -1 8 6 4 ) cam e fro m a P ro te s ta n t a risto c ra tic fam ily; he w as an Irish n a tio n a list M P w h o se life to o k a very u n u su a l c o u rs e after h e d e c id e d to jo in D aniel O’C o n ­ nell’s R epeal A ssociation. H is fam ily w as p ro u d o f b e in g d e s c e n d a n ts o f B rian Boru, H igh King o f Irelan d fro m 1 0 0 2 -1 0 1 4 . Initially, h e w as a g reat a d m ire r o f D aniel O’C onnell, th e Liberator,

1 Richard Davis, Revolutionary Imperialist, William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864 (Dublin, 1998).

2 Blanche Tuohill, William Smith O'Brien and his Irish Revolutionary Companions in Penal Exile (Missouri, 1981). 3 Richard Davis, Travels o f William Smith O'Brien In Europe and the Wider World 1843 to 1864 (Dublin, 201J). 4 Katarzyna Gmerek, 'W.S. O'Brien w Polsce I na Litwie.Krak6w • Wilno, maj-czerwlec 1863. cz. 1' (http:// histmag.0rg/W.S.-OBrien-w-Polsce-l-na-Litwie.-Krakow-Wilno-maj-czerwlec-1863-cz.-1-6347) (>8 20'

5*-5 'Journal 'Berlin '63', )une 1863 (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 46, 829/8); despite the title, the journal is about the visit in the Russian part of Poland, and It had been written In Berlin after the author left the Russian Empire.

6 ‘Journal of an excursion made during August and September 1861' (N.L.I., William Smith O Brlen Papers, MS 32, 707).

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but he becam e disillusioned w ith O’C onnell a n d involved h im s e lf in th e m o re m ilita n t Young Ireland M ovem ent. D riven by th e g reat c u ltu ra l uph eav al a n d th e Irish re su rg e n c e , h e sta rte d as a m iddle aged m an learn in g Irish a n d co llectin g Irish m a n u s c rip ts . As a la n d o w n e r, h e w as deeply concerned a b o u t th e fate o f th e sta rv in g p e a s a n try d u rin g th e G reat F a m in e , a n d tr ie d to persuade the W estm inster P arliam en t to give m o re su b s ta n tia l assista n c e . W h e n h is a n d o th e r Irish deputies’efforts proved useless ag ain st th e E nglish u ltra lib e ra l laisse z -fa ire a p p ro a c h , h e d e ­ cided to break-off relations w ith th e English p a rlia m e n t, a n d to p re p a re fo r a re b e llio n . It seem s im p o rtan t here to look at th e events o f 1848 in Ire la n d in a b ro a d e r E u ro p e a n c o n te x t. T hat y ear o f revolutions w hich in P oland is re fe rre d to as th e ‘S p rin g tid e o f th e N a tio n s’ h a d se e n m a n y rebellions, social an d n atio n al, in m an y E u ro p ean c o u n trie s, in c lu d in g th e P ru s sia n a n d A u stria n p arts o f Poland, however, th e m o st tu rb u le n t reb ellio n s to o k p lace in F ran ce, Italy a n d A u stria. The Irish literate public w as aw are o f th ese upheavals, as th e y w ere c o v ered by local p a p e rs w hich m entioned place nam es from B udapest to Posen, a n d w h ic h c o m p a re d th e situ a tio n in Ire la n d w ith th a t o f Italy, H ungary an d P oland. The Young Ire la n d M o v e m e n t b e g a n to p la n fo r a s im ila r revolution in Ireland.

In the eventful sp rin g o f 1848 th e H abeas C o rp u s A ct w as lifted fo r Ire la n d , a n d first s e n ­ tences were passed for sedition. The sm all a n d u n su ccessfu l reb ellio n b e g a n in July o f th e sa m e year. A group o f radicals p e rsu a d e d W illiam S m ith O’B rien th a t he, as a d e s c e n d a n t o f B rian Boru, was th e perfect choice as n atio n al leader. The in s u rg e n ts h a d n o p re c ise p la n s , n o fin an ces and lacked people w ith m ilitary train in g . A dditionally, th e c o u n tr y w as su fferin g fro m fa m in e . In these circum stances it is n o w o n d er th a t th e reb ellio n o f 1848 h a d to b e s h o rt. O ’B rien w h o h a d n either m ilitary tra in in g n o r n a tu ra l ta le n t lo st h is last ch a n c e fo r a m o re sig n ific a n t m ilita ry action durin g the skirm ish at B allingarry, Co T ipperary. This in c id e n t w as u n ju s tly d e s c rib e d by the contem porary London Times as ‘A b a ttle a t th e W idow M cC o rm ick ’s cab b ag e g a rd e n ’. It is im p o rtan t to u n d erlin e th a t alth o u g h th e reality o f th e ev e n t o v e rw h e lm e d th e c o u ra g e o u s O’Brien, there was n o th in g heroic on th e p a rt o f th e B ritish c o n stab les w h o to o k local c h ild re n as hostages, and co m m u n icated to O’B rien th a t th ey w o u ld d ie if h e d id n o t w ith d ra w fro m h is a c ­ tion. In face o f such an u ltim atu m , O’B rien d ecid e d to agree to th e te r m s a n d e n d e d h is b a ttle ; b u t sporadic fights c o n tin u ed for som e tim e afterw ard s ac c o rd in g to L aw ren ce F e n to n .7 T he B ritish press used the case o f th e h o n est, u n sk illed in su rg e n ts to d ev elo p p ro p a g a n d a a im e d a g a in s t th e rebels a n d Ireland in general. This n a rra tio n b ec a m e d o m in a n t a n d , to a c e rta in e x te n t, p re v a ils to the presen t day. L ater on, O’Brien g ain ed g reat p o p u la rity a m o n g th e Irish n a tio n a lis ts , it w as n o t because o f his d ilettan te a tte m p t to lead a revolt b u t b e c a u se o f h is im p ris o n m e n t. H e w as one o f th e first fam ous figures in Irelan d w hose p riso n p ro te s t a n d m is tre a tm e n t b e c a m e a w id e ­ ly disputed issue.8 He was se n ten ced to d e a th alo n g w ith o th e r le a d e rs, b u t th e v e rd ic t w as changed to th e penal exile in A ustralia at H er M ajesty’s p leasu re, a n d h e w as se n t to V an D ie m e n ’s Land. Lim ited freedom was offered to p riso n e rs o n th e c o n d itio n th a t th e y give th e ir w o rd n o t to attem p t to escape. O’Brien w as th e only on e w h o refu sed to give h is w ord; h e a tte m p te d to escape on one occasion an d p ersisted in h is o b stin a c y for a b o u t o n e year, e n d in g h is p ro te s t a fter m o n th s in solitary confinem ent. The reaso n for h is p ro te st w as th a t h e w a n te d to b e p e rc e iv e d as

7 Lawrence Fenton, Young Ireland Rebellion and Limerick (Cork, 2010).

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William Smith O'Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

a political leader, a lb e it in a sy m b o lic way. T he fa c t o f ta k in g a n o a th w as u n im a g in a b le fo r h im and he could n o t accep t th e sta tu s o f a c rim in a l, a lth o u g h h e n e v e r a r tic u la te d th is e x p licitly as some Fenian le a d e rs d id in a la te r era . T h ere w ere c o n tr a d ic to r y o p in io n s o n h is tr e a tm e n t a t th is time; th e Irish n a tio n a list p re ss re p o r te d it v ery d iffe re n tly to th e B ritis h P ress w h ic h p r e s e n te d the p ro p ag an d a o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in th e ir p e rio d ic a ls . O’B rien a lm o s t d ie d in th e p e n a l c o lo n y in M aria Island after d ev elo p in g c a rd ia c fa ilu re . T he h is to r y o f h is c o n fin e m e n t is an in te re s tin g one, but suffice it is to say h e re th a t th e p ro te s t w as so fa m o u s th a t it w as k n o w n even in P ru s s ia n Poland, despite th e fa c t th a t th e relativ e fre e d o m o f th e p re s s w as c o m in g to a n e n d in P o se n a t that tim e. A circle o f lo cal w rite rs to o k O’B rien as a n e x a m p le o f a p a tr io t su fferin g fo r h is c o u n ­ try, and co m p a re d h im to th e Poles in P ru s s ia n p ris o n s . O n e o f th e m , a H u n g a ria n m ilita r y v e t­ eran of th e 1848 events, W lad y slaw B en tk o w sk i, w h o w as in C ra c o w at th e s a m e tim e as O ’B rien (1863), is th o u g h t to h ave w ritte n O’B rien’s o b itu a ry .

