Julita Biernacka

DE TRI TUS FROM VARISCAN LOWER CRUST IN ROTLIEGEND

SAND STONES OF THE INTRA-SUDETIC BA SIN, SW PO LAND,

RE VEALED BY DE TRI TAL HIGH-PYROPE GARNET

In sti tute of Ge ol ogy, Uni ver sity of Poznañ, Maków Polnych 16, 61-606 Poznañ, Po land, e-mail: julbier@amu.edu.pl Biernacka, J., 2012. De tri tus from Variscan lower crust in Rotliegend sand stones of the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin,

SW Po land, re vealed by de tri tal high-pyrope gar net. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 82: 127–138. Ab stract: It is well es tab lished that peb bles in the Sudetic Perm ian con glom er ates were de rived from the nearby Variscan mas sifs of up per-crustal com po si tion. How ever, the prov e nance of the sand-size grains re mains enig matic. Elec tron microprobe anal y ses (EMPAs) of de tri tal gar net from up per Rotliegend con glom er ates and sand -stones ex posed at Goliñsk, the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin, showed a dis tinct as sem blage dom i nated by high-pyrope (high-grossular) almandine, typ i cal of high-grade meta mor phic rocks, such as high-pres sure granu lites. These re sults, cou pled with a pre vi ously re ported pop u la tion of sim i lar de tri tal gar net in the stratigraphically equiv a lent con glom er ates and sand stones of the Karkonosze Piedmont Ba sin, sug gest re gional in put of de tri tal lower-crustal ma te rial. This de tri tus was de rived ul ti mately ei ther from the Moldanubian Zone of the Bo he mian Mas sif, or from high-grade rocks of the Orlica-Œnie¿nik Mas sif that were ex posed in the Car bon if er ous–Perm ian. Perm ian siliciclastic rocks might have cov ered a large part of the Sudetes. Dur ing the Me so zoic and Palaeogene, these rocks might have been re cy cled fur ther, con trib ut ing high-pyrope gar net, as an ac ces sory min eral, into siliciclastic rocks of the Sudetes and their fore land.

Key words: Perm ian, Sudetes, sand stone, prov e nance, de tri tal gar net, granulite. Manu script re ceived 28 De cem ber 2011, ac cepted 28 Sep tem ber 2012

IN TRO DUC TION

By the end of the Variscan orog eny, in Car bon if er ous and Perm ian times, a se ries of small sed i men tary bas ins formed within the Bo he mian Mas sif. One of them, the Intra- Sudetic Ba sin on the northeast ern pe riph ery of the Bo he -mian Mas sif (Fig. 1), was grad u ally filled with 10 km thick molasse. The Car bon if er ous–Mid dle Perm ian de pos its of this molasse re corded the evo lu tion of the sur round ing ar eas from high moun tains un der hu mid trop i cal con di tions to a ped i ment in a semi-arid cli mate (Dziedzic and Teisseyre, 1990). Coarse-grained siliciclastic rocks yield nu mer ous lines of ev i dence that as early as the Early Car bon if er ous, shortly af ter meta mor phism, the newly formed low to me -dium-grade meta mor phic rocks of the orogen were ex posed and eroded (Teisseyre, 1968, 1971, 1975; Awdankiewicz et

al., 2003). In con trast, the later Late Perm ian to Early Cre ta

-ceous his tory of the Sudetes, which in cluded their plat form stage, has been far less rec og nized be cause of the poor sed i men tary re cord and many hi a tuses, which in di cate that de -nu da tion pre vailed over sed i men ta tion. Re cently, Aramo-wicz et al. (2006) and Mazur et al. (2010) sug gested that the Sudetes, namely the Góry Sowie Mas sif, were not ex posed dur ing the Me so zoic but were bur ied un der a thick sed i men

-tary cover of pre dom i nantly Late Car bon if er ous–Perm ian age. This sed i men tary cover had been al most com pletely eroded away by Oligocene time. If this as sump tion is true, the Up per Car bon if er ous–Perm ian siliciclastic rocks and not the crys tal line rocks known from pres ent-day ex po sures must have been the source for the Me so zoic sand stones de pos ited in the Sudetic sed i men tary bas ins and on the fore land of the Sudetes. Al though the com po si tion of the hy po -thet i cal Up per Car bon if er ous–Perm ian cover is un known, it pre sum ably did not dif fer from the com po si tion of the Up -per Car bon if er ous–Perm ian rocks that are pre served in the nearby Intra-Sudetic Ba sin. There fore, de ter mi na tion of the com po si tion of the Up per Car bon if er ous–Perm ian silici-clastic rocks may help to iden tify some miss ing pieces in the Sudetic mo saic.

