Tanning m aterials of Central Japan. G . G r a s s e r
(Cuir tech., 1929, 22, 225—230 ; Chem. Zentr., 1929, ii, 1120).—The fruit of Quereus castanopsisifolia contains a pyrogallol tanning substance 25-5%, non-tans 10-1%, and water 10’5% ; th at of Q. glandulifera. contains a pyrocatechol tan 5-8%, non-tans 3-1%, water 9-5%, whilst the galls contain 18-4% of a readily extraetable pyrogallol tan. The fruit (and leaves) of Areca catechu, L,, contain, respectively, 11-4 (3-4)% of a tanning material, 10-5 (17-1)% of non-tans, and 6-9 (6-5)% of water. The wood (and bark) of Caslanopsis taiwaniana, H ayata, contain, respectively, a pyrogallol tan 2-4 (8-5)%, non-tans 1-8 (2-5)%, water 6-7 (7-7)% ; those of 0 . kawalcamii, H a y a ta , contain 3-1 (9-5), 1*5 (2-4), 6-9 (8-5)%, respectively. Acacia confusa, Merr., contains a pyrocatechol tan 11-0%, non-tans 7-3%, and water 8-7%. The fruit of Dioscorea rhipogonoides, Oliv., contains 8-0% of tans and 9-5% of non-tans. (Cf. B., 1929, 950.) A. A. E l d r i d g e .
“ Red heat ” in salted hides. (Miss) D. J. Lloyd
[with R. H. Marriott and (Miss) M. E . Robertson] (J. Soc. Leather Trades’ Chem., 1929, 13, 538—569).—
“ Red heat ” is caused by halophilic bacteria—red or yellow sarcina—brought on to the hide by the salt used in curing. They are particularly common in salts of marine origin occurring in samples of brine from Cheshire and Worcester, a Cheshire rock salt, and in large quan
tities in a salt from an Argentine hide-curing establish
ment. Gelatin was not liquefied by the red sarcinse, but was liquefied by yellow sarcina}, and there was evi
dence that greater damage was done to the hide by mixed cultures than by the yellow organisms alone. The yellow organism grew more rapidly than the red, growth being stimulated by higher temperatures up to 37° and by more humid atmospheres. Their growth was checked by addi
tions of sodium bisulphate or bisulphite to the curing salt. The effect of these additions on the structure of the hide and the weave of the fibres has been investigated, and a number of photomicrographs are given to show that the limed hide obtained from salting with brine liquor containing sodium bisulphate was equal to that obtained by using saturated brine liquor only. The fibres were too much separated in the limed pelt obtained from a hide, which had been cured with a brine liquor containing sodium bisulphite, although the latter was most effective in destroying bacteria. Disorganised fibre weaving was apparent in a limed hide which had been obtained from a hide cured with a brine containing more than 2% of soda ash, although a brine containing 1% of soda ash was free from this objection. These amounts of soda ash are insufficient to destroy the infection. The best results were obtained with a hide cured with common salt mixed with 0-25% of sodium bisulphate. D. W o o d r o f f e .
66
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s t r a c t s —B .
252 . C l . X V I.— A g r i c u l t u r e .
Raw h id e. G. Grasser (Cuir tech., 1929, 22, 202—203 ; Chem. Zentr., 1929, ii, 1117).—The ash (1-7—37% ; the average natural mineral content of the hide is 2%) contained CaS04 0-2 —3-9, MgS04 0—6• 6, Na2S 04 0—16 • 6, NaCl 1 • 2—20• 5, Si02 0• 3—7 • 7, (Fe20 3 + Â120 3) 0-2—4 -1. The natural fat content is 0-5—2% ;. 13—20% has been found in Chinese hides.
The water content of the dry hide varies between 13 and 20%. A. A. E l d r i d o e .
B io c h e m istry of soak in g and lim in g [of anim al sk in s]. IV. Influence of g a seo u s environm ent on lim in g . E. R. Turns and J. M . M i l l e r (J. Amer.