Sm ith O’B rien w as re le a se d fro m h is c a p tiv ity in 1856 a fte r th e C rim e a n W ar w h ich as a r e ­ sult changed p o litical c irc u m sta n c e s. B ritish a u th o r itie s b e lie v e d th a t Ire la n d w as n ow q u ie t a n d that O’B rien, v ario u sly n ic k n a m e d as a ‘c ab b ag e g a rd e n fig h te r’, a ‘lu n a tic ’, o r ‘p e rv e rse a n d in s a n e ’, o r ‘King o f M u n ster’, w as sufficiently h u m ilia te d a n d d e s tin e d to d ie in o b liv io n . In 1858, h e w as allowed to re tu rn h o m e . H e s ta rte d w ritin g to a n u m b e r o f n e w sp a p e rs, m o stly The N a tio n a n d the Freeman's Journal. H e w ro te a b o u t issu es th a t h e b e lie v e d to b e im p o rta n t, n o t lim ite d to th e Irish q u estio n , as h e also re p o r te d o n m a n y e v e n ts w h ic h to o k p lace in A m erica a n d E urope.

His eco n o m ic a n d so cial s itu a tio n c h a n g e d u tte rly as a c o n se q u e n c e o f h is felon sta tu s, d e ­ spite th e fact th a t h e w as still a m e m b e r o f th e p riv ile g e d class a n d h a d p ro m in e n t M Ps in h is fam ily; all h is b ro th e rs w ere sta u n c h ly p ro -B ritish . In 1848, ju s t b efo re he w as se n te n c e d , a n inform al deal w as m a d e to p re v e n t fo rfe itu re o f h is p ro p e rty . The p ro v isio n s o f th e d eal w ere th a t he w ould re lin q u ish h is p ro p e rty a n d a tr u s t w o u ld b e c re a te d , a n d w o u ld b e a d m in is tra te d by his o ld er b ro th e r on b e h a lf o f O’B rien’s so n . W h e n h e r e tu r n e d fro m exile O’B rien fo u n d h im s e lf in a m o st u n c o m fo rta b le p o sitio n , how ever, th a n k s to th e m e d ia tio n o f h is w ife (Lucy O’B rien ) h e and his fam ily w ere allow ed to live in th e ir fo rm e r h o u se , a n d to cu ltiv ate th e la n d th a t n o lo n g e r belonged to th e m as a re s u lt o f th e p re v io u s a rra n g e m e n ts . W h e n Lucy d ied th e eld est b ro th e r, w ho p robably d id n o t agree w ith th e p o litic a l v iew s o f W illiam S m ith O’B rien, w ith d re w th a t ag reem en t. A lo n g u n p le a s a n t d is p u te b e fo re a c o u rt re s u lte d in a deal: S m ith O’B rien received a n an n u ity fro m h is b ro th e r th a t allow ed h im to live c o m fo rta b ly , b u t h e h a d to leave his h o m e at C a- hirm oyle, Co L im erick. It w as ta k e n over by h is e ld e st so n w h o sh a re d h is uncle’s p o litical view s. Follow ing h is wife’s d e a th , O’B rien m a d e fre q u e n t jo u rn e y across A m erica a n d Europe. H is u n p u b lish ed travel jo u rn a ls a n d th e n e w sp a p e r articles h e w ro te after he com p leted h is tra v e ls in tro d u ce a n o th e r e lem en t to h is character. It is n o co in cid en ce th a t he v isited c o u n trie s th a t w ere u n d erg o in g political changes, a n d th a t h e h a d n u m e ro u s m eetin g s w ith people w h o p lay ed a significant role in th ese changes. T his is tr u e in referen ce to A m erica w hich at th a t tim e w as in a state o f civil war, b u t also to C an ad a w h ich w as g a in in g au to n o m y in ru n n in g its ow n affairs, a n d w here he sp en t tim e in th e com pany o f d ep u tie s in th e new p a rlia m e n t. In G reece, he o b se rv e d th e em ergence o f a c o n stitu tio n a l m onarchy, in H u n g ary he sp e n t so m e tim e w ith local p o litician s w ho w ere d e m a n d in g in d e p e n d e n c e fro m A ustria. It seem s clear from his ow n acco u n ts ot h is Polish-L ithuanian jo u rn e y th a t he w as in te n d in g to o b serv e a n d d escrib e political changes in th e m o d e rn w orld in o rd e r to p re se n t it to th e Irish public. It seem s significant lo n o te th at in th e

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re-searched volum es n eith er th e Irish rebellion o f 1848 is m e n tio n e d n o r his tria l a n d im p riso n m e n t. Probably, he was m ore interested in n o tin g th e ex p erien ce o f m an y c o u n trie s th a t w ould be useful for future Irish generations. It is also ev id en t th a t som e o f h is travel jo u rn a ls w ere w ritte n w ith the intention o f publication. His d escriptions w ere lively a n d co lo u rfu l, a n d th e w ritin g p ro fited from his excellent Cam bridge education in h is to ry a n d classics. H e seem s to have b e e n very o p e n to ­ wards the people he m et d u rin g his trip s, never p a tro n isin g o r ste re o ty p in g anybody. D espite th e ir obvious value, the jo u rn als rem ain as yet u n p u b lish ed . The on ly b o o k O ’B rien actu ally m an ag e d to publish du rin g his life, a p art from a few p a m p h le ts a n d sp eech es, is th e w o rk title d Principles o f G overnment or M editations in Exile (1856). P erhaps, h is p re m a tu re d e a th p re v e n te d h im from finding a publisher for w hat possibly is h is g reatest a n d m o s t in te re stin g w ork.

Already in 1846, Sm ith O’Brien m ad e a p a rlia m e n ta ry sp eech in w h ich h e c o m p ared P oland w ith Ireland, saying th a t the co n q u est o f Irelan d w as ju s t as c rim in a l as th e p a rtitio n o f P oland. The case he was referring to was th e an n ex atio n o f th e Free City o f C racow by A u stria, how ever, th e references to the p artitio n s in the late 18th c e n tu ry w ere explicit.9 The c o m p a riso n w as n o th in g new, as Daniel O’Connell an d his associates in th e Irish n a tio n a list p ress o ften u sed d u rin g th e 1830s, but it seem s to be relevant here as it sh ed s light on th e O’B rien jo u rn e y s in th e 1860s.

O’Brien’s first trip to P oland in 1861 w as very sh o rt, a lb e it w o rth m e n tio n in g b e c a u se he visited Cracow, th e old capital o f Poland in G alicia w hich w as th e m o s t d is ta n t p a r t o f th e A u s­ trian Empire. In the sam e year, he also trav elled to H u n g ary w h e re h e o b se rv e d a n d a d m ire d th e peaceful protests o f th e H ungarian p o litician s ag ain st th e E m p e ro r o f A u stria w h ich u ltim a te ly led to the H ungarian success in o b ta in in g autonom y, a n d w h ich w as la te r c a lled by th e Irish - th e ‘H ungarian way!

O’Brien saw Cracow in th e co m p an y o f a Slovakian p rie st, F r Jo h n D u ch o n (probably, Jan D uchon). They travelled to g eth er in a ru s tic c h a rio t h ired fro m o n e o f F r D u c h o n ’s p a ris h io n e rs . Fr D uchon was a chaplain o f C o u n t T heodore C saky (possibly, C o u n t T iv o d a r C saky 1 8 3 4 -1 8 9 4 ), a m em ber o f th e H ungarian Diet. T heir jo u rn e y led th ro u g h th e T atra M o u n ta in s, fro m H o d - kovce (Hotk6c) in Spis (Spis) to P odhale in Poland. D u rin g th is tr ip O ’B rien g reatly a d m ire d th e beautiful scenery o f th e Tatra M o untains, especially th e K ohlbach valley (S tu d e n a d o lin a , D o lin a Zim nej Wody). C onversations w ith th e le a rn e d p rie st e n ric h e d O’B rien’s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e com plex ethnic situation in H un g ary w hich could n o t be re d u c e d to a sim p le p ic tu re o f th e H u n ­ garians’ fight w ith th e ir A ustrian oppressor. Fr D u ch o n w as a m e m b e r o f a sm all Slavonic m i n o r ­ ity th at suffered g reat oppression from th e ir H u n g arian la n d lo rd s; h e re g re tte d th a t th e u n iv e rsa l Latin language ceased to be th e official language o f H ungary. It w as re p la c e d by th e H u n g a ria n language w ith no recognition o f th e Slovak p o sitio n . In 1848, w h e n H u n g a ria n s fo u g h t fo r f r e e ­ dom , Slovaks a n d o th e r Slavonic people o f A u stria d id n o t jo in th e m , th ey s u p p o r te d th e g o v e rn ­ m en t hoping for th e concessions th a t th ey n ev er receiv ed .10 W h e n R ic h a rd D avis c o m m e n te d on this paradox, he used a slightly far reach in g co m p a riso n w ith N o rth e rn Irelan d . It seem s in d e e d , this was not exactly com patible as th e Slavonic people w ere n ativ es, n o t se ttle rs. F u rth e rm o re , th eir Catholic religion w as n o t a special co n sid e ra tio n for th e A u stria n g o v e rn m e n t w h ich e v e n ­ tually dealt w ith th e H ungarians despite th e ir P ro te sta n t faith . It w as sim p ly a case of, as in th e

9 Hansard 3, xd, 54 (16 Mar. 1847).

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William Smith O'Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

Latin p ro v erb ,‘divide e t im p e ra (d iv id e a n d c o n q u e r) , a n o ld R o m a n w ay to e x p re s s h o w to deal with m ultiple co lo n ial p eo p les.

