The effectiveness of propaganda

In this sub-chapter I would like to discuss various factors that influence the effectiveness of propaganda campaigns. There is no one specific way to make propaganda work for its creator, but there are a number of things he can do to achieve his goal. The propagandist must be well prepared before he launches his propaganda machinery. First, he must define his target group or groups since it is of key importance to prepare messages corresponding to the needs of various people. Besides, he should be aware of the fact that the society consists of various ethnic and cultural groups each of which must be approached in different ways. The economic factor is also important. In the case of gems, for instance, cameos and pieces produced by the best artists were greatly appreciated and valued, thus, if gifted, they were in the hands of rich and influential people, while most glass gems were meant to reach ordinary people.⁸⁶ Regarding the content of propaganda, a propagandist should know what will be generally accepted and what will not to avoid situations in which his actions are counterproductive.⁸⁷ He must have a well-thought out programme and use proper techniques and methods at the appropriate time, which means, for example, that he must observe when to react to unfortunate events to show he is helpful and reliable.⁸⁸ Moreover, the propagandist should send out his messages in the best circumstances possible, ideally during moments of glory like triumphs in ancient Rome. Finally, the propagandist must make his programme appealing so that people are encouraged to join him. The messages should be attractive to interest people since they are bombarded with information every day.⁸⁹ From this perspective, engraved gems, due to their special status in Roman craft, unparalleled aesthetic value and usefulness seem to be perfect candidates for transmitting propaganda messages.

They are also indicative of a propaganda campaign’s success because many of them bear images consistent

85  Kopij 2017: 21.

86  On the appreciation of engraved gems in antiquity, see: Henig, Scarisbrick and Whiting 1994: X-XII; Plantzos 1999: 105-108.

87  Kopij 2017: 22-23.

88  Evans 1992: 3.

89  Kopij 2017: 22.

with propagandistic messages emitted in other media, notably coins, and since they were private objects they testify that the subjects promoted by propagandists were accepted by the audience and replicated.

To be successful, propaganda must be repeated and the messages transmitted must remain consistent.

Ideally, they should be anchored in past beliefs, myths and ideology to create a feeling in the receiver’s mind that any new ideas the propagandist tries to introduce are not revolutionary, but rather an improvement on old methods.⁹⁰ This relates to the phenomenon of collective memory which is basically a shared pool of knowledge and information drawing on institutional or cultural references to the past and their interaction with the current events.⁹¹ This is especially true of Roman culture which was furnished with allusions to the past at every level of its development. This is why Roman political leaders often recalled their legendary ancestors or commemorated past events in the form of celebrations comparing past successes to their own.

Both commemoration and personal branding based on recalling a proud ancestry are common on engraved gems and replicated in great quantity on the glass ones. This approach greatly helped in reaching out to the many people who did not like to be shocked with something either new or associated with tragic past events, although, it must be highlighted that glyptics due to its more private character also offered plenty of possibilities for exceptional propaganda campaigns (cf.

chapters 7.1.1, 7.1.4, 7.3.2, 8.1.8, 8.1.10, 8.2.8, 9.1.4, 9.2.2, 9.3.1.1, 9.3.1.4, 9.3.1.7, 9.3.1.8, 9.3.1.10, 10.5, 10.7, 10.9, 10.10 and 10.11).

As already stated, propaganda messages must be constantly repeated ideally in various channels to reach as many members of society as possible. But to do so, the messages emitted by a propagandist must be understandable.⁹² This means they should use both sophisticated and simple language; first to fulfill the cultural needs of the more demanding recipients (most of the cameos), the latter to reach ordinary people (the bulk of hardstone and glass gems). It is said that propaganda usually works in urban communities because any concentration of people fosters the spread of information.⁹³ Rural areas were less exposed to propaganda. Glyptic material confirms that view.