Leather Chem. Assoc., 1930, 25, 2—15 ; cf. B., 1929, 613).—Pieces of hide were limed in atmospheres of air, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and in vacuo ; the nature of the gaseous products and composition of the lime liquors were determined each day. M o s t ammonia was produced in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and least in vacuo. Hair-loosening was retarded by passing air into the lime liquors for 1 hr. daily, but was accelerated by passing hydrogen. The total dissolved nitrogenous matter was decreased by passing the gases through the lime liquors, oxygen, hydrogen, and air causing the largest decreases. Decomposition of the dissolved protein matter occurred in increasing amounts as the current of oxygen was continued through the lime liquors. The nitrogen and sulphur decompositions were equal. Very little volatile acid was found in the lime liquors, indicating th at the liming process is not a deaminising one. The greatest hydration of the hide occurred when the lime liquor was continuously agitated.
The effect of the gases used was chemical, causing 10—
15% increase in the ammonia produced. The evolved sulphur was in a reduced form in the case o f hydrogen and nitrogen, indicating a strongly reducing medium.
D . WOODROFFE.
Pa t e n t s.
T anning of an im al h ides. H. R h e i n b o l d t and H. B r e u e r (G.P. 453,534, 13.2.26).—Hide pelts are pretreated with a protein precipitant, e.g., copper salts, chrome alum, formaldehyde, phenols, tanning materials, and then treated with a dilute alkaline or neutral solution of natural or synthetic humins, which are fixed in the leather by subsequent treatment of the latter with acids and/or salts ; alternatively, the hide pelts may be treated with alkaline or neutral solutions of humic acid, to which such protein précipitants have been added.
D. Wo o d r o f f e.
Manufacture of leather. C. Hô p e r (G .P . 457,818, 30.5.26).—Pelts are treated first with a solution of sodium thiosulphate, then with a liquor containing potassium dichromate, ferrous and zinc sulphates, and hydrochloric acid, and finally with a solution of sodium
carbonate. D. Wo o d r o f f e.
Manufacture of black or coloured upper leather.
H. Wf.l t i (Swiss P. 121,819, 13.2.26).—Wet mineral- tanned or partly mineral-tanned hides or skins are completely impregnated with an emulsion of a high- polishing wax or substance containing it, e.g., montau wax, beeswax, carnauba wax, or walrus oil. Leather so treated can be tanned, fat-liquored, and dyed in the usual way. A high glaze is produced on the surface by
brushing, D. Wo o d r o f f e.
T reatm en t of leather and production of leather a rticle s. D . M . S t r a u c h e n , Assr. to R i t t e r D e n t a l M a n u f . Co., I n c . (U.S.P. 1,738,934, 10.12.29. Appl., 12.11.26).—Leather, preferably rough-tanned, is impreg
nated with a suitable softening liquid, e.g., acetone, after which it may or may not be flexed and/or moulded, the liquid allowed to evaporate, and the product subse
quently impregnated with a liquid or wax composition, e.g., beeswax, carnauba, montan, and paraffin wax, which will harden it and maintain the shape.
D . W o o d r o f f e .
M aking e m u lsio n s (B.P. 323,534).—See I. Sul- phonated alip h atic com p ou n d s (G.P. 454,458).—
See III. A rtificial m a sse s (B.P. 298,135).—See X III.
XVI.— AGRICULTURE.
H ydrogen and h y d ro x y l ion s in the ion ic layer of suspended p articles and d isp ersed u ltra m ic ro n s.
G. W i e g n e r and II. P a l l m a n n (Trans. 2nd Comm, and Alkali Sub-Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, ‘B, 92—144).—Suspended clay and permutit particles retain hydrogen ions in the outer ionic layer. These are active towards an immersed electrode. Sedimentation of the particles removes hydrogen ions from the effective sphere of the electrode and higher jh i values are thereby recorded. The p u of the centrifuged d is p e r s io n medium has a constant value. In dilute suspensions changes in recorded ]>n values are directly proportional to the number of particles suspended. Alkaline solutions added to clay suspensions cause an initial increase in hydrogen- ion concentration due to increased dispersion, followed by normal neutralisation. Addition of neutral salt solutions to acid clay suspensions causes r e p la c e m e n t o f hydrogen in the outer layer by sodium. The hydrogen- ion concentration of the dispersing medium increases and the potential acidity of the particle decreases. Electro- metric measurements of the apparent p u of the suspen
sion are confirmed by sugar inversion methods. The effect of the ionic layer surrounding the colloidal particle is independent of the density of the layer and of its size or form. Following the formation of porous aggregates during the coagulation of clay, sugar inversion methods indicate a. higher livdrogen-ion concentration than does the electrometric process. The latter depends on external surface ions only, whereas sugar molecules penetrate within the aggregate. Differences in results of the two methods give information as to total exposed surface of the particles and therefore of soil texture.