R eturning to O’B riens jo u rn ey , th e first P olish to w n v isite d b y h im w as th e p o o r lo o k in g N eu- markt (Nowy Targ). The Irish eye o f th e tra v e lle r a p p re c ia te d fields w ith g o o d p o ta to crops, however, the condition o f th e p e a sa n try d id n o t im p re ss h im : ‘N o t even in Ire la n d h av e I seen su ch a b read th of land covered w ith p o tato es as in th e n e ig h b o u r h o o d o f N e u m a r k t,b u t th e c o n d itio n o f the p eas­ antry appeared to be little b e tte r th a n th a t o f th e p o o r e r classes in Ire la n d ’.11 O ’B rien criticised the social system in th e A u strian E m p ire w h e re p e a s a n ts n o t o n ly o w n e d th e ir la n d b u t w ere allow ed to distribute it a m o n g th e ir ch ild ren , in th e ev e n t o f th e o w n e r’s d e a th th u s cau sin g th e ‘infinitesim al division o f p ro p e rty ’.12 T his w as v ery d ifferen t to Ire la n d . E ven th e p e a s a n t w o m en o f G allicia did not im press th e Irish m an ; h e n o te d th a t th e y h a d a ‘co arse’ a p p e a ra n c e a n d d id n o t w ear shoes, at least n o t in th e su m m er. In a n o th e r p lace h e e x p re s se d h is c ritic a l o p in io n o f th e local Jews in Gallicia after a nig h t sp e n t in a Jew ish in n o n a b a g o f stra w in s te a d o f a b e d , alth o u g h he ad m itted he slept su rprisingly well. H e c o u ld n o t h elp b u t n o te th e la c k o f d e c e n t fin an cial in stitu tio n s in Catholic A ustria, a n d h e d isap p ro v ed o f th e Jew ish m o n o p o lis t p ra c tic e s in b a n k in g . H e gave a d e ­ scription o f a jew a lso :‘I d id n o t see in C racow a sin g le Jew w h o a p p e a re d to m e capable o f b earin g arm s. W eak an d d im in u tiv e in sta tu re , u n h e a lth y in c o u n te n a n c e , th ey lo o k as if a q u est for gain was the sole object o f existence.’ P ro b ab ly aw are th a t h is w o rd s m ig h t s o u n d an ti-S em itic, he declared: ‘Personally, I e n te rta in n o p reju d ice ag a in st e ith e r Jews, M a h o m m e ta n s o r B u d d h ists, a n d I adhere to the idea th a t th e Jews are e n title d to all th e p o litical rig h ts th a t are enjoyed by C h ristian s, but m y visit to Cracow h as led m e to q u e stio n w h a t I h ave b e e n to ld a b o u t th e m o st liberal m en in H ungary being unw illing to ex ten d to Jews th e p o litical rig h ts w h ic h th ey enjoy o r claim for them selves.’13

The city o f Cracow , esp ecially w h e n e x a m in e d closely by O ’B rien, d id n o t lo o k im pressive but he w as able to see th e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th e g lo rio u s p a s t a n d th e p re s e n t. R ecallin g O’Brien’s p a rlia m e n ta ry sp eech es c o n c e rn in g th e A u s tria n a n n e x a tio n o f th e Free C ity o f C racow in 1846, his reaso n for v isitin g th is city in 1861 b e c o m e s c le a r.1’’ T he c h u rc h e s w ere n o t im pressive on th e o u tsid e b u t h a d v ery rich in te rio rs, esp ecially th e C a th e d ra l. ‘The to m b s a n d th e sepulchres of kings, h ero es a n d sa in ts, fo rm a n h is to ric a l stu d y w h ic h recall to th e Polish n a tio n th e an cie n t glories o f th e ir race a n d re m in d s th e m o f th e c o n tr a s t w h ic h th e ir p re s e n t su b ju g atio n exhibits. The yearn in g s o f p a trio tis m still heav e in th e h e a r t o f th is u n h a p p y p eo p le b u t alas th e triple yoke w hich o ppresses th e m in th e u n ite d forces o f th e A u stria , P ru s sia a n d R ussia is to o pow erful to be b ro k en by a d iv id e d n atio n .’ H e a d d e d h e re a L atin p ro v e rb p o p u la r a m o n g Irish R epeal m ove­ m ent: ‘ira le o n u m v in c u la re c u s a n tiu m ’ - ‘th e a n g e r o f lio n s re fu sin g to b e c h a in e d ’. O’Brien even c o m p ared P o lan d to th e M edieval E nglish k in g w h o w as im p riso n e d for a lo n g tim e ‘but he did n o t cease by h is in c a rc e ra tio n , to d e se rv e th e n a m e R ic h a rd C o e u r d e Lion.’15

He o b serv ed h o w ‘The T reaty o f V ie n n a 1815’ h a d b e e n set a s id e .‘The T reaty o f V ienna 1815 c o n tem p o rary set at n a u g h t th e claim s o f n a tio n s to n a tio n a l se lf-g o v e rn m e n t b u t th a t treaty

11 'Cracow, Sept. 9’, ‘Journal of an excursion made during August and September 1861’ (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 32, 707, n. pag.).

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid.

14 Hansard 3, xc, 1224 (11 Mar. 1847); Ibid., xci, 54 (16 Mar. 1847).

15 'Gratz, Sept. 11', 'Journal of an excursion made during August and September 1861’ (N.L.I., William Smith O’Brien Papers, MS 32, 707, n. pag.).

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has already been to rn to pieces an d so o n b e c o m m itte d to th e flam es. B elgium a n d G reece h a d liberated them selves from foreign rule. Italy an d F rance h a d u n ite d to can cel th e p ro v isio n s o f this treaty. In Cracow it was violated by A u stria in th e y ear 1846 a n d in R u ssian P o la n d by th e em peror o f Russia. The tim e has nearly a rriv e d w h en th e se ex am p les w ill b e follow ed by V enice, by Poland, by H ungary a n d by th e m in o r p rin c ip a litie s o f G erm any. M ay G od g ra n t th a t every subjugated nation w h eth er it be th e Pole in E u ro p e o r th e H in d u in A sia sh all h e re a fte r a c q u ire the blessings o f self-governm ent.’16

For O’Brien the real significance o f h is visit to C racow w as in its h is to ric a l a n d sy m b o lic v a l­ ues. At som e po in t d u rin g th e jo u rn e y he a n d h is p rie st frie n d v isited a m o n a s te ry w ith o n ly fo u r m onks. O’Brien m ade a re m a rk t h a t ‘in every C atholic c o u n try ex cep t Ire la n d th e r e exists a t p r e s ­ ent a strong tendency to suppress o r to a b a n d o n m o n a stic e sta b lish m e n ts.’17 This w as h a p p e n in g in Poland as well, even th o u g h he h a d seen signs o f C atholic d e v o tio n e v e ry w h e re in Cracow . Perhaps he was n o t fam iliar w ith th e A u strian Jo sep h ism in th e late 18th c e n tu r y th a t c a u s e d th e rem oval o f m any m o n asteries as well as th e forfeiting o f th e ir p ro p e rty , d im in is h in g th e sig n if­ icance o f the Catholic C hurch an d in tro d u c in g se c u la risa tio n . The a p p lic a tio n o f th e A u s tria n laws lasted m any years in th e in c o rp o ra te d p a r t o f P oland a n d re s u lte d in re d u c in g th e n u m b e r o f Polish cultural centres. In th e 1860s, C racow w as a m id d le -siz e d A u stria n g a rris o n to w n w ith the old castle o f Polish kings tra n sfo rm e d in to a local citad el. All e sta b lish m e n ts a n d in s ti tu ­ tions suffered from the lack o f lib erties, in clu d in g th e fin an cial a n d p o litic a l e s ta b lish m e n ts. This changed w hen Gallicia gain ed m o re in d e p e n d e n c e in 1867, a n d a fte rw a rd s w h e n A u stria b e c a m e a dual m onarchy - th e A u stro -H u n g arian E m pire. It is po ssib le th a t in 1861 O’B rien c o u ld see the beginning o f the political changes in th e E m pire, as th e y w ere m o re a p p a re n t in V ie n n a o r B udapest th an in th e p erip h eral areas. The peo p le w ere v ery c a u tio u s in th e ir c o n v e rs a tio n , as h e noted: ‘It is probable th a t th e in h a b ita n ts o f Gallicia h av in g b e e n su b je c te d fo r a lo n g tim e fro m th e oppression o f th e A ustrian police are in clin ed to [be] m u c h m o re re s e rv e d th a n is e m p lo y e d by H ungarians to w hom th is k in d o f ru le is co m p arativ ely a novelty.’18

