M an and M etals : A H is to r y of M ining in R e la tio n to th e D e v e lo p m e n t of C iviliza
tio n . 2 vols. B y D r. T . A . R i c k a r d . C loth, o c tav o , 1,068 pag es, illu s tra te d . P ric e 50s. N ew Y o rk : M cG raw H ill P u b lish in g Co.
T h e s u b -title of th e se tw o v o lu m e s is
“ A H is to ry of M ining in R e la tio n to th e D ev e lo p m e n t of C iv iliz a tio n .” I n h is preface th e a u th o r te lls us t h a t th e w ritin g of th is book w as p ro m p te d b y th e re a d in g of th e
“ O u tlin e of H is to r y .” H e a n d M r. H . G.
W ells w ere fellow s tu d e n ts u n d e r T h o m as H e n ry H u x le y som e 47 y e a rs ag o . H e con
sid e re d th a t M r. W ells failed in th e above book to p a y p ro p e r re g a rd to th e p a r t w hich m in in g h a d p la y e d in th e d ev e lo p m e n t of civ ilizatio n . H e h a s now re p a ire d th e om ission. T h e m e th o d a d o p te d b y h im has been to p re se n t a s tu d y of th e o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t of m in in g a n d m e ta llu rg y as far as th e y can be a s c e rta in e d in a series of c h a p te rs each of w hich h a s b een s u b m itte d to
F E B R U A R Y , 1933 89
tw o o r m o re of h is frien d s for th e ir “ c ritic a l re a d in g .” A list of references to a u th o ritie s is given a t th e e n d of each c h a p te r. T h e bo o k is d e d ic a te d to “ th e L ib ra ria n s w hose k in d ness a n d c o u rte sy th e a u th o r desires to acknow ledge g r a te fu lly .”
In h is I n tro d u c to r y c h a p te r th e a u th o r tra c e s th e o rigin a n d d e v e lo p m e n t of th e w ords M ining, M etal, a n d C ivilization. I t ap p e a rs t h a t o u r w o rd m in e com es from
“ m in e o r,” a n old F re n c h v e rb t h a t in th e ea rliest in sta n c e m e a n t to e x c a v a te . I t c o n ta in e d th e id e a of sa p p in g a n d of m ilita ry engineering. H e su rm ises th a t th e F re n c h w o rd p ro b a b ly cam e from th e m ed iev a l L a tin " m i n a , ” w hich, how ever, a p p a re n tly d id n o t signify a n e x c a v a tio n from w hich m in e ral su b sta n c e s w ere d ra w n ; th e w ord w as n o t used in a n in d u s tria l sense. I t m ean s a p o in t, so m eth in g w hich p ro jec ts, a n d th e re fore th re a te n s . F ro m th is th e w o rd m inae, a th r e a t, is deriv ed , a n d la te r in m ed iev a l L a tin “ m in a ri ” occurs, m e an in g to d rive b y th r e a ts , to th r e a te n , a m e an in g w hich su rv iv es in our E n g lish w ord “ m in a to ry .”
In th is w ay “ m i n e ” cam e to m e a n a n e x c a v a tio n m a d e in w arfa re a n d h a d a m ilita ry significance long before it a c q u ire d an in d u stria l m eaning. T his ea rlier m ean in g also su rv iv es in “ m in e s,” used in n a v a l w arfare. I t a p p e a rs th a t th e R o m an s d id n o t use “ m in a ” to d esig n ate a n u n d e r
g ro u n d passage. T h eir w ord for th is w as cuniculus, th e p rim a ry m ean in g of w hich w as r a b b it, because th e ir u n d e rm in in g o p era tio n s suggested a r a b b it w arre n . I n th e m o d e rn in d u s tria l sense m in in g is “ T he a c t, w hich if done sk ilfu lly is a n a r t, of rem o v in g rock, h a rd o r soft, loose or co m p ac t, from its place in th e c ru st of th e e a r th .” I t consists in th e e x p lo ita tio n of ore deposits, th e w ord ore m ean in g ro ck or m in e ral w hich can be ex p lo ite d to econom ic a d v a n ta g e .
