5. The Components of the Definition of Terrorism
5.4. Strategy and Tactics
The analysis of the objectives achieved through violence is closely con-nected with the tactics and strategies of terrorism. In this literature on the
94 Cf. Hanausek, T. „Wybrane zagadnienia kryminalistycznej metodyki zwalczania terrory-zmu,” in: Terroryzm, aspekty prawno-międzynarodowe, kryminalistyczne i policyjne, Sławik, K., ed., Poznań 1993, p. 83.
95 A much-saying example of such interpretations are the statements of the leaders of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine when justifying the attack at the Lod airport in 1972, which claimed the lives of Puerto Rican pilgrims. According to their explanation, the vic- tims were „guilty” because they had arrived in Israel on Israeli visas, thereby had tacitly recog-nized the state that was the declared enemy of the Palestinians, and because they had entered what was in effect a war zone. One of the terrorists concluded that „There are no innocent tour-ists in Israel;” quoted after Jenkins, B.M. International Terrorism, p. 18
96 Cf. Nacos, B. L. Terrorism and the Media, New York 1996, p. 10, Wheeler, E. L. Terrorism, p. 22.
The Components of the Definition of Terrorism subject, in simple terms, short-term goals are referred to as tactical, and the strategy of terrorism is connected to the pursuit of long-term goals.97
Specific methods of the use of violence usually follow from the ratio-nal assessment of the existing objective conditions, such as the human, financial and operational resources of a group and a political, social and military background. Terrorist tactics primarily take account of the imbal-ance of power between the involved parties, which signifies the existence of a so-called asymmetric conflict. Terrorism is in fact used as a weapon of
“the weak” against “the strong.”98 The modus operandi of the perpetrators is therefore rested on avoiding an immediate military exposure to the en-emy. Instead, they use a tactics of sudden hit-and-run attacks.99 Among the characteristics of such action, G. Bouthoul lists the secretive nature of the preparations within a small, clandestine group, and an element of imita-tion in the techniques employed.100
It is also important to produce a kind of dramatic effect surrounding the attack, so that the event will become a scoop for the mass media. By capturing the attention of the press, radio and television, terrorists try to influence the content of the communicated message with a view to having some impact on political decision-makers pressed by the public opinion.
Making use of the media gives the perpetrators of terrorist acts the oppor- tunity to achieve many detailed objectives, as listed by M. Cherif Bassiou-ni: the publication of demands, dissemination of information about the ideology, undermining confidence in the authorities, presenting the per-petrators as heroes, providing the grounds justifying and defending the committed act and arousing sympathy for the ideology or group.101
The phrase “terrorism is theatre” used by B.M. Jenkins for the drama of abducted hostages unfolding before the viewers102 reflects the desire of the perpetrators to use the mass media as part of their tactics. Terrorist attacks are often carefully choreographed to attract the attention of the media of the broadest range of influence. The literature on the subject furnishes ex-amples of dexterous terrorists capable of manipulating the mass media and
97 Cf. Nacos, B. L. Terrorism, p. 7, Wilkinson, P. Terrorism, pp. 60, 110-111.
98 Cf. Freeman, L. „The Coming War on Terrorism,” PQ (2002), p. 48, Gearson, J. The Nature, pp. 19, 23, Stepanova, E. Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict. Ideological and Structural Aspects, Ox-ford 2008, p. 14.
99 P. Wilkinson, Terrorism, p. 117.
100 Cf. Bouthoul, G. „Definitions of Terrorism,” in: International Terrorism and World Security, Carlton, D., Schaerf, C., eds., London 1975, pp. 51-52.
101 Cf. Cherif Bassiouni, M. Terrorism, p. 32.
102 B. M. Jenkins, International Terrorism, p. 16.
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The Notion of Terrorism
exploiting them to satisfy their own needs.103 This task is much simplified, since the relationships between terrorism and the media are close to sym-biosis.104 The perpetrators of terrorist acts need the press, radio, television and the Internet to make an impact on a wider audience, but this relation-ship is bidirectional: terrorism delivers engrossing and front-page news.
This media attitude toward terrorism may lead to devastating consequenc-es of the media’s approach to terrorist attacks as media events, broadcast as some lurid happenings.105 Another danger is a strong psychological impact of the media coverage on the audience, which may fuel a desire to imitate.
The literature is not unanimous about the actual media’s impact on stimu-lating a perpetrator to commit a terrorist offence, however, many authors subscribe to the opinion that they have a “contagious effect.”106 According to the proponents of this view, an appropriately targeted media message may become a factor in sparking a terrorist activity.
