Application of green sample preparation techniques for the isolation, preconcentration
and gas chromatographic determination of organic environmental pollutants
Spietelun Agata 1 , Marcinkowski Łukasz 1 , Kloskowski Adam 1 , Namieśnik Jacek 2
1
Department of Physical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty
2
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty Gdańsk University of Technology,
80-233 Gdansk, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., Poland
*chemanal@pg.gda.pl
accurately monitoring the state of the environment and the processes taking place in it
determining an wide range of analytes, often present in trace and ultratrace amounts in sample matrices with complex or variable compositions
need to introduce to analytical practice new
methodologies and equipment in order to comply with the principles of sustainable development and green chemistry
FURTHER CHALLENGES
OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2003
1997
1996
1995
1993 1991 1987
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics launched a research grants program called Alternative Synthetic Pathways for Pollution Prevention
Paul Anastas coined the term GREEN CHEMISTRY
an annual award was established for
achievements in the application of GREEN CHEMISTRY principles
IUPAC Working Party on Green Chemistry founded
the GREEN CHEMISTRY INSTITUTE (EPA) came into being in the USA. It fosters contacts between governmental agencies and industrial corporations on the one hand, and university research centres on the other
the first international GREEN CHEMISTRY symposium took place
the first national conference devoted to GREEN CHEMISTRY took place in Poland – EkoChemTech’03
GREEN CHEMISTRY (SHORT HISTORY)
Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) was published
Green Chemistry Program was inaugurated
by the US EPA
PRINCIPLES of GREEN CHEMISTRY (P.T. Anastas, J. Warner, Green Chemistry.
Theory and Practice, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998, p. 30)
PRINCIPLES of GREEN CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (N. Winterton, Green Chem., 3 (2001) G73)
PRINCIPLES of GREEN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (P.T. Anastas, J.B. Zimmerman, Environ. Sci.Technol., 37 (2003) 94A-101A.)
GREEN CHEMISTRY
GREEN CHEMISTRY
GREEN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY-GAC
‘The use of analytical chemistry techniques and methodologies that reduce or eliminate solvents, reagents, preservatives, and other chemicals that are hazardous to human health or the environment and
that also may enable faster and more energy efficient analyses without compromising required performance criteria’
H. K. Lawrence, Green Analytical Methodology Curriculum
http://www.chemistshelpingchemists.org/GreenAnalyticalMethodologyCurriculum.ppt#257,2,Curriculum
‘Green chemistry, is the invention, design and application of chemical products and processes to reduce or to eliminate the use and
generation of hazardous substances’
P. T. Anastas, J. C. Warner, Green Chemistry: Theory and Praktice. Oxford Science Publications, Oxford (1998)
Potentiometric techniques (ion-selective electrodes- ISE)
Flameless atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS)
Inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP)
Neutron activation analysis (NAA)
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF)
Surface analysis techniques (AES, ESCA, SIMS, ISS)
Immunoassay (IMA)
KNOWN TYPES OF DIRECT
TECHNIQUES OF MEASUREMENT
1974 Development of flow injection analysis - FIA 1974 Development of purge-and-trap technique - PT 1976 Development of solid phase extraction - SPE 1978 Development of cloud point extraction - CPE
1985 Development of microwave-assisted extraction - MAE Development of supercritical fluid extraction - SFE 1987 The concept of ecological chemistry (H. Malissa)
The concept of sustainable development
1990 Development of solid-phase microextraction - SPME Development of micro total analysis system - µTAS
1993 Development of molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction - MIMSPE
1995 The concept of environmentally friendly analytical chemistry (M. de la Guardia, J. Ruzicka) 1996 Development of presurized solvent extraction - PSE