T he w ord “ M etal ” com es to us from th e L a tin m e tallu m , w hich, how ever, c o n n o ted n o t only m e ta l b u t m ine, m in in g o p era tio n s, m ineral, a n d ore. T h e L a tin w ord w as d eriv ed from th e G reek m e tallo n , w hich it a p p e a rs w as also co m p reh en siv e r a th e r th a n specific in its m ean in g . “ A t one tim e m e tallo n w as su p p o se d to m e an ore in th e sense of a com p lex su b sta n c e , d eriv e d from m e ta w ith , a n d alios a n o th e r ; th e m ore ac ce p ta b le d e riv a tio n , how ever, is from th e v erb m e ta lla n , to seek a fte r, w hich suggests p ro sp e c tin g .” “ C ivilization ” is m ore difficult to define th a n m in in g b ecau se its m e a n in g re s ts larg ely on p rec o n cep tio n s th a t
a re su b je c tiv e . T h e w ord signifies th e s ta te o r c o n d itio n of th e civis o r citizen, w hich co n n o tes, th e re fo re, a n org an ized c o m m u n ity w h ich itse lf re p re se n ts a c o m p a ra tiv e ly a d v a n c e d sta g e of h u m a n progress. T h is w o rd is o n ly tw o ce n tu rie s old. I t c a n n o t b e re g a rd e d o b je ctiv ely . To u s it is “ a s ta te of liv in g t h a t su its o u r ta s te , a n d ta s te is a n a p p re c ia tio n of w h a t is fittin g .”
T h e n e x t c h a p te r is e n title d “ T h e Ages w ith o u t M e ta l.” If th e view be ac ce p te d th a t th e e a rliest re p re se n ta tiv e s of m a n k in d lived a t le a st 500,000 y e a rs ago, t h a t h om o sap ien s is believ ed to h av e e n te re d E u ro p e 30,000 y e a rs ago, a n d t h a t th e age of m e ta ls b eg an in E u ro p e a b o u t 5,000 y e a rs ago it w ould follow t h a t it re p re se n ts only 1% of h u m a n existence. A ccordingly th e a u th o r h as r ig h tly d e v o te d a long c h a p te r to th e p re m e ta l age. As is g en e rally agreed, civ ilizatio n d id n o t begin u n til m e ta ls b ecam e th e m a te ria ls of to o ls, im p lem e n ts, a n d m achines.
B y th e ir a id m a n em erged from sa v ag e ry . T h e a u th o r m e n tio n s t h a t w h en C a p ta in J a m e s Cook first v isite d th e Isla n d s of th e Pacific h e fo u n d th e n a tiv e s u sing o n ly stone, bones, coral, shell, a n d wood. T h e ir chisels w ere form ed from th e u p p e r bone of th e h u m a n arm , b u t th e y a p p re c ia te d th e v alu e of iron, h a v in g o b ta in e d a little of it from d riftw o o d a n d from p rev io u s v oyagers. H e p u rc h a se d sev eral pigs for a six p e n n y n ail w hile on th e co a st of N ew Z ea lan d in 1778.
T h en follows a c h a p te r on “ T h e e a rly use of th e M etals,” w hich is b ased on th e p a p e r p re se n te d b y th e a u th o r to th e I n s titu t e of M etals in 1930. H e ta k e s u p a v e ry so u n d p o sitio n w hen h e arg u es th a t th e d ev elo p m e n t of m e ta l c u ltu re in a n y given reg io n w as a t first d ep e n d e n t on th e m in e ra l resources of t h a t region, a lth o u g h th e d ev e lo p m e n t m ig h t be m odified la te r, w hen, b y m e an s of tra d e , th e in d ig en o u s p ro d u c ts w ere b a rte re d for th o se o b ta in e d from foreign lands.