This con tri bu tion con cerns con glom er ates and sand -stones from the up per part of the Rotliegend (lower/mid dle Perm ian) in the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin and dis cusses whether their prov e nance was lo cal or more dis tant. The com po si -tion of peb bles in the Perm ian con glom er ates and their lo cal prov e nance have been long rec og nized (Berg, 1908; Petra-scheck, 1936; Dziedzic, 1961; Dziedzic and Teisseyre,

1990). How ever, the com po si tion and prov e nance of sand-size grains re main enig matic. A case study of con glom er atic sand stones ex posed at Goliñsk in di cates that part of the finer- grained de tri tus was de liv ered from an un known source of pre dom i nantly lower-crust li thol ogy, most likely from the cen tral-east ern part of the Bo he mian Mas sif.

The prov e nance anal y sis was based largely on the in ter -pre ta tion of de tri tal gar net chem is try. Gar net is suit able for such con sid er ations for a num ber of rea sons. It shows ex -ten sive compositional vari a tion, re flect ing its host-rock chem is try and the pres suretem per a ture con di tions of or i -gin. It is a com mon min eral in meta mor phic rocks and also oc curs in peraluminous gran ites and pegmatites. Rep re sent -ing a wide spec trum of source rocks, gar net has been used in nu mer ous prov e nance stud ies (cf. Mange and Mor ton, 2007). Al though gar net is mod er ately re sis tant un der con di -tions of weath er ing and diagenesis (Mor ton and Hallsworth, 1999), it may with stand me chan i cal and chem i cal break down over mil lions of years and un der ki lo me ters of over -bur den. Car bon if er ous siliciclastic rocks of the Intra-Sude-tic Ba sin, bur ied to depths of over 5 km, still con tain di verse as sem blages of de tri tal gar nets, which cor re spond well with the peb ble com po si tion in the same rocks (Felicka, 2000). In turn, the change in de tri tal gar net pop u la tions in the Lower Car bon if er ous con glom er ates from south ern Mora-via re corded suc ces sive pulses in the Variscan orog eny (Hartley and Otava, 2001; Èopjaková et al., 2005). Last but not least, gar net is the most abun dant trans lu cent heavy min eral in the rocks stud ied in this con tri bu tion.

MA TE RI ALS AND METH ODS

Three sam ples of con glom er atic sand stone (G1–G3) were taken from the dis used quarry at Goliñsk in the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin (Fig. 1). Up per Rotliegend con glom er ates and sand stones of the Radków For ma tion are ex posed in a 12 m high cliff at this lo cal ity (Aleksandrowski et al., 1986; Fig. 2). The ex posed sed i ments may be di vided into three parts (Aleksandrowski et al., 1986). The low est part is rep -re sented by slump de pos its, abun dant in de for ma tion and dewatering struc tures, the cen tral part ex hib its braided-river chan nel and bar de pos its (Fig. 3A), and the up per con glom er atic part has been in ter preted as al lu vial fan de pos its. Nu -mer ous in di ca tors of soil-form ing pro cesses, such as green spots in the over all red sed i ments, root casts, and cal cite ce -ment of cal crete or i gin, can be ob served in the ex po sure. The sam ples for this study were taken from the flu vial, cen tral part. Sam ple G3, by com par i son with two oth ers, con -tained more sandy ma te rial.

Three thin sec tions were pre pared from the rock sam -ples. A point-count ing pro ce dure was used to es ti mate fra-mework com po si tions. The num ber of points counted per thin sec tion was 200–300; ce ment and ma trix were omit ted in the count ing. The re main ing sand stone sam ples were crushed and sieved to ob tain the 3–4 phi (125–63 µm) frac tion. This frac tion was cho sen in ear lier re search by the au -thor (Biernacka and Józefiak, 2009; Biernacka 2012) to com pare the re sults for dif fer ent sam ples. Nar row ing ob ser va tions to one frac tion is a rec om mended strat egy to mini