According to provenance study (chapter 11), the majority of ‘propaganda gems’ seems to be produced in Rome and other Italian cities as well as bigger urban areas of the ancient world (for instance Alexandria) which points to the places where there was a market for such objects. Moreover, it is supposed that mass

90  Evans 1992: 3.

91  Schudson 1992: 3.

92  Hannestad 1988: 11.

93  Kopij 2017: 24-25.

production of glass gems – ideal objects for cheap and repetitive widespread propaganda messages – also took place in the same area. However, it should be noted that gems were portable and their concentrations exist also in the military bases of the Roman army as legionaries were keen users of engraved gems and one of the most important target groups for each propagandist. Furthermore, the existence of local elites also contributed to the spread of propaganda, especially that found on engraved gems because, thanks to their use, local governors raised their own authority as well and marked their exceptional social status. A similar pattern is known to have worked in the case of sculpture since the reception of official portraits took place in provinces on a regular basis.⁹⁴ It should be added that propaganda spreads freely among educated people because they are more engaged in social and political life. They would have more exposure to written sources of propaganda and also would have understood much more from the complex symbolism employed in visual art that might have be the key to deciphering the meaning of propaganda actions, especially if they are presented on a tiny gemstone.⁹⁵ Nevertheless, the number of ordinary gems bearing portraits of Roman political leaders suggests that a large group of common people and soldiers was engaged in political affairs.

It is crucial for propaganda to be adjusted and follow any changes occurring within society. It should speak to contemporary events, adopt new trends and react to social moods if it is to retain the audience’s interest.⁹⁶ The constantly evolving market for various goods, including luxuries such as engraved gems, also affected the efficiency with which propaganda was delivered.

Changes of fashions and tastes were frequent, and the market was common which means it could be supplied with objects produced by or related to various political factions; nevertheless, its capacity was limited.

Therefore, a propagandist should carefully observe the current situation and react to counterpropaganda issued by his opponents. He should try to influence private art with official art created or directed under his patronage.⁹⁷ The possible organisation of a gem workshop by Sextus Pompey in Sicily may have been a response to similar activity by Octavian. However, according to research presented in chapter 9.3.2, Mark Antony’s reaction was surprisingly limited. This is probably due to his engagement in other channels of propaganda such as coins, even though, residing in Alexandria, he had the perfect conditions to promote himself through gems. It is not enough just to emit propagandistic messages, but a successful propaganda

94  Ando 2000: 228-245 and 303-313 (his work concerns Imperial portraits, but the mechanism he identifies can be successfully applied to engraved gems too); Hannestad 1988: 49.

95  Evans 1992: 5-6.

96  Evans 1992: 3.

97  Łuszczewska 2002: 61.

campaign involves a fierce rivalry with others who wish to gain the floor.⁹⁸ All in all though, even though many times one cannot precisely say that the gems were produced in a workshop controlled or related to a specific propagandist, intaglios and cameos clearly indicate that political messages were acknowledged, processed and further replicated by the audience itself.

Glyptics illustrates well that propaganda campaigns were largely successful.

Finally, we may be unaware of the exact degree of political and propaganda rivalry since as Nieć points out, the people of Rome were not exposed to propaganda as much as we are today. Discussions between people, mostly local, were of much greater importance. People engaged in discussion every day either attending meetings or spending time in the baths. They had less need of channels offering propaganda messages than we do today because they were in closer personal contact.⁹⁹

98  Jowett and O’Donnell 2012: 209-210.

99  Nieć 2011: 123.

This chapter is concerned with Roman propaganda on engraved gems in general. It is divided into two parts.

The first introduces areas where intaglios and cameos were intended to influence and shape public opinion as well as to bring individuals round to the propagandist’s point of view. These include aspects unrelated to the actual emission of propaganda but are rather concerned with its processing and the recipients’ response to it.

They have been selected according to the general rules of the theory of propaganda presented in chapter 1 as well as previous scholarship. It is essential to analyse propaganda practices known from other branches of Roman art (especially coins and sculpture) because many mechanisms applied to them might be employed on engraved gems as well. Overall, it is hoped that they will help to elucidate the numerous propaganda campaigns undertaken by Roman politicians and other social and political applications of glyptics presented in the third part of this book. This should also help to determine how far intaglios and cameos were used for propaganda purposes and which forms of propaganda were preferred by Late Roman Republican politicians and Augustus. After presentation of the evidence in the third part of the book, all the areas listed here will be once more discussed in the fourth part in combination with a study of glyptic art’s position in Roman propaganda in general (cf. chapter 13). The second sub-chapter discusses various problems and limitations relating to the investigations of propaganda on gems.