A s he f u rth e r arg u es—
T he id ea of a w orld-w ide succession of definite ages is due, n o t o nly to th e e arly c o n ce n tra tio n of archseologic s tu d y on th e E a s te rn M ed iterran ean , b u t also to a failure to a sc e rta in b y chem ical an aly sis th e c o m position of th e m etallic relics t h a t c o n s titu te th e evidence for a n y a c c u ra te know ledge of th e p re h isto ric use of m etals. T h e failure to te s t th e o ldest pieces of iron for th e p u rp o se of d e te rm in in g w h e th e r th e y are m eteo ric or n o t has co m p letely befogged th e s tu d y of iron in a n tiq u ity . E v en th e acco u n ts re ce n tly given in books are open to th is criticism . C elestial iron can be d istinguished from m an -m ad e iron b y its nick el co n te n t, w hich av erag es a b o u t 8% . . . . A n o th e r cause of confusion arises from th e h a s ty assu m p tio n t h a t ev ery green- stain ed piece of old m etal m u st be bronze. M any of
th e k e y a n tiq u itie s of E g y p t a n d H issarlik t h a t w ere p ro m p tly labelled bronze w hen discovered a re know n now to co n sist of copper. F u rth e r, e v e ry th in g com posed of co p p er is a ssu m ed to be m ad e of sm elted copper, a lth o u g h th e evidence of th e use of co p p er b y p rim itiv e m a n o u g h t to w a rn th e p re h is to rian t h a t th e oldest co p p er is lik ely to be n a tiv e m etal.
D r. R ic k a rd ’s g en e ral conclusion is as follow s—
T he in d u stria l h isto ry of m a n k in d m a y be div id ed in to tw o m a jo r epochs, a S to n e age a n d a M etal age. . . . B etw een th e tw o m a in epochs com es a tra n s itio n a l perio d or tw ilig h t zone, d u rin g w hich th e m etals, as found in th e ir n a tiv e s ta te , w ere used as stone. T h is in te rm e d ia te era, w hich m ay well be te rm e d “ c h alc o lith ic ,” las te d p ro b a b ly for tw o or th re e m illen n iu m s ; an d th e n cam e th e m eltin g of copper, th e use of w h ich as m elted m e ta l m ay h av e laste d for a n o th e r m illen n iu m , before e ith e r co p p er or a n y o th e r m e ta l w as reduced from its ores. B ronze is to co p p er w h a t steel is to i r o n ; th e y re p re se n t seq u en t p h ases of m e ta l c u ltu re.
T he critica l ev en t, one of th e m o st p o rte n to u s in th e h isto ry of m an , w as th e first sm eltin g of m eta l o u t of stone. T h a t in th e lig h t of evidence now av ailab le a p p e a rs to h a v e h a p p en e d in 4000 to 3000 b.c.
C h a p te rs th e n follow on “ Th e G old a n d C opper M ines of A n cie n t E g y p t,” “ T he Phoenician M etal M e rc h a n ts ,” “ T h e Cas- siterid es o r T in Is la n d s ,” “ T h e A th e n ia n s a n d th e ir S ilver M ines,” “ T he M ines of th e R o m a n s in S p ain a n d I t a l y ,” a n d “ T he L ea d M ines of th e R o m a n s in B r ita in .”
T h ese com prise th e first volum e.
T h e second volu m e opens w ith c h a p te rs on
“ M ining in M edieval T im es ” a n d “ T h e L aw of M ines a n d th e F re ed o m of th e M iner.”
T h e y a re succeeded b y one on “ T h e C o n q u ista d o re s,” from w hich th e review er e x tra c ts th e follow ing—
T he lu rid d escrip tio n s of th e ir deeds sen t hom e by th e S panish a d v e n tu re rs a n d th e a b su rd ex ag g e ra tio n s of th e c o u n tries th e y despoiled h av e crea te d a g lam o u r in w hich th e t r u th h as been obscured.
A h isto ria n sp eak s of P e ru as one of th e m ost exten siv e em pires on th e face of th e e arth . To ta lk of M exico a n d Peru as g re at E m p ires is nonsense.