The last p a rt o f the 1861 jo u rn e y in P o lan d h a d a m o re o p tim istic d im e n sio n . The tra v e lle rs visited th e an cien t salt m ines in W ieliczka n e a r Cracow, w h ere O’B rien w rote: ‘n o t less th a n 1200 foot below th e surface o f th e e a r th .... I have n e v e r seen any s u b te rra n e a n ex cav atio n n a tu r a l o r artificial which could rival th ese salt m in e s ...th e h e ig h t o f several o f th e s e c h a m b e rs is s tu p e n ­ dous an d w hen illum inated th eir a p p earan ce is p erfectly b e a u tifu l. Several o f th e c h a m b e rs h ave been excavated in the form o f b uildings a p p ro p ria te d to th e p u rp o s e s o f life. T here is fo r in s ta n c e a chapel, a ballroom a n d a co n cert ro o m . In on e place I w as c a rrie d acro ss a sm all lak e in a b o a t and im agination could scarcely conceive a scene m o re strik in g th a n th a t w h ich is p re s e n te d h ere. The pen o f Virgil is req u ired to d escrib e accurately th e d e sc e n t to th e in fe rn a l regions.’19 In th e end, the traveller concluded th a t th e only th in g th a t is lacking h e re is th e E g y p tian te m p le s ...

A fter visiting W ieliczka th ey cam e b ack to C racow w h e re th e y re lu c ta n tly p a rte d . O’B rien continued his jo u rn e y to G raz a n d In n s b ru c k w here h e o b se rv e d a n d a d m itte d th a t as little as he ad m ired th e A ustrian g o v ern m en t he w ould w illingly ex ch an g e th e e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n o f

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid. 18 Ibid.

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William Smith O'Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

Ireland for th a t o f A u stria: ‘I a m c o n v in c e d th a t th e r e is m o r e s q u a lid m is e ry in th e city o f L im ­ erick th an is to be fo u n d in all th e to w n s w h ic h I h a v e v is ite d in th e A u s tr ia n d o m in io n s .’ He also believed th a t th e re is ‘m o re o f th e s p irit o f lib e rty a n d p e r h a p s less o f p o litic a l s e rv itu d e in the A ustrian d o m in io n s th a n is to b e fo u n d a t p r e s e n t in Ire la n d .’20 It is w o r th n o tin g th a t, w hile still in Cracow, O’B rien c o m m e n te d o n th e r e c e n t e v e n ts in W a rsa w w h e re R u ssia n so ld ie rs sh o t Polish peaceful d e m o n s tra to rs in F e b ru a ry a n d A p ril 1861. H e w as a w a re o f th e p o litic a l te n s io n there a n d th e p o ssib ility o f a re b e llio n . T he jo u rn e y , la s tin g fr o m 1862 to 1863, w as to b e h is last European tour.

Besides P o lan d , O’B rien s p e n t so m e tim e in Italy o b s e r v in g th e p ro c e s s o f R iso rg im en to (Resurgence). In M arch 1863, h e w as in G reece w h e re a c o n s titu tio n a l m o n a r c h y w as estab lish ed . Finally, in May o f th a t y ear h e ag ain v is ite d C racow , a n d th is tim e h e s o u g h t to sp e n d m o re tim e in Poland b ecau se a n ew u p ris in g h a d ju s t e ru p te d in th e R u ssia n p a r t o f th e fo r m e r Polish-L ith- uanian C o m m o n w ealth . H e d e s ire d to see if th e in s u r r e c tio n w as ju s t a s m a ll affair caused by local tro u b le m a k e rs as th e R u ssian g o v e rn m e n t in s is te d , o r i f it w as s o m e th in g m o re. H is arrival m Poland w as a n n o u n c e d o n 21 M ay 1863 b y a v e ry in f lu e n tia l c o n se rv a tiv e P o lish jo u rn a l Czas issued in Cracow. A laco n ic a n n o u n c e m e n t w as p rin te d : ‘M r O ’B rien a rriv e d in o u r city, r e tu r n ­ ing from Ista n b u l a n d A thens; re n o w n e d in re c e n t tim e s fro m Irish history.’21 It seem s ra th e r obvious th a t th e jo u r n a l d id n o t w a n t to b e a c c u se d o f s e d itio n if it e m p h a s is e d O ’Brien’s engage­ m ent in th e reb ellio n in Ire la n d . H is v isit to C raco w is n o t m e n tio n e d in th e p reserv ed letters and d o c u m e n ts fio m th a t tim e w h ich m a y su g g e s t th a t h e w as re g a rd e d as a p riv ate p erso n not rep resen tin g an y o n e b u t him self.

It m ay be in te re stin g h e re to m e n tio n th a t so m e tim e e a rlie r C racow w as v isited by a n o th e r It ish fi ien d o f P o lan d , John P o p e-H en n essy , a y o u n g c o n se rv a tiv e M P fo r K ing’s C ounty, Offaly. In April 1863, h e trav elled acro ss W e ste rn E u ro p e a n c o u rts a c tin g as a P olish a g e n t asso ciated w ith the Polish H otel I.am bei t e m ig re fa c tio n , a sk in g fo r a jo in t d ip lo m a tic a c tio n o f w estern pow ers on b e h a lf o f Poland. H is m a in g o al w as to tr y to in te rv e n e to se c u re th e rig h ts a n d lib erties p ro m ­ ised to th e Poles in th e lr e a ty o f V ie n n a (1 8 1 5 ).22 H e w as, how ever, u n su ccessfu l, lh e tsarist leg im e w as u n p re p a re d fo r an y k in d o f n e g o tia tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e Polish issues a n d th e feeble diplom atic re m o n s tra tio n s o f B rita in a n d F ra n c e on ly e n ra g e d th e ru le rs o f R ussia, w ho ten d ed to view th e Polish p ro b le m s as th e ir o w n in te rn a l affair. D espite P o p e -H e n n e ssy ’s young age and his lack o f real po litical sig n ifican ce, h is v isit is w ell d o c u m e n te d . A b a n q u e t w as h eld in his ho n o u r d u rin g w h ich a p o e m w as re c ite d c o m p a rin g h im w ith th e g reat D aniel O’C onnell. His yo u th fu l se lf-im p o rta n c e c o m b in e d w ith e n th u s ia s m fo r th e cau se a n d w ith h is eagerness to find foreign s u p p o rt for th e Poles re s u lte d in h im , b e in g m ista k e n ly u n d e rs to o d by m any as a British envoy b rin g in g a p ro m ise o f a real allian ce. In late 1891, th is faith fu l frie n d o f Poland, after years of colonial service as a n e w ly -elected in d e p e n d e n t H om e-R uler, a tte m p te d to m ake co n tacts w ith th e H otel L a m b e rt a n d w ish ed to ta k e u p th e Polish cau se in B ritish p a rlia m e n t once again.2-1

20 'Innsbruck, Sept. 22', ‘Tour of Austria and Germany September - October 1861’ (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 46, 829/3, (n. pag.).

21 Czas, 21 May 1863.

22 Joanna Nowak, 'Wtadystaw Zamoyski i John Pope-Hennessy: Epizod z polsko-irlandzkich kontakttiw w XIX stuleciu', in Pamiqtnik Biblioteki Kdrnickiej, vol. 25 (2001), pp 161-71.

23 John Pope-Hennessy to Wtadyslaw Czartoryski, 5 Feb. 1891 (Biblioteka Czartoryskich, Korespondencja W. Czartoryskiego 1858-1894, MS 7281, n. pag.)