A. G. Po l l a r d. B uffering of so il silic a tes. W. U. B e h r e n s (Trans.
2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 95).—
Buffer curves of soil silicates show two maxima and differ from those of artificial permutits. A. G. P o l l a r d .
C apillary phenom ena and the h etero g en eity of the s o il. J. H. E n g k l i i a r d t (Proc. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci. [Soil Res. Suppl.], 1929, 4, 239—301).—The regu
lation of water movements in soils by capillary forces is discussed. Numerous records of capillary pressure measurements by means of capillarimeters show the relationship between capillary pressure, size of particles, and depth of water table. A. G. P o l l a r d .
C hem ical nature of so il organ ic m a tter, m eth od s of a n a ly sis, and the role of m ic r o -o r g a n ism s in its
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s t r a c t s — B .
C l . X V I.—Ag r i c u l t u r e. 2 5 3
formation and decom position. S. A. Wa k s m a n
(Trans. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sei., 1929, A.
172—197).—A comprehensive and critical survey of the literature on this subject. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Methods of determ ining hum us [in soils]. L.
Ko t z m a n n (Trans. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sei., 1929, A, 198—203).—Experimental comparison of existing methods for humus determination shows con
siderable lack of agreement in results. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Role of sulphur in the form ation of arable land.
L. Rig o t a r d (Compt. rend., 1930, 190, 199—201).—
Not only does the presence of sulphur lead to the disin
tegration of the rocks, but an analysis of 19 earths reveals the fact th a t a high sulphur content is comple
mentary to a high nitrogen content (humin formation).
C. C. N . Va s s.
Effect of frost on arable so ils. A. vox No s t it z
(Z. Pflauz. Düng., 1930, 15A, 273—279).—Prolonged and severe frost did not greatly alter the aggregate structure of soils, though the degree of flocculation changed perceptibly. Soils poor in lime tended to become slightly acid. The absorbing capacity for acid increased in some soils, but the base-absorbing capacity increased in nearly all cases. The catalytic power of soils was not greatly affected. The lighter colour of some soils after freezing was probably due to increased flocculation.
Improved fertility in frosted soils is in part the result of mineral disintegration, but is principally caused by changes in physical conditions, leading to improved aeration, more rapid warming, ease of root penetration, and accelerated microbiological activity, together with abnormal precipitation of dust containing nitrogenous
compounds. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Alkali so ils and soil reclam ation. A. A. J. vox Sigmond (Mezög.-Kutat., 1929, 2, 272—292 ; Chem.
Zen tr., 1929, ii, 1578).—The causes of the formation of Hungarian alkali soils are discussed. The first phase consists in an accumulation of sodium chloride, sulphate, carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate; in the second phase base exchange leads to transference of sodium to the absorption complex ; in the third hydrolysis occurs ; in the fourth sodium is replaced by hydrogen. Alkali soils of the last two phases can be improved by liming.
A. A. El d k i d g e.
The C : N ratio in various Hungarian soils.
K. Pa t e r (Trans. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sei., 1929, A, 204—206).—In the soils examined the C : N
ratios varied from 8-6 to 13-7, with the exception of highly acid samples. High humus contents were asso
ciated with high C : N values. In soils of similar physical and chemical composition variations in C : N ratios were within restricted limits. This is probably the out
come of similar biological activities. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Microflora of leached alkali so ils. II. Leached sodium chloride soil. J. D. Gr e a v e s (Soil Sei., 1930, 2 9 ,79—83 : cf. B., 1930,72).—Physiological and morpho
logical characteristics of the microflora are recorded.
A. G. Po l l a r d.
Am elioration of lim e- and soda-containing Szik so ils. A. He r k e (Trans. 2nd Comm, and Alkali Sub- Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sei., 1929, B, 184—195).—
Alkali soils of the solonetz and solontschak types are
described. Treatment of the latter with gypsum, bauxite, iron and aluminium sulphates, calcium chloride, or sulphur decreases the p n values and improves the physical condition, but in the first year of treatm ent plant injury may be increased. This is ascribed to the liberation of adsorbed sodium from the clay complex, with, a consequent temporary increase in the soluble sodium content of the soil. After leaching by one season’s rain, crop yields increase beyond those of un
treated soil-s. Accumulations of sodium salts at depths of 40 cm., even when the top soil is normal, affect plant growth in dry warm seasons. Addition of farmyard manure increases the ameliorative value of the above
materials. A. G . Po l l a r d.