S p an ish w riters a p p lie d th e g ra n d term in o lo g y of feudalism to th e coarse b a rb a rism of th e A m erican aborigines. C ortez a n d P izarro posed a s c onquerors of m ig h tv an d civilized n a tio n s, th o u g h , as a m a tte r of fact, th e ir o p p o n en ts M ontezum a an d A tah u alp a w ere th e chiefs of n a tiv e trib e s living in m ud hovels ; th e y w ere so far from being civilized th a t th e y were in a ru d im e n ta ry s ta te of h u m an c u ltu re in w hich c an n ib alism survived.
T h e n e x t c h a p te r, e n title d “ T h e L a te r A rg o n a u ts,” is b ased on a p a p e r com m u n ic a te d to th e I n s titu tio n of M ining a n d M e tallu rg y in 1926 a n d d escribes th e discoveries a n d e x p lo ita tio n of th e w estern goldfields of th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d of A u stra lia . I t is fittin g th a t th e m in in g of
fuel a n d , in p a r tic u la r, of coal sh o u ld be in c lu d e d in th e a u t h o r ’s su rv e y , since th e d igging of coal c o n s titu te s one of th e p rin c ip a l p h a se s of m in in g , a n d th is fuel is a prim e re q u is ite in m e ta llu rg y .
T h e succeeding c h a p te r is e n title d “ T he U se of Iro n ” a n d op en s w ith th e follow ing se n te n c e —
T h e m o st p o rte n to u s e v e n t in th e d e v elo p m en t of h u m a n in d u s try w as th e d isco v ery of iron, i.e.
th e p u rp o sefu l p ro d u c tio n of th e m e ta l from its ore.
T h e use of th e o th e r co m m o n m e ta ls— copper, lead, a n d t in — w as re s tric te d b y th e re la tiv e s c a rc ity of th e ore d ep o sits from w hich th e y w ere o b tain a b le, w h ereas supp lies of iro n h a v e a lw ay s b e en a b u n d a n t in m a n y p a rts of th e world. N e x t to alu m in iu m , iron is th e m o st p len tifu l of th e m eta ls in th e c ru s t of the e a rth , th e av erag e c o n te n t b ein g 4 £ % ; b u t to be of econom ic valu e a s a n ore iron m u s t be in a six-fold s ta te of c o n ce n tra tio n . T h e use of th is m e ta l is th e p rim e fa c to r in o u r civilization.
T h e a u t h o r ’s g en e ral conclusion fro m th e e v id en ce a v a ila b le , w h ich h e discusses w ith sh rew d n ess a n d ac u m e n , is t h a t th e original hom e of m e ta llu rg y in th e a n c ie n t w o rld was n e ith e r th e v a lle y of th e N ile n o r t h a t of th e E u p h ra te s , for n e ith e r of th e se w as a m in in g region. H e sa y s—
T he o riginal h om e of m e ta llu rg y in th e an cien t w orld a p p e a rs to h a v e been th e m o u n ta in o u s c o u n try b etw een th e C asp ian Sea a n d th e B lack Sea. T he m y th s re ta ile d b y th e G reeks p o in t th a t w ay ; so does th e H e b rew tr a d itio n as exem plified b y th e ta le of T u b a l th e S m ith . T h e D a cty ls, th e C halybes, th e P h ry g ia n s, th e A m o rites, a n d the H ittite s are lin k s in th e s to ry of p re h is to ric m etal cu ltu re. T he first m e ta l fo u n d ers w ere m en of the m o u n ta in s ; th e A ssyrians d rew th e ir m e ta ls from th e C aucasus ; th e H ittite s b ro u g h t iro n in to Syria ; A rm en ia a n d C ap p ad o cia w ere th e cradles of th e m etallu rg ic a r t ; th e P h ilis tin e s b ro u g h t it in to P a lestin e ; a n d it is th e re in th e B ib lical land t h a t th e o ld est m an -m ad e iro n h a s b een discovered re ce n tly b y t h a t h o n o u red v e te ra n S ir F lin d ers P e trie . In a m ine a t G erar, a b o u t 9 m iles fro m Gaza, in 1927 he fou n d iro n -sm eltin g fu rn ac e s to g eth e r w ith a g ric u ltu ra l im p le m e n ts, all of w h ich h a d been m ad e on th is sp o t. T hese h a v e b een d a te d b y the m ean s of co n te m p o ra n e o u s sc a ra b s a n d am u lets of E g y p tia n origin. . . . T h e m o st significant evidence is t h a t of a real b eg in n in g of th e sm elting of iro n for th e fa b ric a tio n of useful to o ls su ch as hoes, sickles, an d p lo u g h -p o in ts in 1200 b.c. The first p ro d u c tio n of iro n a p p e a rs t o be lin k e d w ith th e A n a to lia n era a n d th e use of it in d u s tria lly is co n n ected w ith th e e x te n sio n of th e H ittite pow er in to th e S y rian low lands a f te r 1400 b c.