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Sadly, his health was p oor an d he su b se q u e n tly d ie d fro m a tro p ic a l d ise a se sh o rtly thereafter. It is significant th a t in th e first h a lf o f th e 1863 th e re w ere tw o Iris h m e n v isitin g Cracow. While H ennessy was m ore w idely k now n to th e p ublic, O’B rien, o n th e o th e r h a n d , w as n e ith e r an ad m irer of the Treaty o f V ienna n o r a d ip lo m atic activ ist, ju s t a n o ld e r a risto c ra tic gen tlem an , al­ though m ore radical th an his younger colleague. H e (O ’B rien) k n e w h o w to b e less visible which was a valuable skill at a tim e w h en even a B ritish jo u r n a lis t h a d d ifficu lty g e ttin g in to Russia, and there were cases o f press c o rre sp o n d e n ts b e in g d e n ie d p a s s p o rts , p a rtic u la rly w hen they wanted to proceed to L ithuania. It w as im p o rta n t n o t to b e a sso c ia te d w ith Polish em ig re circles in Britain, som ething O’Brien m an ag e d to m a in ta in , c o n tr a ry to H ennessy. It sh o u ld b e e m p h a ­ sised th a t du rin g this tim e Russia w as th e e n e m y o f E n g la n d a n d m a n y Irish n a tio n a lists looked to Russia for help (i.e. from th e R ussian em b assy in th e USA) in th e b e lie f th a t t h e ‘en em y o f my enem y is m y friend’. The ageing Young Ire la n d e r w as n o t su s p e c te d o f b e in g a frie n d o f Poland. W hat the Russians did n o t realise w as th a t O’B rien w as a n o ld id e a lis t a n d a m a n o f scrupulous principles rath er th an an o p p o rtu n ist. He w as d e d ic a te d to th e id e a o f fre e d o m for all oppressed nations from the 1840s a n d he re m a in e d faith fu l to th is idea, d e sp ite th e sh o rt-liv e d alliances of his republican ‘political g ran d ch ild ren ’.

In reference to O’Brien’s second jo u rn e y to Cracow, w h a t is w o rth m e n tio n in g is th a t he returned to see the C athedral w ith th e grave o f T adeusz K osciuszko a n d h a d a closer lo o k at the M ounds o f Krak6w, w hich rem in d ed h im o f th e H ills o f T ara in C o u n ty M eath. D r H e n ry k Fry- deryk Lewestam (the learn ed Philologist, loyal to th e tsar, w ho liv ed in W arsaw ) h a d sp ecu lated th a t there was evidence o f Celtic existence in P o lan d in a n c ie n t tim e s b u t O’B rien do esn ’t seem to have been aware o f this.

It is characteristic th a t O’B rien w as very cau tio u s w h ile in fo rm in g a b o u t h is Polish guides and interlocutors. He was well aw are o f b ein g u n w elco m e d by th e A u stria n a n d R ussian a u th o r­ ities, he also knew th at his public p ro-P olish sp eech es a n d a rticles given b a c k h o m e c o u ld b rin g repressions to those w ho in fo rm ed h im . H e d e c id e d to w rite o n ly th e n a m e s o f th e p eo p le w ho were know n to the E uropean press as v ictim s o f p e rs e c u tio n o r as w e ll-k n o w n c o m b a ta n ts . The case o f the Russian tro o p s search in g a n d p lu n d e rin g th e m a n o r h o u se o f M r Bielski at G iebuttow caught his attention. This w as ju s t b e h in d th e A u strian b o rd e r w h ere so m e in s u rg e n ts h a d b e e n found hiding an d were later on shot. C onsequently, th e in n o c e n t m e m b e rs o f th e Bielski fam ily was harassed (they did n o t know a b o u t th e h id in g in s u rg e n ts , a lth o u g h it is p o ssib le th a t th is was o f Bielski’s son’s involvem ent). The fam ily su rv iv ed on ly b e c a u se o f th e s u d d e n in te rv e n tio n o f a m ore h u m an e R ussian officer. A trav ellin g m e rc h a n t w ith a B ritish p a s s p o rt, F in k e n ste in (an arm s dealer), w as heavily w o u n d ed d u rin g th is in c id e n t a n d th e e n tire sto ry b e c a m e fa­ m ous in Europe th an k s to his testim ony, w hile successfully s u in g th e R u ssian g o v e rn m e n t for his sustained injuries. M r Bielski’s b ro th e r a rre ste d by th e A u stria n s w as in C racow a t th e tim e o f O’Brien’s visit, an d as we know, O’Brien d esired to see h im . F ro m th e le tte r o f u n k n o w n Pole (m ost likely M r Bielski) to W.S. O’B rien th e c o n clu sio n o f c e rta in in tim a c y m ay b e d ra w n , in c lu d ­ ing inform ation about th e release o f M r Bielski’s b ro th e r a n d g u e rrilla fig h ters o p e ra tin g close to Giebultow.2'1 The idea th a t th e Irish m a n received th a t le tte r fro m M r Bielski is s u p p o r te d by O’Brien him self w hen he acknow ledges th a t he got in tro d u c to ry le tte rs fro m so m e im p o rta n t

24 'Miscellaneous correspondence of William Smith O'Brien and members of his family, mainly concerning family affairs, 1863-93' (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 448, pp 3280-3285).

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W illiam Smith O’Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

people in W arsaw , su c h as a C raco w ian b a n k e r, L u d w ik E d w a r d H e lc e l ( 1 8 1 0 - 1 8 7 2 ) w h o s e sis te r w as m a rrie d to th e o w n e r o f G iebuftow , W la d y sla w B ie lsk i.

O 'B rien so o n m o v ed fro m C ra c o w W arsaw . D u r in g t h i s t r i p h is lu g g a g e w a s th o r o u g h ly search ed a n d m a n y b o o ts a n d jo u r n a ls w e re te m p o r a r ily c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e R u s s ia ,, s o ld ie r s H e w as assu re d th a t th e su sp ic io u s m a te ria ls , e s p e c ia lly G r e e k n e w s p a p e r s a n d o n e b o o k in Iris h w ould be re tu rn e d to h im if m th e c e n s o rs ' o p in io n it w a s fr e e f r o m a n y s e d i ti o u s m a t e r i a l P r e ­ ventative c e n so rsh ip w a s th e n o rm in th e 1 9 th c e n tu r y w h e n t h e s ta te e x e rc is e d c o n tr o l ov er w ritten w o rk s .m p o r te d to th e c o u n try . O 'B rie n ’s c o n f is c a te d b e lo n g in g s w e re v e rifie d a n d re- tu rn e d to h im .

C o n tin u in g M s jo u rn e y , O 'B rien w a s a c c o m p a n ie d b y a y o u n g in s u r g e n t, C o n n , C aap sk i. 1, ,s n o t k n o w n exactly w h o h e w as b o , a g u e ss c a n b e m a d e , b a s e d o n t h e in f o r m a tio n p ro v id e d . He w as tw e n ty th r e e years old a n d w as f r o m P r u s s ia n P n l ^ u u j , • , , , r „ • \ ,1 Tv • R u s s i a n P o la n d . H e h a d re c e n tly n h e r i te d an d follow ing h is fa th e r s d e a th . It is q u ite p o s s ib le h e w a s n , ■ r I ,

m e ra n ia w ho’s fa ,h e r d ie d in 1862“ (h e w a s

not

a d e r 7 B uk° ” eC P°

-w ho v isited Ire la n d in 1832). d K ' Ce” ,i a n , ° f C ° l™ >6 “ f C aapski,

W h en h e a rriv e d in W arsaw ,O ’B rie n w a s a c r n m r .o ^ ja a ji .1 ,

u , u r n a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e lo c a l c o n s e r v a tiv e P o lish elite,

alth o u g h n o full n a m e s are m e n tio n e d . W e k n o w t W , ’

, t , T. ' ve K now t h a t h e v is ite d o n e o f th e C o u n ts Z am o y sk i

an d w as th e h o s t o f th e b a n k e r Io z e fR a w ic 7 a n j t "

’ d s s im ite te d Jew. H e m e t C o u n t A rlam AlplfsinH er R o n ik ier fro m L ith u a n ia . C o u n t R o n ik e r 1 r l n i r ^ , , ,

„ , , , , ■ , Rer, a c la ir v o y a n t a n d p sy c h ic , in v ite d O’B rien to his ev en in g p a rty a n d le t h im o b se rv e a s t a n c e w ith 1 ,

m an re m a in e d skep tical, in s istin g th a t h e w o u ld f X t " ” I 1 ’" IriSl” c o n firm e d . O’B rien d isco v ered th a t R o n i t e ” 1 , w , J , C.°lm ,S " V' lM i0" S C° ‘,Ui b ' fam ily w as o f Irish o rig in , a n d still l i v e d ™ L i Z a n £ T \ “ ° B rl“ ^ >K.« the

, , r -I r\ i • n u a m a n e a r G ro d n o . W ith o u t d e la v h e d e c id e d to travel to m e e t th e fam ily. O n h is jo u r n e v to G m rlnrv Kaa . . .

■t i rNi j i > Tj- ' j f f h e w a s a c c o m p a n ie d b y a g e n tle m a n n a m e d ules O len d sk y . H is id e n tity re m a in s u n k n o w n s . , t fu- . „ , , ' 8

. , „ . , . a , 7 \ n o w n b u t * i s n a m e m P o lish c o u ld b e 01? d zk i. A sh o rt adieu le tte r (d a te d 27 M ay 1863) w ritte n in F re n c h h v •> c u- • , , , , , . , , f , i j 26 • y g e n tle m a n o f th is n a m e is h e ld by th e

N ational L ib rary o f Ire la n d .26 O B rien a rr iv e d in a.