Detailed tactics of terrorist activity is subordinated to the adopted strategy, designed to achieve long-term objectives. D. Fromkin argued that the strategy of terrorism is uniform and is tantamount to provocation. It is based on the assumption that terrorism achieves its goals not because of committed illegal acts, but only through the response to them. It seeks to produce a psychological effect that is not limited to instilling a state of fear, but is to force specific entities to take action.107 An advocate of such a strat-egy was C. Marighella who, in his 1969 Mini-Manual of the Urban Guerilla, advised to strive to produce such a state in which, “The people refuse to collaborate with the authorities, and the general sentiment is that the gov-ernment is unjust, incapable of solving problems, and that it resorts purely and simply to the physical liquidation of its opponents.”108
In the literature, however, there is a prevailing opinion that there is no single “terrorist” strategy, but, depending on the setting of a conflict which involves the use of violence, there may be many of them. Among the most commonly employed, besides provocation, there is the strategy of intimi-dation, often implemented due to a lack of social support for the political
103 Cf. Hoffman, B. Oblicza terroryzmu, p. 129.
104 Cf. Cherif Bassiouni, M. Terrorism, p. 32, Wardlaw, G. Political Terrorism, p. 76.
105 Cf. Laqueur, W. A History, p. 109, Madej, M. Międzynarodowy terroryzm polityczny, Warszawa 2001, pp. 16-17, Salomone, F. “Terrorism and the Mass Media,” in: International Ter-rorism and Political Crimes, Cherif Bassiouni, M., ed., Springfield 1975, p. 43.
106 Cf. Cherif Bassiouni, M. Terrorism, pp. 19-20, Held, V. “The Media and Political Vio-lence,” JE 1 (1997), p. 192.
107 Cf. Fromkin, D. „The Strategy of Terrorism,” FA 4 (1975), pp. 692-693.
108 Full text available at: www.latinamericanstudies.org/marighella.htm.
The Components of the Definition of Terrorism agenda and terrorists’ activity. Violence in the form of symbolic acts of
“punishment” meted out on unruly individuals seeks to inspire a general state of fear and demonstrate the terrorists’ strength, and at the same time the weakness of the authorities unable to counter it.109
Creating an atmosphere of uncertainty and danger, illustrative of the strategy of chaos, is meant to undermine confidence in the state whose bodies are unable to ensure order and security. A public response to this may be a conviction of the need to replace the “weak” government by a “strong regime.”110
The principles of this strategy – its very essence, is reflected in the ex- pression “propaganda by the deed” – were outlined by the theorists of an-archism in the second half of the 19th century. Those concepts explain that terrorist acts should trigger a struggle with an existing political, economic and social order. The activities of even few and weak terrorist organiza-tions were to foment a social rebellion and lead to a massive revolutionary movement.111
Long-lasting, titanic and calamitous struggle, causing serious enemy losses, embodies the essence of the attrition strategy.112 Its objective is to demonstrate the high costs resulting from failure to comply with terror-ists’ demands. Depending on whether the perpetrators strike economic or military targets, Ch. C. Harmon distinguishes two extra substrategies:
those rendering economic and military damage.113
In many cases, the conditions of a conflict determine the choice of a specific and inclusive stratagem. A. H. Kydd and B. F. Walter provide examples of terrorist acts committed in order to break the ongoing peace talks between the parties (strategy of spoiling), and also to demonstrate a dedication greater than that of other groups to clash with the enemy (strategy of outbidding).114 There is also a known strategy of international effects, that is, to publicize the cause, which involves violence, as an issue of paramount importance with transnational or even global significance.115
109 Cf. Kydd, A. H., Walter, B. F. „The Strategies of Terrorism,” IS 1 (2006), pp. 66-69.
110 Cf. Merari, A. „Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” TPV 5 (1993), pp. 235-236.
111 Cf. Ivansky, Z. Individual Terror, pp. 44-46, Pawłowski, A. Terroryzm, pp. 116-139, Ray-mond, G. A. “The Evolving Strategies of Political Terrorism,” in: The New Global Terrorism. Char-acteristics, Causes, Controls, Kegley, Ch. W., ed., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 2003, pp. 77-79, Laqueur, W. A History, pp. 11-14.
112 Kydd, A. H., Walter, B. F. The Strategies, pp. 51, 59-66
113 Harmon, Ch. C. „Five Strategies of Terrorism,” SWI 12 (2001), pp. 42-44, 51-58.
114 Kydd, A. H., Walter, B. F. The Strategies, pp. 51, 72-78
115 Cf. Harmon, Ch. C. Five Strategies, pp. 44, 58-62.
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The Notion of Terrorism