Development of liquid phase micro extraction - LPME Development of single drop microextration -SDME 1999 The concept of green chemistry (P.T. Anastas)
The concept of clean analytical method ( M. de la Guardia) The concept of green analytical chemistry ( J. Namieśnik)
Development of stir bar sorptive extraction- SBSE
MILESTONES IN GREEN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
NEW EXTRACTION MEDIA GREEN SOLVENTS
Parameter Supercritical CO
2Supercritical H
2O Analyte solubility can be changed 10-100 times 50-1000000 times
Extractable analytes polar constituents non-polar constituents Easily extractable analytes non-polar constituents polar constituents
Analyte reactivity low low-average
Analyte preconcentration
(after extraction) usually easy variable level of difficulty Selectivity of extraction of analytes
of different polarity average good
Selectivity of extraction from samples with a given matrix composition
(e.g. soils)
good poor
Range of analyte polarity(ε) 1-2 10-80
NEW EXTRACTION MEDIA GREEN SOLVENTS
IONIC LIQUIDS – SOLVENTS OF THE 21 ST CENTURY
IS are salts containing:
• an organic cation
• an anion (usually inorganic) Terminology
• Room-temperature ionic liquid
• Task specific ionic liquid
• Neoteric solvents
• Non-aqueous ionic liquid
• Molten organic salt
• Fused salt
• at room temperature these salts are liquids
• dissolve organic and inorganic compounds
• thermally stable
• high viscosity
• usually immiscible with water
• non-volatile (very low vapour pressure at 25°C)
• high electrical conductance, wide electrochemical windows
• dissolve catalysts, especially complexes of transition metals without damaging the walls of glass or steel reactors
INTERESTING AND PROMISING
PROPERTIES OF IONIC LIQUIDS
SOLVENT-FREE SAMPLE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES
preconcentration of the analytes to a level above
the limit of detection of the measuring/monitoring instrument isolating the analytes from the original sample matrix
and/or matrix simplification
removal of interferents and elimination of sample constituents being strongly adsorbed in the chromatographic column
and thus accelerating its consumption
Sample preparation - most critical step of the whole analytical protocole
NO SAMPLE PRETREATMENT BEFORE ANALYSIS NECESSARY AN IDEAL SOLUTION
BUT only a limited number of such techniques!
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLVENT-FREE SAMPLE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES
Application of stream of inert gas as extractant
Static Headspace analysis (S-HS) Dynamic Headspace (D-HS) Cryotrapping (CT)
Solid phase extraction techniques with thermal desorption:
Purge and Trap (PT)
Closed Loop Stripping Analysis (CLSA) Gum-Phase Extraction (GPE)
Inside Needle Dynamic Extraction (INDEX) Inside Needle Capillary Absorption Trap (INCAT) Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction (SBSE)
Headspace Sorptive Extraction (HHSE) Open-Tubular Trapping (OTT)
Coated Capillary Microextraction (CCME) Thick Film Open Tabular Trap (TFOT) Thick Film Capillary Trap (TFCT) Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME
)
Membrane extraction techniques
Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry (MMS)
Membrane Extraction with Sorbent Interface (MESI) Hollow Fibre Sampling Analysis (HFSA)
On-line Membrane Extraction Microtrap (OLMEM) Membrane Purge and Trap (MPT)
Pulse Introduction Membrane Extraction (PIME) Semi Permeable Membrane Devices (SPMD) Thermal Membrane Desorption Application (TMDA) Passive permeation dosimeters+thermal desorption
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
SOLVENT-FREE SAMPLE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES
C. W. Huie, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 373, (2002), 23.
Liquid phase microextraction techniques:
• SDME (Single Drop Microextraction)
• HF-LPME (Hollow Fibre Liquid-Phase Microextraction)
• DLLME (Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction)
• SM-LLME (Stir Membrane Liquid–Liquid Microextraction) Solid phase microextraction techniques:
• SBSE (Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction)
• μSPE (Micro Solid-Phase Extraction)
• AμE (Adsorptive μ-Extraction)
• SCSE (Stir Cake Sorptive Extraction)
• SPNE (Solid-Phase Nano-Extraction)
• SPME (Solid-Phase Microextraction)