, , , . , ( r n G io d n o a fte r a n in e h o u r jo u r n e y tr o m W arsaw. He re ste d in th e h o u se ot C o u n t S tarzeriski tr> u ,k „ m i . j • , ,

( , w h o m h e h a d in tr o d u c to r y le tte r s .T h e g e n tle m a n w as a local p o litic ia n o f a m o d e ra te v ie w w h o K p I • j , , b , . , . , D , Ct , , 1CW w n o b e lie v e d in t h e id e a o f lim ite d a u to n o m y ag ain st

tsa rist s policy to w a rd Poles. S ta rz e n sk i in f o rm e d rV R r;„„ n - .

. , . , , r m e a ( j B n e n th a t h e w as a re b e l su s p e c t a n d th a t he

ex p ected to b e a rre ste d so o n . W ik to r S tarzerisk i e- n *. . ,

, , . , , . . sk i d ie d in St. P e te rs b u rg , as h e w as n e v e r allow ed r e tu rn b ack h o m e a fter h is im p r is o n m e n t in R u s s i a ," A fte r h is v isit to S ta r z e to k f t, Sm ith 0 B n e n trav elled to A n gustbw ek e s c o r te d by 'P ie r re ’, P i „ ,t O 'B rie n d e Lacy. 1, is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t th e n a m e 0 B n e n de Lacy often c a u se s c o n fu s io n w ith a n o th e r Irish n a m e (O 'B y rn ), existing co n te m p o ra rily in Poland.

25 Ireneusz Pierog, Czapscy z Bukowca i ich wklad w walk^ o zachowanie polskoSci na Pomor zu GdaAsklm w okresie zabor6w' In )an Sobczyk, Leszek Kuk, Norbert Kasparek, Zbigniew Karpus (eds), W kra/u i no wychodtstwie. Ksl^ga pamlqtkowa ofiarowana Profesomwi Slawomlrowl Kalemlice w steitdiieii^ cio pifcM ecie urodzin (Torun, 2001), pp 195-6.

26 'Miscellaneous correspondence of William Smith O'Brien and members of his family, mainly concerning family affairs, 1863-93' (N.L.I., W illiam Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 448, n. pag.).

27 Henryk GI$bockl, 'Dzieje litewskiego Wlelopolsklego. Hr. Wiktor Starzertski I projekty autonomll prowln- c)i litewskich przed powstaniem stycznlowym' in Artur Patek, Wo)clech Rojek (eds), N a rid - partslwo. £uropa irodkowa w XIX i XX w. (Krakow, 2006), pp 45-56.

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No academ ic study o f th is fam ily h as b e e n fo u n d 28, how ever, it se e m s th a t M a u ric e d e Lacy (1740-1820) was a relative o f th e m o re fam o u s M a rsh a ll P e te r d e L acy (1 6 7 8 -1 7 5 1 ), B o th m e n belonged to th e W ild G eese w ho jo in e d th e R ussian m ilita ry serv ice, M a u ric e de L acy w as a w a rd ­ ed by tsarin a C atherine II for his m ilita ry a ch ie v em en ts w ith a resid e n c e , A ug u sto w ek , w h ich previously belonged to the last K ing o f Poland, S tanislaw A u g u st P o n iato w sk i. In h is o ld age M aurice adopted a nephew , P atrick O’B rien, a so n o f h is siste r M ary, th e w ife o f D e n is O ’B rien o f Sullig.29 In 1819, P atrick in h e rite d his u n cle’s p ro p erty . L ong b efo re h is d e a th , M a u ric e m a d e som e paym ents to account o f h is old m o th e r a n d o th e r im p o v e ris h e d Irish relatives, how ever, after 1819 Patrick decided to sto p th e fu n d s, p e rh a p s b eliev in g th a t M au rice’s m o th e r h a d d ie d an d the younger m em b ers o f th e fam ily no lo n g er n e e d e d th e s u p p o rt. The Irish relativ es p re s s e d charges against P atrick an d th e issue w en t to c o u rt. It is th a n k s to th e legal d is a g re e m e n ts th a t som e know ledge a b o u t th e fam ily o rig in s h as b e e n revealed.

O’Brien did n o t m en tio n any o f th e above, alb eit h e w rote: . .all th e p e rs o n s w ith w h o m I b e ­ cam e acquainted in Poland spoke to m e w ith o u t th e least reserve, a n d th is c a n d id e x p o su re o f th eir feelings ren d er m e doubly anxious to avoid saying an y th in g w h ich m ig h t b e a cau se o f p a in or danger.’30 He h ad a b rie f e n co u n te r w ith P eter O’B rien de Lacy w ho to ld h im a b o u t h is m ilita r y service in the Russian arm y an d h is reg ret at ta k in g p a r t in e x tin g u ish in g th e H u n g a ria n in s u r r e c ­ tion in 1848 as well as his activity in C aucasus, w h en C aucasians fo u g h t fo r th e ir freed o m . S ervice in the Russian arm y was obligatory for no b ility in th e so-called W estern C o u n try (R ussian e x p re s ­ sion for the eastern p a rt o f the fo rm e r P o lish -L ith u an ian C o m m o n w ealth , also b io w n as ‘w e ste rn Russia’). This posed no issue for M aurice de Lacy a n d P atrick O’B rien, b u t th e y o u n g er g e n e ra tio n quickly Polonised an d began to identify them selves w ith th e re st o f th e so ciety in w hich th e y lived. Patrick O’Brien de Lacy w as b o rn in Co. Lim erick, n o t far fro m S m ith O’B rien’s h o u se in C ah ir- moyle, however, according to W.S.O’B rien ‘his recollections w ere ra th e r c o n fu se d ’.31

O’Brien visited V ilnius w here he s p e n t a n ev en in g w ith C o u n t K ossakow ski (F ra n c isz e k K os- sakowski, a p a rtic ip a n t in the Polish risin g in 1863) a n d h is w ife K atarzy n a, a d a u g h te r o f P a tric k O’Brien de Lacy, w ho was active in h elp in g p o litical p ris o n e rs .32 It seem s th a t C o u n te ss K a ta rz y ­ n a identified h erself strongly w ith P oland. O’B rien re g re tte d th a t he c o u ld n o t stay lo n g a n d s o o n left the com pany o f th e Polish p atrio ts.

W hat is significant h ere w as th a t th a t b o th G ro d n o a n d V iln iu s o f L ith u a n ia w ere in h a b ite d by a m ixed p o p u latio n o f Poles, U k rain ian s, L ith u a n ia n s a n d B elaru ssian s, a n d all th is te r r ito r y was considered by Russia as ‘m a in la n d ’ a n d w as tre a te d acco rd in g ly - th e re g im e w as m o re s e ­ vere there a n d oppression was very h arsh . O’B rien w as a g u e st o f th re e a risto c ra tic fam ilies b u t his m ain interests w ere in R ussian policy, especially w ith referen ce to local Polish la n d o w n e rs w ho were try in g to ho ld on to th e ir la n d d esp ite co n fiscatio n s a n d tra n s fe rs o f th e la n d to th e ethnic Russians. W hile at th e h o m e o f C o u n t S tarzen sk i O’B rien realised: ‘This d ia b o lic a l p o licy was adopted in Irelan d d u rin g several c e n tu rie s by E n g lan d a n d g ra d u a lly e lim in a te d fro m th e

28 See an article on Augustdwek and O'Briens de Lacy in Polish: Roman Aftanazy, Dzieje rezydencji na daw-nych kresach Rzeczpospolltej. Woj. trockie, Ks. Zmudzkie, Ks. Kurlandzkie (Wroclaw, 1992), pp 11-2.

29 Cork Examiner, 13 Nov. 1843.

30 'Berlin June 3 1863', ‘Journal 'Berlin '63’ (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 46, 829 /8, n. pag.). 31 Ibid.

32 Zofia Kossakowska-Szanajca, Zawsze przestaje byt teraz, Fundacja Kossakowskiego, (http://w w w . muvok.pl/publikacja/sciagnij/6o/zawsze-przestaje-byc-teraz.html) (18 Jul. 2015).