5.1. Anticipated areas of propaganda on engraved gems

5.1.1. Use of gems in triumphs

Triumphs and processions were perfect occasions for propagandists not only to show off their power but also to exhibit the spolia of war. Triumphs were especially dear to Roman dictators and imperators. They were the only chance to appear in the city in full glory. They could show what they brought to Rome and for this they were appreciated by the people. Such spectacles were meant to raise the authority of the propagandist and gain him popularity, but he could also distribute freely money and other valuable objects presenting scenes commemorating the event.¹ Engraved gems, especially glass ones, if indeed distributed among people during triumphs, created a connection between the recipients and politicians. Moreover, exhibiting gems among the spolia of war also aimed to raise the popularity of the triumphator and as it will be shown, their presentation

1  Balbuza 2005; Künzl 1988; Lange 2013 and 2016; Lange and Vervaet 2014; Ostrowski 1999.

to the temples might have been perceived as ritual act in which the donor proved his pietas erga deos and pietas erga patriam. All these aspects will be discussed in the third part of the study.

5.1.2. Collecting

Collecting is an ancient practice. The wealthy spent money on objects that had no practical use but had other meanings for their owners. It was the Ptolemaic dynasty who collected books from all over the world and put them into the famous library in Alexandria.² Art in all its forms was a primary subject of interest to notable collectors. The first securely dated art collector was Aratos of Sikyon (271-213 BC) who was known as a collector of paintings.³ When in the 3rd century BC Rome started to conquer the Mediterranean world, it lacked luxury; a hundred years later it had been seduced by the enervating abundance of the East.

Romans started to be interested in almost everything of value and then brought those things to their land where marble or bronze statues, paintings and so forth decorated their villas.⁴ This naturally resulted in the creation of a specific art market which was a good platform to raise money for a range of reasons, including political ones. Various sources highlight the connection between auctions of works of art and dependence on effective short-term cash-mechanisms for the consolidation of military and political positions.⁵ Collecting itself should be regarded as an aspect of propaganda machinery since the practice was reserved only for a few who used it to show off their high social status and financial capabilities.⁶ Moreover, spending money on the best pieces of art could confirm regular incomes or other benefits in the propagandist’s followers’ eyes. Besides, collecting of art might have been regarded as proof of a propagandist’s or collector’s high educational, aesthetical and cultural aspirations and was appreciated by members of the upper class. As Casagrade-Kim notices, in Rome, art-collecting often worked on two levels, private and public one and both were useful in propaganda.⁷ In this respect glass gems

2  Phillips 2010.

3  Plutarch, Life of Aratus, 12-13. Although, as far as engraved gems are concerned, an intriguing evidence for possible collecting intaglios is the beehive tomb in Vafio near Sparta (dated ca. 1500-1400 BC (LH II)) which contained 41 gems and two rings that might have belonged to a collector, see: Wagner 2019: 38.

4  Among ancient authors, Pliny the Great is of great use for exploring this subject, see: Isager 1991, especially pp. 212-229 if engraved gems are concerned.

5  Garcia Morcillo 2008.

6  Pliny accidentally mentions auctions of finger rings that could be set with engraved gems, which maybe were purposed to build a cabinet of gems (Historia Naturalis, XXXIII.6).

7  Casagrade-Kim 2018.

are of special importance because as will be discussed, the political disturbances of the second half of the 1st century BC resulted in an increase in their production and there is some evidence that many glass gems were objects created for less wealthy collectors.

5.1.3. Employment of gem engravers

As it will be discussed in chapter 11, some propagandists (e.g. leading Roman politicians) were probably engaged in the production of ‘propaganda gems’, especially the cheap glass ones that perhaps were manufactured in workshops under their control or influence. These products flooded the market under encouragement of Roman statesmen or were distributed directly to their recipients. However, it was neither easy nor cheap to impress the most influential people because only very special and expensive artworks could engage their interest. Therefore, if a propagandist wanted to gain their support, he had to employ leading artists who produced masterpieces. This was a powerful signal because it proved that a propagandist could afford to do something which is possible only for a few. Besides, in the case of engraved gems, having an artist working exclusively for somebody was like, and perhaps in some cases (Augustus?) indeed was an imitation of Alexander the Great who placed Pyrgoteles on a level with Apelles and Lysippus, by naming him as the only artist permitted to engrave seal-rings for him.⁸ The employment of a well-respected artist certainly added splendour and as will be shown in chapter 6.2.1, it could be even a matter of rivalry to offer a job to the best artists available.