MICROEXTRACTION TECHNIQUES
C. W. Huie, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 373, (2002), 23.
SINGLE DROP MICROEXTRACTION (SDME)
• High selectivity
• Low detection limits
• Simple, fast, and easy
• Minimal sample preparation
• Can be automated with commercially available equipment
• Possible application for trace water analysis
HMIM PF
6OMIM PF
6HMIM NTf
2DI-SDME HS-SDME
n -Hexane n -Octane
EXTRACTING SOLVENTS FOR SDME IL-SDME BMIM PF
6n -Octane iso-Octane Cyclohexane n -Hexadecane
n -Decane Tetradecane Ethylene glycol
Butylacetate Diisopropyl ether
Toluene o -Xylene 1-Octanol
Drop volume 1 – 8L
G. Liu, P.K. Dasgupta, Anal. Chem. 68 (1996) 1817
Fig. D. Han, K. H. Row, Microchim. Acta,176 (2012) 1
HF-LPME may be accomplished in:
• three-phase mode (a)
• two-phase mode (b)
HOLLOW FIBER LIQUD-PHASE MICROEXTRACTION
(HF-LPME)
Inexpensive, simple, clean-up
Possibility of automation
Compatible with GC, HPLC, CE
High versatility and selectivity
Headspace/immersion mode
Possibility of n-situ derivatization
S. Pedersen-Bjergaard, K.E. Rasmussen, Anal. Chem. 71 (1999) 2650.
ADVANCES IN HF-LPME TECHNIQUE
Hollow Fiber-Protected Ionic Liquid supported three-phase (Liquid–Liquid–Liquid) Microextraction (HFM-LLLME)
Hollow Fiber Solid–Liquid Phase Microextraction (HF-SLPME)
Solvent Stir Bar Microextraction (SSBME)
dynamic-HF-LPME
Solvent Cooling Assisted Dynamic HF-LPME (SC-DHF-LPME)
Electro Membrane Extraction (EME)
on-chip EME
CONTINOUS FLOW
LLLME DROP-TO-DROP
DI-SDME HS-SDME
SDME MODES
W. Liu, H.K. Lee, Anal. Chem., 72 (2000), 4462 L. Xu, C. Basheer, H.K. Lee. J. Chromatog. A, 1152 (2007), 184
DROPLET-MEMBRANE-DROPLET-LPME (DMD-LPME)
• Reasonably high selectivity
• Cheap (commercial propylene membrane)
• No gluing or clamping process
• Simple and easy
• Minimal sample preparation
T. Sikanen, S. Pedersen-Bjergaard, H. Jensen, R. Kostiainen, K. E. Rasmussen, T. Kotiaho, Anal. Chim. Acta 658 (2010) 133
SOLIDIFICATION OF FLOATING ORGANIC DROP MICROEXTRACTION
(SFOD/SFOME)
Physical and chemical properties of solvents for SFOME:
• immiscible with water
• low volatility
• low density
• able to extract analytes
1,10-Dichlorodecane
13-15 22-24 17-18 18 14-16 1-Undecanol
1-Dodecanol 2-Dodecanol n-Hexadecane
Common used solvents in SFOME
Organic solvent Melting point (oC)
M.R.K. Zanjani, Y. Yamini, S. Shariati, J.Å . Jönsson, Anal. Chim.Acta, 585 (2007) 286
ELECTRO MEMBRANE ISOLATION (EMI)
ELECTRO MEMBRANE EXTRACTION (EME)
On chip- EME
M. D. Ramos Payán, H. Jensen, N. J. Petersen, S. H. Hansen, S. Pedersen-Bjergaard, Anal. Chim. Acta, 735 (2012) 46
S. Pedersen-Bjergaard, K.E. Rasmussen, J. Chromatogr., A 1109 (2006) 183.
DISPERSIVE LIQUD-LIQUID MICROEXTRACTION
(DLLME)
Fig. A. V. Herrera-Herrera, M. Asensio-Ramos, J. Hernández-Borges, M. Á. Rodríguez-Delgado, Trends Anal. Chem., 29 (2010) 728