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William Smith O’Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

possession of la n d by Irish n a tio n n e a rly all t h e . . .p r o p r ie t i e s .. .o f I r e la n d ’. A fte r h is v is it to C o u n t Kossakowski’s h e w rote: ‘T h ere are as w e k n o w w ell in I r e la n d in d e c e n t as w ell as in d ir e c t m o d es by which p ro p erty b e confiscated.’33

0 B riens a ttitu d e to w a rd s th e P o lish p e o p le u n d e r w e n t a c h a n g e w h e n h e v is ite d th e c o u n ­ try: In passing th ro u g h life I h a d m a d e a c q u a in ta n c e w ith v e ry te w P o les b e fo re m y re c e n t v isit to Poland and I confess b u t I e n te r ta in e d a p re ju d ic e a g a in s t th e P o les r a t h e r th a n a p re p o sse ssio n in their favour. Ih o u g h m y u n re s e rv e d s y m p a th y w a s g iv e n to th e i r s tru g g le fo r n a tio n a l fre e ­ dom. By my re c e n t in te rc o u rse w ith th e P oles th is p re ju d ic e h a s b e e n c o n v e rte d in to a d m ira tio n , and the sym pathy w h ich I fo rm e d e a rlie r o n g r o u n d s o f p o litic a l p rin c ip le s is n o w c o n firm e d an d intensified be p e rs o n a l feeling.’34

D uring th e jo u rn e y fro m V iln iu s w h ile in K r61ew iec (K o n ig s b e rg ) h e w ro te a lo n g o p e n le tte r addressed to h is B elgian frie n d , E d o u a rd D u c p e tia u x ( 1 8 0 4 - 1 8 6 8 ) , a m e m b e r o f th e B elgian-Pol- ish C om m ittee in B russels. T his le tte r w as s u b s e q u e n tly p u b lis h e d as D u V eritable caractere de I’insurrection polonaise de 1863 (P a ris 1863). In th e le t te r h e e x p la in e d th e m o tiv e s b e h in d his travel to Poland. He said , h e w as ea g e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e tr u e c h a r a c te r o f th e u p risin g , even though he loved lib e rty h e w o u ld n o t s u p p o r t th e re v o lu tio n if it w as ju s t a n u n d e rta k in g in ­ spired by irresp o n sib le e le m e n ts. 0 B rien , w h e n h e w as s u r e th a t th e tr u e in te n tio n s o f th e Polish insurgents w ere to fight for fre e d o m a n d to r law a n d o rd e r, gave h is s u p p o r t a n d a sk ed th e m ain E uropean pow ers to p ro v id e th e P olish u n d e r g r o u n d N a tio n a l G o v e rn m e n t w ith p o litical status, as was th e case o f th e A m e ric a n C o n fe d e ra tio n . H e a rg u e d t h a t P o lish p e o p le a b ro a d sh o u ld col­ lect m oney for th e in s u rg e n ts in s te a d o f lo b b y in g fo r d ip lo m a c y . S im ila r id e a s w ere ex p ressed in his D ublin le c tu re 35, w h e re h e gave a n o u tlin e o f P o lish h is to r y fr o m th e T reaty o f V ie n n a (1815), w ith special referen ce to th e R u ssian p a r titio n o f P o la n d . H e also e x p re s se d h is a d m ira tio n for the Polish c la n d e stin e N atio n al G o v e rn m e n t a n d th e o r g a n is a tio n o f th e u n d e rg ro u n d state. In spite o f h is s u p p o rt fo r th e Poles, O ’B rien d id n o t a t th is tim e b e lie v e in d ip lo m a tic in terv en tio n s but ra th e r in m ilita ry a ctio n . P o lan d sh o u ld ha v e b e e n m a d e in d e p e n d e n t w ith in its ow n b o rd ers before the p a rtitio n s (1772). H e u s e d m o ra l a r g u m e n ts :‘L apse o f tim e c a n n o t in itselt san ctio n a w rong’, a n d ‘as lo n g as th e m e m o ry o f p a s t in ju stic e is c o n tin u e d by th e p e rp e tra tio n o f a p re s­ ent w ro n g so lo n g th e rig h t o f re d re ss c o n tin u e s w ith o u t im p e a c h m e n t’36 In h is o p in io n , to assist the Poles in re g a in in g th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e th e u n ity o f E u ro p e w as re q u ire d alo n g w ith n eu trality from A ustria a n d P ru s sia .37 O’B rien even d re w u p a p la n to c re a te a n ew Irish B rigade in Prance, the p u rp o se o f w h ich w as to assist P o la n d by m ilita r y m e a n s . It is im p o rta n t to em p h asise here th a t b o th Ire la n d a n d P o lan d h a d a tr a d itio n o f c re a tin g b rig a d e s. D u rin g th e C rim ean W ar a Pol­ ish Legion w as created in Turkey, c o n sistin g o f P olish v e te ra n officers u n d e r B ritish supervision. At th e sam e tim e tw o Iris h m e n ex p re sse d th e ir p ro p o s itio n to cre a te th e Irish B rigade in the O tto m an se rv ic e ,b u t u n d e r P olish n o t B ritish c o n tro l.38 The p ro je c t w as d ism issed by the British au th o rities; n ev erth eless, such d is c u ssio n s w ere ta k in g p lace a m o n g Irish a n d Polish em igrants

33 ‘ Berlin June 3 1863’ (N.L.I., William Smith O’Brien Papers, MS 46, 829/8, n. pag.).

34 Ibid.

35 W.S. O’Brien, The Lecture on Poland (Dublin, 1863). 36 Ibid., p. 3.

37 Ibid., p. 17.

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in France w here O’Brien h ad a w ell-in fo rm ed Irish frie n d , John L eo n ard . O ’B rien’s le c tu re in D ublin shows th at he was very serio u s a b o u t c re a tin g a n Irish B rigade in F rance. A lth o u g h w e don’t know how the public reacted to h is speech, we ca n b e a ssu re d th a t m o n e y w as c o lle c te d fo r the Polish insurgents as th e D ublin R o tu n d a w as filled w ith p eo p le w h ile O ’B rien w as le c tu rin g . On th e platform he was acco m p an ied by J.B. D illon, A. M. Sullivan, D r a n d M s W ilde, a n d th e Lord M ayor P.P. MacSwiney.39

W hat m ig h t be in terestin g to n o te h ere w as th a t V in cen t Scully, M P fo r C ork, o ften c o m p a re d Poland to Ireland in a ra th e r sard o n ic way. H e said: ‘Irelan d w as th e ex act p arallel to P o lan d , w ith this only difference was th a t it w as a very m u ch w orse case.’40 It m ay b e u n d e rlin e d th a t d u r in g a p arliam en tary debate on 22 June 1863, Scully voiced a r a th e r stra n g e re q u e s t p u t to h im in a letter from P oland suggesting th a t ‘tw o th o u s a n d M in ie rifles fro m Ire la n d w o u ld b e m o s t a c ­ ceptable.’41 The Cork M P claim ed th a t in th e w hole o f Irelan d th a t m a n y rifles c o u ld n ’t b e fo u n d , as the Irish had no rig h t to b ear arm s.

On 11 N ovem ber 1863, O’Brien p u blished a letter in th e Freem ans Journal, c o n c e rn in g P o la n d in the context o f its a b an d o n m e n t by France an d E n g lan d d esp ite h av in g p reviously p ro m is e d their support: ‘The Poles have b een treacherously b e tra y e d by th e d ip lo m acy o f th e th re e p o w e rs which have professed to espouse th e p ro te c tio n o f Polish in terest. The Poles h ave b e e n lu re d to destruction and then ab an d o n ed by th o se w h o u n d e rto o k th e c h a m p io n sh ip o f th e ir cause.’ H is special contem pt was reserved for the British w ho, he believed, beh av ed as h y p o crites, g iv in g P o ­ land a half-hearted diplom atic su p p o rt because o f public sy m p ath y in B ritain for th e cause, b u t later capitulating to the R ussians.42 He e n d ed th e le tte r w ith th e follow ing w o rd s: ‘F o rsak e n o t th e cause of bleeding Poland. Be tru e a n d faithful to th o se w ho suffer for th e sak e o f th e ir c o u n try . The tim e will com e w hen y our in terv en tio n on b e h a lf o f Poland, h o w ev er feeble it m ay n o w a p p ear, will becom e one o f the p ro u d est m em o ries o f th e Irish race!’43 The le tte r w as n o t th e la st sig n o f his interest in th e Polish affairs, as th ere is a le tte r fro m F e b ru ary 1864, c o n c e rn in g th e D u b lin lo t­ tery for the Polish cause44, an d an article from Freem ans Journal re g a rd in g th e m o n ey p rev io u sly collected th at O’Brien received from th e P atriotic Irish Society o f L iverpool.45

In the early m o n th s o f 1864, O’Brien’s h e a lth b egan to d e te rio ra te as a re s u lt o f c a rd ia c p r o b ­ lem s and he died in Bangor, Wales, oil 18 June 1864. The rem o v al o f h is re m a in s a ttra c te d c ro w d s, particularly Irish nationalists. The fu n eral pro cessio n in Co. L im erick w as re p o r te d to s tre tc h fo r five miles. In 1870, a collection w as m a d e a n d O’Brien’s sta tu e w as e re c te d in D u b lin , p a rtia lly founded by th e Poles.