Effect of absorbed ions on soil reaction. B.
Aa r n io (Trans. 2nd. Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 98—100).—The p n values of clays treated with various electrolytes are determined. Hydrogen- and aluminium-clays have acid characteristics, but all otherś are neutral or slightly alkaline. Leaching with neutral salt solutions decreases the acidity of acid soils. Salts of univalent elements are more effective in this respect than those of bivalent elements. A . G. Po l l a r d.
Soil acidity and soil adsorption. D. J. His,s in k
(Trans. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 111—124).—Comparison is made of the lime requirement (Kappen), the “ lime factor ” (lime required to give P r 7-0), and the value S (Hissink). Soils treated with lime according to Kappen’s values have approximately the same V values, but lower than the V value reached in soils limed to p n 7-0. The buffer capacity (lime required to change p u by 0-1) per unit humus content was independent of the actual humus content of the soils examined. In humus soils the buffer capacity increased as the neutral area was approached. In Kappen’s method for determining hydrolytic acidity the soil sample is preferably reduced to 25 g. and the reaction period increased to 3 hrs. In di Gloria’s method for determining exchangeable bases the treatm ent with barium chloride displaces hydrogen and aluminium ions from the absorbing complex, in addition to the usual cations examined.
This leads to higher S values than those obtained by Hissink’s method. In neutral and weakly alkaline soils, some barium ions may be removed from the clay complex during washing with water (di Gleria and Bobko-Askinasi methods). Tentative methods for determining S values in saline soils are described.
Lime requirements to produce p n 5-0 in soils, as calcu
lated from hydrolytic acidity values (Kappen and Kutchinsky), are of doubtful value for weakly acid and alkaline soils. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Soil acidity and absorption. R . Ga n s s e n (Trans.
2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 46—47).—
Among the exchangeable bases of soils the proportion of calcium varies considerably. Determinations of the degree of saturation of soils must include separate and direct determinations of each of the bases present. In Hissink’s method (F value), titration with lime or baryta solutions does not necessarily indicate the saturation point. The additional base absorbed is not independent of the nature and distribution of bases
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s t r a c t s — B .
254 Cl. X V I.— Ag r ic u l t u r e.
already present. The methods of Kappen (calcium acetate) arid of Hutchinson and McLennan (calcium bicarbonate) are most suitable for determining the saturation condition of soils. A. G. Po l l a r d.
Soil acidity and absorption. 0. Le m m e r m a n n and
L . Pr e s e n il is (Tran3. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 36—13).—For determinations of pn values soil suspensions should be used, and in the case of sandy soils and light loams a so il: water ratio of 1 :1 or 1 : 0-5 is most satisfactory. Measurements should be made 15—
20 min. after mixing fresh soil and water, and only for exceedingly dry soils should this period be extended.
With the quinhydronc electrode equilibrium is not always instantaneous. Excess of quinhydrone and a narrow soil: water ratio lead to more rapid equilibrium.
Values obtained in aqueous suspensions are dependent on electrolytes present at the time of sampling, but those of potassium chloride suspensions are characteristic of moro permanent soil conditions. Both determinations should be made. Daikuhara’s method for determining lime requirement yields uncertain results. Calculated values from soil-titration curves are preferable to those calculated from the hydrolytic acidity (Kappen). Pot experiments show the lime requirement to be less than 3 times the titration value (Christensen). Hissink’s method is too lengthy for general application, and is restricted to carbonate- and gypsum-free soils. The view th at optimum growth conditions in soils corresponds to 70% saturation with bases (Gehring) is not confirmed.