-Fig. 1. Sim pli fied geo log i cal map of the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin and ad ja cent ar eas. Cenozoic sed i ments omit ted. Com piled from Sawicki (1995) and Prouza and Tásler (2001). In set shows the en tire Bo he mian Mas sif (sim pli fied from Dallmeyer et al., 1995)

mise the ef fects of the hy dro dy namic sort ing of grains caused by trans port, and to make com par i sons be tween dif -fer ent datasets fea si ble (Hubert, 1971; Mange and Mau rer, 1992; Mor ton and Hallsworth, 1999). As well, the 63–125 µm frac tion, by com par i son with other grain-size frac tions, usu ally shows the high est con cen tra tions of heavy min er als (Mor ton, 1985; von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999). This was dem on strated for the Perm ian Sudetic sand stones from the Nowa Ruda area, which were pre-ex am ined for their de tri tal gar net con tent. Heavy min er als were sep a rated in an aque -ous so dium polytungstate so lu tion (2.86 g/cm3). The heavy frac tions were treated with 10% HCl so lu tion for 15 min utes to re move abun dant do lo mite crys tals. The heavy min er als were em bed ded in ar al dite, pol ished and iden ti fied un -der a po lar iz ing mi cro scope; fre quency data were ob tained by rib bon count ing of 300 non-opaque grains.

The gar net com po si tions of sam ples G1 and G3 were ana lysed by means of a Cameca SX-100 elec tron mi croprobe (15 kV ac cel er at ing volt age, 20 nA croprobe cur rent, fo cused beam, 40 s count ing time for each el e ment) at War -saw Uni ver sity. A ZAF ma trix cor rec tion rou tine was used dur ing data re duc tion. At first, a to tal of 228 gar net grains were ex am ined in ac cor dance with the pro ce dure one EMPA spot per one grain. This pro ce dure was used to as sess the range of de tri tal gar net com po si tions, on the as sump tion that the data from sta tis ti cal num ber of anal y ses in ran domly cut gar net grains would re veal the en tire compositional vari -a tion, in clud ing pos si ble intr-a-gr-ain v-ari -a tion. Al though the gar nets stud ied showed no vis i ble zonation on backscat -tered elec tron im ages, 20 ran domly cho sen gar net grains were tested for the pres ence of compositional zon ing by col -lect ing line anal y ses (10 spots per grain). Un doubt edly, the small gar net size hin dered the ob ser va tion of com plete zonation pro files. It is well es tab lished that the larger the grains ana lysed, the greater the like li hood of ob serv ing growth zonation un al tered by high-tem per a ture diffusional ho mogeni sa tion (Caddick et al., 2010). On the other hand, SEM ob ser va tions re vealed that the 63–125 µm gar net does not nec es sar ily rep re sent unabraded, fine crys tals from the host-rock ma trix, but rather frag mented larger grains and dis so lu tion rem nants. The mor phol ogy of the gar net grains was ob served by means of a Hitachi 3700N scan ning elec tron mi cro scope at the In sti tute of Ge ol ogy, Poznañ Uni ver -sity.

For com par i son, two gar net pop u la tions (63–125 and 125–250 µm) from a stratigraphically equiv a lent sand stone from the Starý Rokytník quarry in the Karkonosze Pied-mont Ba sin (Fig. 1) also were ana lysed. The larger grain frac tion con tained a lower amount of heavy min er als, in -clud ing gar net. No compositional dif fer ences were obser-ved be tween the two frac tions.

SAND STONE COM PO SI TION

AND GAR NET CHEM IS TRY

The con glom er atic sand stones are lithic arenites con -tain ing dis persed, an gu lar ignimbrite peb bles, 5–20 mm in di am e ter (Fig. 3B). These ignimbrite peb bles con sti tute a grain-sup ported frame work in the con glom er ates and reach

20 cm (5 cm on av er age). The coarse- to me dium-grained sandy ‘ma trix’ is much more di verse and con sists of mono-crys tal line quartz, at least partly of vol ca nic or i gin, rhy o lite and trachybasalt rock frag ments, polycrystalline quartz, meta mor phic rock frag ments, feld spars (Kfeld spar pre -dom i nates, com pared to plagioclase), and rare fine-grained sand stones. The meta mor phic rock frag ments con tain quartz, K-feld spar or plagioclase, mus co vite or bi o tite, and show some fo li a tion. How ever, the small sizes of grains make a more pre cise de ter mi na tion than ‘gneiss’ im pos si ble (Fig. 3C, D). On av er age, judg ing by the per cent ages of polycrystalline quartz and meta mor phic rock frag ments, one quar ter to one third of the sand grains ul ti mately orig i -nated from meta mor phic rocks (Tab. 1). In con trast to the an gu lar ignimbrite peb bles, a large pro por tion of the sand grains – par tic u larly the meta mor phic rock frag ments – is subrounded to well rounded (Fig. 3C–E). The sand stones are rich in heavy min er als, in di vid ual spe cies of which can be ob served as sep a rate grains in early diagenetic cal cite/ do lo mite ce ment. Sam ple G1 dif fers from two oth ers in show ing a lack of haematite pig ment (Fig. 3E).