Inexpensive, simple, fast
Easy to operate
Possibility of automation
Enormous contact area between acceptor phase and sample
Compatible with GC, HPLC, CE, UV-vis spectrometry
Fast extraction kinetics
High enrichment factor obtained
M. Rezaee, Y. Assadi, M.R.M. Hosseini, E. Aghaee, F. Ahmadi, S. Berijani, J. Chromatogr., A 1116 (2006) 1.
ADVANCES IN DLLME TECHNIQUE
SOLVENT DEMULSIFICATION DLLME
NEW EXTRACTION SOLVENTS
SOLVENT TERMINATED- DLLME
EXTRACTION SOLVENT LIGHTER THAN WATER
IONIC LIQUID
SPECIAL HOME-MADE EXTRACTION DEVICES
DLLME BASED ON THE SOLIDIFICATION OF A FLOATING ORGANIC DROP
COLD- INDUCED AGGREGATION MICROEXTRACTION (CIAME) IN SITU SOLVENT-FORMATION
MICROEXTRACTION (ISFME) TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED IONIC LIQUID
EXHAUSTIVELY DLLME (TILDLME) SEQUENTIAL INJECTION–DLLME
LOW-DENSITY SOLVENT-BASED SOLVENT DEMULSIFICATION-DLLME
SURFACTANT-ASSISTED DLLME
COACERVATES AND REVERSE MICELLES ULTRASOUND ASSISTED DLLME
VORTEX-ASSISTED DLLME
STIR BAR SORTPIVE EXTRACTION (SBSE)
Advances in SBSE technique:
Application of poliurethane foams, PPESK, alkyl-diolsilica RAM, silica materials,
molecularly imprinted coatings, monoliths
and sol-gel technique to prepare of stir bar coatings
Double-phase stir bar coatings
Rapid, simple, solvent-free
Sensitive and effective extraction
Compatible with GC, HPLC, CE
Headspace and immersion modes
High thermal and chemical stability of stir bar coatings
E. Baltussen, H. G. Janssen, P. Sandra, C. A. Cramers, J. High. Resolut. Chromatogr., 20 (1997) 385
STIR „CAKE” SORPTIVE EXTRACTION (SCSE)
Combines the advantages of stirring with the high absorption capacity of the monolithic material
high availability
preparation simplicity
low cost
excellent longevity of monolithic cakes (lifetime more than 1000h)
very versatile approach, broad applicability
good extraction results
Fig. X. Huang, L. Chen, F Lin, D. Yuan, J. Sep. Sci., 34 (2011) 2145
MICRO SOLID-PHASE EXTRACTION (µSPE)
Advances in (µSPE) technique:
Application of mulberry paper bag, electrospun composite of polyaniline-nylon-6 (PANI-N6)
and electrospun composite of polypyrrole-polyamide (PP-PA) as sorbent sheet
Inexpensive, simple, clean-up
Conveniently applicable
Easy to be manipulated
Compatible with GC, HPLC
Headspace and immersion modes
Sufficient sensitivity,
Good reproducibility
Excellent enrichment
C. Basheer, A. A. Alnedhary,B. S. M. Rao, S. Valliyaveettil, H. K. Lee, Anal. Chem., 78 (2006) 2853
ADSORPTIVE μ-EXTRACTION (AμE)
Modes:
•bar adsorptive μ- extraction (BaμE)
•multi-spheres adsorptive μ-extraction (MSAμE)
cost-effective
easy to work-up
devices are easy to prepare
robustness and good μ-extraction efficiency
demonstrating to be a remarkable analytical tool for trace analysis
presents the advantage to tune the most suitable sorbent to each specific type of application
N.R. Neng, A.R.M. Silva, J.M.F. Nogueira, J. Chromatogr. A, 1217 (2010) 7303
APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN NANOEXTRACTION TECHNIQUES
VARIANT I VARIANT II
WATER SAMPLE MICRO-PLANE GLASS
WITH Au NPs
SHAKING AND CENTRIFUGATION
COLLECT PRECIPITATE
SOLVENT ADDITION
SHAKING AND CENTRIFUGATION
SUPERNATANT COLLECTION
HPLC LETRESS
H. Wang, A. D. Campiglia, Anal. Chem., 80 (2008) 8202 Y. Zhu, S. Zhang, Y. Tang, M. Guo, C. Jin, T. Qi, J Solid State Electrochem, 14 (2010) 1609.