A. G. Po l l a r d.
Dehydration and soil acidity. H. G. Co l e s and C. G. T. M o r i s o n (Soil Sci., 1930, 29, 59—70).—
Heating of soils to 98° decreased their p n values. In peat soils little change occurs until nearly all the water has been removed, but in mineral soils the effects were more gradual. The changes were reversible in mineral soils, but not in organic ones. The yn of soils from which exchangeable bases were removed were not appreciably altered by heating. Drying decreased the amount of exchangeable bases in soils, and increased the water-soluble calcium, potassium, and phosphate. The extent of the p n changes on, drying were more closely related to the original p a than to the clay contents of
the soils. A. G. P o l l a r d .
Fixation and m obilisation of phosphoric oxide in clays. A. De m o l o n and G. Ba r b i e r (Compt. rend., 1929, 189, 1310—1312).—When decalcified clay is treated with aqueous ammonium dihydrogen phosphate solution an equilibrium is reached between the solid and liquid phases; the amount of phosphate fixed by the solid rises with increasing initial concentration of the phosphate solution, and is a maximum at about 3-5.
The ferric oxide present in brick-clay is responsible for the fixation; the phosphate can be subsequently removed by shaking with 0-5% sodium hydroxide solution. Adsorbed calcium in clay favours the ad
sorption of phosphoric oxide, but if the phosphate solu
tion contains an excess of calcium ions, the adsorption is not favoured. If the acids commonly used (i.e., 1% acetic, 2% citric, and dilute nitric) for the determination of the total phosphoric oxide in soils
contain above a certain amount of phosphate, the soil may actually adsorb phosphate from them.
H . Bu r t o n.
Correlation between the fineness and carbon solubility of calcareous grindings and their neutral
isin g action on acid soils. C. Br i o u x and E. Jouis (Compt. rend., 1930, 190, 277—280).—The rate of neutralisation of acid soils by these products when they were added at the rate of 1-666 g. CaC03 per kg. was measured from the change in p n after intervals of from 15 lirs. to 15 days. I t bears a close relationship to the fineness as determined by means of standard sieves, and to the solubility in water saturated with carbon dioxide, and these two properties provide a rational means of
evaluation. J. Gr a n t.
R egularity of the absorption process in the determ ination of hydrolytic acidity [in soils].
A. v o n Ra t h (Trans. 2nd Comm. Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, A, 77—83).—Hydrolytic acidity values as determined by treatm ent of soils with calcium acetate solution vary with the proportion of soil to water used.
The process of absorption of calcium by soils is examined by successive leachings with calcium acetate solution.
The nature of the absorption curves may serve as a basis for the grouping of soils according to type. The Kappen factor (3) used in calculating the lime require
ment of soils from their hydrolytic acidity is not univer
sally applicable. For each group of soils a characteristic factor is necessary. A. G . Po l l a r d.
E lectrodialysis and m ineral so il acidity. M.
Tr e n e l (Trans. 2nd Comm, and Alkali Sub-Comm.
Internat. Soc. Soil Sci., 1929, B, 144—153).—Electro
dialysis of permutit indicates the gel to be a mixture of variable composition without the characteristics of the supposed “ permutit-acid ” and without exchangeable hydrogen ions. Treatment of electrodialysed permutit with neutral salt solution results in the liberation of iron and aluminium from the complex, according to the equa
tion : Fe[Al](OH)3 + 3KC1 ^ 3K 0 II + Fe[Al]Cl3. The presence of silica with which the alkali can combine favours the direct equation, and the formation and hydrolysis of the ferric salt produces an acid reaction. Ferric ions appear in water in which electrodialysed “ iron silicate gel ” is suspended, and the effect is increased by the addition of neutral salts. Exchange acidity in soils is not the result of direct displacement of hydrogen ions.
Perm utit from which bases are completely removed cannot be regenerated at ordinary temperatures.
Purified silica gel cannot effect neutral salt decomposi
tion. A. G . Po l l a r d.
Indicators used in determ ining the exchange acids (easily soluble acids in soil) b y Daikuhara’s m ethod. S. G o y , P. M u l l e r , and O. Roos (Z. Pilanz.
Dung., 1930, 15A, 233—236; cf. B ., 1929, 787).—
Comparison is made of the use of methyl-red and phenolphthalein (both cold and boiling) in titrating the soil extract iu Daikuhara’s process. No soil e x a m in e d
which showed p n (potassium chloride extract) less than 5-3 exhibited exchange acidity when m e t h y l - r e d
was used, but with phenolphthalein exchange acidity was indicated with p u values up to 5-5. In these ca.se-s