T h e re m a in in g c h a p te rs a re e n title d “ Iro n in H u m a n I n d u s tr y ,” “ T h e M iner in S o u th A fric a ,” a n d “ T h e R o m a n c e of M odern M in in g ,” a n d th e b o o k closes w ith a sh o rt E pilogue, a t th e conclu sio n of w hich, a s also in c e rta in o th e r p a r ts of th e se v o lu m es, th e a u th o r gives re in to h is fa c u lty of h u m a n
F E B R U A R Y , 1933 91
in sig h t a n d scientific im a g in a tio n . H is final su m m a ry is as follows—
In th e g re a t w ork of opening th e d a rk p laces of th e e a rth an d of in tro d u c in g civ ilizatio n am o n g th e b lack peoples, th e m in e r h a s been a p rim e ag en t.
W h en he opens th e door, h e leaves th e la tc h -s trin g loose ; he is h o sp itab le ; he is c o -o p eiativ e. T h a t is w hy his p ioneering h as helped m a n k in d fo rth w ith . I h e o th ers t h a t w en t a h e a d covered th e ir trac k s, th e y d id n o t blaze th e ir tra il, th e y w ere secret in th e ir com ing a n d going, because th e y w ished to be let alone. Such w ere th e Phoenician tra d e rs a n d th e S panish freebooters. T he A rab slave-dealers t h a t p e n e tra te d A frica desired no interference w ith th e ir nefarious com m erce ; th e E ng lish h u n te rs t h a t sought th e ivory tu s k s of th e e le p h an t cared for no tresp ass on th e ir preserves ; even th e S co ttish m issionaries wrere jealous of each o th e r an d of th e tr a d e r t h a t w eakened th e ir h old on th e ig n o ran t n ativ e. So Africa re m ain ed th e d a rk c o n tin e n t u n til th e m in er's p ick b ro k e th ro u g h th e w all of m ystery. Likewise on th e A m erican co n tin e n t, th e F rench voyageurs t h a t p u sh ed th e ir w ay along th e riv ers p referred to p la y a lone h a n d , in th e ir own w ay ; th e B ritish fu r-tra d e rs of th e N o rth -w e st o b stru c te d dev elo p m en t ; th e a g en ts of th e H u d s o n ’s B a y C om pany w a n ted to re ta in th e ir exclusive dealings w ith th e In d ian s ; all of th ese k e p t th e p ro sp ecto r o u t of th e ir d o m ain as long as th e y could ; th e y ignored th e m in eral w e a lth of th e c o u n try , being aw are t h a t a n y pu b lic know ledge of it w ould spoil th e ir m onopoly of th e p e ltry business.
T h eir tra ils followed th e lakes a n d rivers, avo id in g th e ridges an d ranges w here ore w as m ore likely to be found. T h ey w alked over gold m ines u n w ittin g ly . The v a s t ex p an se of n o rth e rn O ntario, now one of th e chief gold-producing regions of th e w orld, rem ained a d re ary solitude a n d a n u n p ro d u c tiv e w ilderness u n til th e m in e r's h a m m e r ran g a reveille.