SOLID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION (SPME)
1. Plunger 2. Barrel
3. Injection needle 4. Inner needle
5. Coated fused silica fiber
simplicity of operation
short extraction and desorption time
solvent-free operation
small size (convenient for designing portable devices)
possibility of full automation
direct linkup with a GC
possibility to in-situ and in-vivo sampling
C. L. Arthur, J. Pawliszyn, Anal. Chem., 62 (1990) 2145
1. direct-immersion SPME 2. headspace-SPME
PRINCIPLES OF SPME
Operation steps:
1. Immersion of the needle in the sample 2. Exposition of the fiber
3. Extraction of an analytes 4. Retraction of the fiber
5. Introduction of the fiber to injection port
6. Desorption of analytes
MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPME
SOLID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION (SPME) first paper on concept of SPME 1990 HEADSPACE SPME (HS-SPME) - Analytes are sampled from headspace above the sample,
particularly useful for analysing the composition of solid samples or samples containing matrix constituents and in the extraction of very volatile analytes
1993
COOLED COATED FIBRE SPME (CCF-SPME) - approach improving extraction efficiency by heating the sample and simultaneously cooling the SPME fiber. The temperature is easily controlled by cooling the fibre coating from the inside with a coolant and by altering the core diameter of the arrangement
1995
IN-TUBE SPME - the extraction phase is immobilized as the inner coating of the needle or part of the chromatographic column. Analytes are retained in the extraction medium during a few draw/eject cycles of the sample, or extraction takes place following a one-off filling of the needle
1997
FIBRE-IN-TUBE SPME - polymer core is inserted into the capillary of the in-tube SPME
arrangement. The core reduces the capillary volume, but the surface area of the sorbent is not reduced
2000
SOLID-PHASE AROMA CONCENTRATE EXTRACTION (SPACE) - the SPACE rod is fabricated from stainless steel coated with an adsorbent mixture (mainly of graphite carbon) fixed on the head of a closed flask, where it adsorbs the aroma for a given time
2004
MEMBRANE-SPME (M-SPME) - physical separation of the two phases with a membrane impermeable to both of them or by immobilization of the extracting agent in the
membrane pores
2009
ADVANCES IN SPME TECHNIQUE
AUTOMATION
NEW EXTRACTION PHASE
NEW DEVICES AND MODIFICATIONS
IONIC LIQUIDS
CARBON NANOTUBES AND GRAPHEN
SILICA MICROSTRUCTURES
MEMBRANE-SPME LIQUID-LIQUID-SOLID
MICROEXTRACTION
ELECTROSORPTION ENHANCED-SPME
COMMERCIAL SPME FIBERS
limited choice
high cost
poor selectivity for polar analytes
some fiber coating have active adsorption centers- possibility of competing of the matrix compounds with the analytes for available adsorbent sites
need to high temperatures to be used to desorb the less
volatile compounds- can lead to degradation of the analytes,
adsorbent materials and promote catalytic breakdown of the
trapped analytes
ABSORPTION VS ADSORPTION
ADSORPTION
artefact formation
incomplete desorption
strong catalytic interactions
of trapped analytes with adsorbents
ABSORTION
analytes are retained by dissolution
analytes can be desorbed at moderate temperatures
analyte decomposition can be ruled out
non-specific interactions between analyte and sorbent
LIQUID–LIQUID–SOLID MICROEXTRACTION (LLSME)
simple
exciting low-cost
environment-friendly
negligible organic solvent consumption
enhanced efficiency
high selective and sensitive pretreatment
Y. Hu, Y. Wang, Y. Hu, G. Li, J. Chromatogr. A, 1216 (2009) 8304
ELECTROSORPTION ENHANCED SPME (EE-SPME)
simple, fast, sensitive
good performance
short adsorption time
wide linear range
low detection limit
high recoveries
MEMBRANE-SPME (M-SPME)
1) silica fiber
2) coating of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 3) coating of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