W ithin tw o w eeks o f O’Brien’s d eath a long a n d e m o tio n a l o b itu a ry w as p u b lis h e d in P o lan d , on the first page o f the D ziennik P oznanski in th e P ru ssia n p a r t o f P oland. The a u th o r s e e m e d to be well acquainted w ith Irish h isto ry a n d O’B rien’s life. No in fo rm a tio n w as in c lu d e d a b o u t

39 Freeman's Journal, 2 Jul. 1863. 40 The Times, 3 Jul. 1861, p. 7. 41 Hansard 3, clxxi, 1274 (22 Jun. 1863).

42 W. S. O’Brien, The Lecture on Poland (Dublin, 1863), pp 22-5.

43 Freeman's Journal, 11 Nov. 1863.

44 'Komitet Polsky w Paryzy, Comitte Polonais a Paris', 6 Feb. 1864, Miscellaneous correspondence of W il­ liam Smith O'Brien and members of his family, mainly concerning family affairs, 1863-93 (N.L.I., William Smith O'Brien Papers, MS 448, p. 3315).

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William Smith O’Brien in Poland and Lithuania in the 1860s

0 Bnens jo u rn ey s in P oland, as i, c o u ld c a u s e p r o b l e m s f o r th e e d it o r s . A lth o u g h th e a u th o r o f f a ’i r „ * t a n Z r . ” T " b' ius,ified “ that it was Wladystaw Bentkowski, wS h “ a d n C r" ow J t f e " ?■ * “ ° " e. ° f , h ' e d i ' ° rS ° f , h e D M

wno n aa stayed in L racow a t th e s a m e tim e a s 0 B rie n a u- «. • i i kowski was fam iliar w ith Irish h is to ry : h e tr a n s la te d in t o P ol h i tl0 n ’ Macaulay. In 1850, a n o th e r n e w s p a p e r G oniec P o lski p u b H s h ld ^ ° ' Ill0 m a * B abin8 t0 n O’Brien com m rin® h im tn d r u L p u b li s h e d a n a r tic le a b o u t W illiam S m ith u urien c o m p arin g h im to th e P o lish p a tr io ts s u f fe rin g in p , , , , , : • -n. j-.

B entkow ski46 P r u s s ia n p ris o n s . Ih e e d ito r w a s

The visit o f S m ith O’B rien to P o la n d a n d L it h u a n ia in 1 i . , . ,

the general in te re st o f Irish so c ie ty in P o lish a ffa irs M , v ! 111 th e C° nteXt 0 t books w hich a p p e a re d in tim e s o f p o litic a l u p h e a v a ls

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1864,an d 1901) m a d e c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n P o la n d a n d f ? ^ 183° ’ ^ ^ Polish literatu re a n d th e p ress, b u t it w as less e v id e n t d u e to c J T V 7 ^

of Poland u n d e r R ussian ru le . A n in te re s t in I r is h a f f a ir ! ° / P ° f th e prCSS th e P tm late 1840s, an d th e 1860s.47 W illia m S m ith O’B rie n 1 ^ e m in 1798>th e early 1 8 0 0 s’ In the jo u rn als p u b lish ed in P o sen , h e w as p o r t r a y e d d ,tt e r e n t ly i n P artS ° f P o la n d -Warsaw n ew sp ap ers he w as se e n as a d a n g e ro u s re b e l T h " “ " ^

it reflected n o th in g o re th a n p o litic a l c o r r e c tn e s s * P0|> " *

zr

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-lem s, b u t it w as g en erally p eacefu l. T h e re w e re s i g t ^ P° UtiCal ^ in th e afte rm a th o f th e G reat F a m in e a n d th a t th e r e ™ 8 ! ^ S° d e ty ^ K C m m n * u n d erg ro u n d activities. Few Iris h m e n w ere e x p re s s in g aW ak en in & o f Pa rlia m e n ta ry a n d tim e in Poland b u t th o s e th a t w ere lo o k e d u p o n h e P oll ™ * * d n u n a « c1,e v c n t,.at from a n o th e r co u n try . It is h a rd to u n d e r e s tim a te th e im mus u r Se n ts as th e ir fe l(™ pnS °„n e r s garian) activities h a d in Ire la n d in te r m s o f r e a w a k e ^ ^ p r° - Polish {and \ the scope o f th is article. It seem s, th a t O’B rie n a Z , ? T ' * Y' * * ‘T u * Y ,

his m ain co n cern w as to apply to Ire la n d I n v m t ^ Pf W‘T

is ju st to suggest th a t he a n d o th e r fo rm e r C n ! M T f

a general a ttitu d e o f so lid a rity w ith all o p p re s s e d t • 8 * t0 S° m e eX‘C" A ! ‘for o u r freed o m a n d y o u rs’. n a t ' ° nS w h ic h w as exPressed in the fol'° Win8:

It w as in ev itab le th a t O’B rien w o u ld se e it as th e d u ty o f th e Irish to su p p o rt Poland, a n d th a t he w ould see th e b en efits o f th a t to th e Ir is h in a s im ila r s tru g g le t o 2 £ l e n c e . He p ro u d ly w rote: Ihe tim e w ill com e w h e n y o u r in te r v e n tio n o n b e h a lf o f P o lan d how ever feeble it m a y now appear, will b ec o m e on e o f th e p ro u d e s t m e m o r ie s o f th e Irish race!’’48

46 Goniec Polski, 24 Oct. 1850.

47 Katarzyna Gmerek, Polacy i materia celtycka w XIX w. (PoznaA, 2010). 48 Freeman's Journa1, 11 Nov. 1863.

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T lum aczenie:

Adam Kucharski

© C opyright by F undacja K ullury Irlandzkiej, Poznan 2015

© C opyright by K rzysztof M archlcw icz an d Adam Kucharski

Wydawca:

I-'undacja K ultury Irlandzkie;

ul. K ram arska 1

61-765 Poznan

tel./fax: +48 (61)855-32-26

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Spis tresci

List K onsula H onorow ego Irlandii w Poznaniu M ateusza M o raw ieck ieg o ... 7

O d R e d a k c j i ...8

K rzysztof Schram m

Kilka refleksji o relacjach p o lsko-irlandzkich z w ielkopolskiej p ersp ek ty w y... II

Gerard Keown

„Irlan d ia W sch o d u i Polska Z ach o d u ”: retleksje na tenial krzyzow ania si$ d ro g Polski i Irla n d ii... 15

A dam Kucharski

P o czu cie m o ra ln e j racji. Irla n d z c y p o lity cy o Polsce i Polakach w lzb ie Cimin

( 1 8 3 1 - 1 8 4 8 )... 22

K atarzyna Gmerek

W illiam S m ith O ’Brien w Polsce i na Litwie w latach szescdziesi;)tych XIX w... 36

K rzysztof Marchlewicz

„Przysw 6jm y sobie b ro n Irlandyi”. Inspiracje irlandzkie vv polskim ru ch u narodow ym w XIX w . ...50

Gabriel Doherty

Polska i w alka o irlandzkq niepodleglosc: przy p ad ek Jereniiasza O ’D onovana Rossy 1831-1915 ... 60

Paul M cNamara

Sean Lester, Liga N aro d o w i Polska w W olnym Miescie G darisku, 1934 1937 ... 75

En g l i s h v e r s i o n... #3

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E d ito rs ’ P re fa c e ...86

K rzy s zto f Schram m A re fle c tio n o n P o lish -Iris h re la tio n s fro m th e W ielk o p o lsk a p e r s p e c tiv e ... 88

Gerard Keown ‘Ire la n d o f th e E ast a n d P o la n d o f th e W est’: R eflectio n s o n th e in te rse c tio n s betw een P o lan d a n d Ir e la n d ...92

A d a m K ucharski 'Ih e S en se o f M o ral A rg u m e n t. T he Irish p o litic ia n s in relatio n to P oland a n d th e Poles in th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s (1 8 3 1 - 4 8 ) ... 99

K atarzyna Grnerek W illiam S m ith O ’B rie n in P o la n d a n d L ith u a n ia in th e 1860s...i l l K rzyszto f M archlewicz ‘Let’s a c q u ire Ire la n d ’s a rm s ’. Irish in s p ira tio n s in th e Polish n a tio n al m o v em en t d u rin g the n in e te e n th c e n t u r y . ...124

Gabriel D oherty P oland a n d th e stru g g le for Irish in d e p e n d e n c e : th e case o f Jerem iah O ’D onovan Rossa 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 1 5 ... 133

Paul M cNam ara Sean Lester, the League o f N atio n s a n d P o la n d in th e Free C ity o f D anzig, 1 9 34-37 . . . 148

In f o r m a c j e oa u t o r a c h ( No t e s o n Co n t r i b u t o r s) ...156

Wy h r a n au t k r a t u r a (Se l e c t e d Bi b l i o g r a p h y) ...158

I. Z rodla drukow ane (Printed s o u r c e s ) ...158

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REDAICTORZY | ED ITO R S Kr z y s z t o f M a r c h l e w i c z Ad a m Ku c h a r s k i

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