T he p rairies betw een th e M ississippi a n d th e R o ck y M ountains, th e sagebrush p lain s a n d th e alk alin e d eserts bey o n d th em , w ere tra v e rse d b y h u n te rs a n d tra d e rs, by soldiers a n d a rtisa n s, e v en to th e shores of th e Pacific, b u t th e irs w as a n e m p ty co n q u est a n d a v a in a n n e x a tio n u n til th e m in er spoke th e w ord t h a t unloosed th e springs of h u m an in d u stry . H e w as n o t o nly th e pioneer, b u t h e le ft m ark s to show th e w ay, he blazed th e tra il for civilization. H e h as done it w ith geological exuberance a n d e q u a to ria l a m p litu d e ; from “ th e s ta rk an d sullen so litu d es t h a t sen tin el th e Pole ” to th e " ste am in g stilln ess of th e o rch id -scen ted glade ” in th e tro p ic s he h a s left h is m ark , as th e h erald of em pire a n d th e pioneer of in d u stry . T rad e follows th e flag, b u t th e flag follows th e pick.
I t h as b een im possible w ith in th e lim its of a single review to give a n y th in g like an a d e q u a te id e a of th e scope a n d m a g n itu d e of D r. R ic k a r d ’s w o rk a n d it h a s seem ed b est to th e rev ie w er to d ra w a tte n tio n to c e rta in of its sa lie n t fe a tu re s m a in ly b y w a y of q u o tin g e x tra c ts so th a t th e a p p e tite of p o te n tia l re a d e rs m ig h t be th e re b y w h e tte d . T h is is a bo o k t h a t e v e ry b o d y o u g h t to re a d w ho is in te re s te d in m a n 's d ev e lo p m e n t fro m sa v a g e ry th ro u g h b a rb a ris m to c iv iliz a tio n . T h e rev iew er h a s re a d it w ith g re a t in te r e s t a n d pro fit to him self a n d now feels
th a t for th e first tim e he possesses som e idea of th e im p o r ta n t p a r t th a t m e ta ls h av e p la y e d in th e c iv iliz atio n of th e h u m a n race.
D r. R ic k a rd h a s la id us u n d e r a deep o b lig a tio n to him , for th e la b o u r in v o lv ed in its p re p a ra tio n m u st h a v e b een im m ense.
A n y o n e w ho re a d s it will u n d e rs ta n d w hy he h a s d e d ic a te d it to th e L ib ra ria n s , for it is in th e ir tre a s u re houses t h a t h e h as o b ta in e d h is su b je c t m a tte r. H e h a s used it w ith in sig h t, im a g in a tio n , a n d pow er, a n d it a p p e a rs to th e review er, a t a n y ra te , t h a t h is m a in conclusions are well a n d tr u ly estab lish ed . F o r th e first tim e th e te ch n ic a l evidence w hich is av a ila b le to a skilled m in e r a n d m e ta llu rg ist h a s b een p ro p e rly assem bled, co m p ared , a n d u tilize d . As th e a u th o r h as so clearly show n, th e m e ta l sm ith preced ed th e m e ta l m e lte r a n d th e la tte r th e m e ta l sm e lte r. T h e ra w m a te ria ls of th e first tw o w ere th e n a tiv e m e ta ls a n d th e se w ere all t h a t w ere re q u ire d , b u t th e su p p ly of th e m
A n y o n e w ho re a d s it will u n d e rs ta n d w hy he h a s d e d ic a te d it to th e L ib ra ria n s , for it is in th e ir tre a s u re houses t h a t h e h as o b ta in e d h is su b je c t m a tte r. H e h a s used it w ith in sig h t, im a g in a tio n , a n d pow er, a n d it a p p e a rs to th e review er, a t a n y ra te , t h a t h is m a in conclusions are well a n d tr u ly estab lish ed . F o r th e first tim e th e te ch n ic a l evidence w hich is av a ila b le to a skilled m in e r a n d m e ta llu rg ist h a s b een p ro p e rly assem bled, co m p ared , a n d u tilize d . As th e a u th o r h as so clearly show n, th e m e ta l sm ith preced ed th e m e ta l m e lte r a n d th e la tte r th e m e ta l sm e lte r. T h e ra w m a te ria ls of th e first tw o w ere th e n a tiv e m e ta ls a n d th e se w ere all t h a t w ere re q u ire d , b u t th e su p p ly of th e m