5.1.4. Seals

The primary function of intaglios was sealing. In general, they were used to secure properties, in correspondence and in some legal practices.⁹ Images appearing on them were deliberately chosen so that they tell much about their sitters. Of course, the official seals of prominent politicians were used to send out propaganda messages.

Collon and Siddall notice that already some cylinder seals were engraved with meaningful communications and intended as propaganda.¹⁰ In medieval times official seals used by kings and high-ranking dignitaries were given elaborated and complex iconography glorifying their users.¹¹ Rambach informs us that French kings had several seals for various purposes at their disposal so that they could send out more than just one message

8  Pliny, Historia Naturalis, VII.38 and XXXVII.4. For more information on this subject, including Pyrgoteles potential input into the Alexander and Lysimachus coinages, see: Baldus 1987; Hafner 1977;

Plantzos 1999: 60-62; Rusch 2012: 5.

9  Plantzos 1999: 19-22.

10  Collon 2005: 123-130; Siddall 2013: 147.

11  Giard 1975: 72; Hadjadj 2007.

if they wished.¹² Assuming that engraved gems were carried in rings in order to manifest political allegiances, many more people (recipients of propaganda) have seen a sealing created by a specific gemstone if that sealing was attached to a letter or another document. It would be a part of propaganda package because the sealing not only transfers a message but it also guarantee the source of the document through authority of its issuer. If the document had travelled, it would have been very helpful in dissemination of propaganda messages. There is evidence, although from later period, that sealings attached to the letters sent to the secretariats of local magnates from Rome influenced local coinages.¹³ Bearing all of this in mind, it is to be expected that official seals used by prominent Roman politicians were also used to communicate propaganda messages.

5.1.5. Personal branding and self-promotion

Personal branding is the most significant and popular of all propaganda activities performed in ancient Rome and beyond. According to present-day marketing studies, it is the practice of people marketing themselves and their careers as brands.¹⁴ The term first appeared in the 20th century, but it can be successfully applied to studies of ancient propaganda as well.¹⁵ It is closely related to the concept of self-promotion and in this study is mostly concerned with portraits and their dissemination within the public and private spheres. Promotion of or through origo as well as highlighting various capabilities, high social status etc.

(the two latter will be more extensively discussed in the following sub-chapters) might also be considered personal branding; however, because they usually express familial connections, they are treated as a separate category (cf. chapter 5.1.8 below). In any case, personal branding was intended first, to popularise a politician, make him recognisable, and second, to make him an appealing figure, worth following. Since ancient times the images of kings, emperors and other key figures widely circulated within society by means of the visual arts because this was the only chance for ordinary people to ‘meet’ their leader.¹⁶ Rulers were perfectly aware of this. They issued self-images which played a crucial role in creating a connection between them and their people.¹⁷ Personal branding is perhaps best seen on coins and sculpture since these two categories offered a wide dissemination of the image: first thanks to the number of objects issued and their various forms,

12  Rambach (forthcoming 2).

13  Henig 1972; Henig 2007: 57-61.

14  Lair, Sullivan and Cheney 2005: 307.

15  Kopij 2017.

16  See a detailed account on portraiture’s significance in various cultures and periods of time in: Fulińska 2017: 27-42.

17  Fulińska 2017: 42-44.

second due to their installation in public places.¹⁸ Julius Caesar was one of the first to put an image of a living person (his own) on a coin.¹⁹ Although this act proved counterproductive for him, subsequent generations issued coins with their own images without any hesitation. Coins were perfect for personal branding also because the sender of a propagandistic message could be easily identified thanks to the inscription accompanying the image.²⁰ In the case of sculpture,

second due to their installation in public places.¹⁸ Julius Caesar was one of the first to put an image of a living person (his own) on a coin.¹⁹ Although this act proved counterproductive for him, subsequent generations issued coins with their own images without any hesitation. Coins were perfect for personal branding also because the sender of a propagandistic message could be easily identified thanks to the inscription accompanying the image.²⁰ In the case of sculpture,