Inner coating Outer coating
Absorbent material PEG PDMS
Average thickness of coating 40-50μm 100-110μm
Length of sorbent coating 1cm 1,2 cm
The role of sorbent coating very polar retaining medium
hydrophobic, nonpolar membrane
A. Kloskowski, M. Pilarczyk, J. Namieśnik, Anal. Chem., 81 (2009) 7363.
M-SPME ADVANTAGES
low cost of fiber preparation
high thermal stability (PDMS is stable up to 300
oC)
short extraction and desorption time
lack of water sorption (due to the presence of hydrophobic membrane)
high affinity to polar analytes
At the extraction temperature PEG of low molecular weight behaves as an immobilised liquid (viscous liquid polymer)
Analytes are retained by dissolution in the sorbent layer absorption nature of the retention
partitioning mechanism of the extraction
A. Kloskowski, M. Pilarczyk, J. Namieśnik, Anal. Chem., 81 (2009) 7363
Determination of phenols using M-SPME and GC
Compound Linearity
range (µg/L) R
2LOD (µg/L)
M-SPME PA
4-Chloro-3-methylphenol 15-1500 0.9953 7 50
2-Chlorophenol 3-300 0.9936 43 530
2,4-Dichlorophenol 3-300 0.9987 15 120
2,4-Dimethylphenol 3-300 0.9921 9 110
2,4-Dinitrophenol 10-1000 0.9963 110 950
2-Methyl-4,6-dinitrophenol 15-1500 0.9898 81 680
2-Nitrophenol 3-300 0.9945 9 60
4-Nitrophenol 15-1500 0.9937 150 1800
Pentachlorophenol 15-1500 0.9914 83 740
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 10-1000 0.9932 61 440
Compound
R2 LOD (mg/L) RSD (%)
M-SPME DVB/CAR
/PDMS M-SPME DVB/CAR
/PDMS M-SPME
DVB/CA R /PDMS
chlorobenzene 0.997 0.994 0.031 0.016 11 9
p-xylene 0.992 0.986 0.022 0.015 9 6
o-xylene 0.986 0.994 0.018 0.014 12 7
isopropylbenzene 0.994 0.995 0.015 0.018 12 8
n-propylbenzene 0.998 0.997 0.013 0.017 14 10
2-chlorotoluene 0.997 0.993 0.016 0.019 8 6
4-chlorotoluene 0.995 0.995 0.017 0.018 10 6
t-butylbenzene 0.997 0.985 0.011 0.021 12 8
sec-butylbenzene 0.987 0.992 0.011 0.021 11 8
1,3-dichlorobenzene 0.989 0.998 0.017 0.017 14 10
1,4-dichlorobenzene 0.994 0.987 0.017 0.023 13 7
1,2-dichlorobenzene 0.986 0.988 0.016 0.028 13 7
Determination of VOCs
using M-SPME and GC
M-SPME conclusion
partitioning mechanism of the extraction, which is characterized by significantly higher linearity range when compared to commercial fibre enabling highly polar sorbents to be used without the risk of dissolving in polar sample matrix
povides opportunity of application of quite new kinds of materials,
which due to low melting temperatures or solubility in water have not been taken into consideration so far in this kind of applications
high extraction efficiency of phenols and VOCs obtainable with M-SPME fibres, comparable and better than the extraction efficiency using
commercially available fibres
M-SPME combined with determination by GC may become a powerful, environmentally friendly tool for sampling, isolation and preconcentration of organic pollutants
• applicable on the sample preparation step prior to the final
quantitative determination of analytes on the ppb level
TOOLS:
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 1 Eco- Scale 2
Eco-Compass 3
1Consoli, F., D. Allen, R. Weston, I. Boustead, J. Fava, W. Franklin, A. Jensen, N. de Oude, R. Parrish, R.
Perriman, D. Postlethwaite, B. Quay, J. Séguin and B. Vigon., ‘Guidelines for life cycle assessment: A ‘Code of practice’, SETAC, Brussels and Pensacola, 1993.
2Aken K., L. Strekowski, L. Patiny, EcoScale, a semi-quantitative tool to select an organic preparation based on economical and ecological parameters,Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2, 3, 2006.
3 “Home Sustainability Assessment”, http://www.ecocompass.com.au/
EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
A new tool for evaluation of the greenness of analytical methodology
Eco-Scale = 100 – total penalty points
The result is ranked on the following scale:
>75 – excellent green analysis
>50 – acceptable green analysis
<50 – inadequate green analysis
Penalty points are assigned for amount of reagents, hazards
(physical, environmental, health and occupational), energy used and waste generated in the analytical procedure
Gałuszka A., Konieczka P., Migaszewski Z.M., Namieśnik J. 2012. Analytical Eco-Scale for assessing the greenness of analytical procedures.
Trends in Analytical Chemistry 37, 61–72.