Facetted gar net grains pre dom i nate in the trans lu cent heavy min eral suites (Fig. 3F). The re main ing, trans lu cent heavy min er als are – in the or der of de creas ing fre quency – zir con, tour ma line, rutile, staurolite, bi o tite, monazite, ana tase, and ap a tite. Opaque min er als con sti tute 50% of the en -tire heavy min eral as sem blage and con sist of haematite, titanoferrous mag ne tite, and il men ite.

The com po si tions of the de tri tal gar nets (Tab. 2, Fig. 4) may be grouped into four pop u la tions. The first pop u la tion (1) con sists of high-pyrope high-grossular almandine with the most com mon com po si tion Alm40-60Prp20-40Grs8-35Sps1.

One pyrope grain (Alm27Prp52Grs20) was found among the

grains stud ied. These gar net grains are mostly ho mog e nous

in com po si tion (Fig. 5B, C), al though some show a slight de crease in grossular and an in crease in pyrope and alman-dine com po nents from the cores to wards the rims (Fig. 5D). The sec ond pop u la tion (2) en com passes high-pyrope low-grossular almandine, with a typ i cal com po si tion that may be sum ma rized as Alm50-65Prp30-45Grs1-5Sps1. All gar nets an

a lyzed from this group lacked any sig nif i cant ma jorel e

-ment zonation (Figs. 5A, 6). The third pop u la tion (3) inclu-des high-spessartine high-grossular almandine (and mi nor spessartine) of the typ i cal com po si tion Alm40-60Prp1-5

Grs10-25Sps15-45. A few gar net grains that show lower spes-

sartine (10–15 mol%), but high-grossular (15–30 mol%) con tents, were also in cluded in this group. Line scans col -lected across three gar net grains ex hib ited flat

compositio-Ta ble 1

Frame work com po si tion and heavy-min eral data for Rotliegend con glom er atic sand stones from Goliñsk

Qzmono % Qzpoli % Kfs % Pl % VRF % MRF % SRF % HM % HM* wt% Grt % Zrn % Tur % Rt % Ant % St % Mnz % Bt % Ap % G1 16 18 6 2 43 13 2 tr. 0.4 35 36 12 13 - 2 1 1 tr. G2 24 18 5 1 40 9 3 tr. 0.5 40 32 12 12 - 2 1 1 tr. G3 28 21 10 1 30 7 2 1 1.5 56 17 11 7 2 3 1 3 tr. Ant – ana tase; Ap – ap a tite; Bt – bi o tite; Grt – gar net; HM – heavy min er als; Kfs – K-feld spar; Mnz – monazite; MRF – meta mor phic rock frag ments; Pl – plagioclase; Qzmono – monocrystalline quartz; Qzpoli – polycrystalline quartz; Rt – rutile; SRF – sand stone frag ments; St – staurolite; tr. – traces (<0.5%);

Tur – tour ma line; VRF – vol ca nic rock frag ments; Zrn – zir con; * in 63–125 µm frac tion con tain ing sep a rate grains and fine frag ments of crushed peb bles

Ta ble 2

Se lected gar net anal y ses

Grain G1_19 G1_47 G1_62 G1_64 G1_75 G1_95 G1_68 G1_103 G3_1 G3_3 G3_8 G3_69 SiO2 38.83 39.47 39.31 38.45 36.96 38.34 37.21 39.27 37.29 36.81 38.28 38.53 TiO2 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.26 0.24 0.06 0.13 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.07 0.22 Al2O3 22.34 22.73 22.51 21.66 21.02 22.04 21.05 22.46 21.23 20.89 22.21 22.11 Cr2O3 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.05 b.d.l. 0.08 b.d.l. 0.02 0.05 b.d.l. MgO 9.24 9.67 11.82 5.31 0.70 8.84 0.65 10.69 3.18 0.68 8.52 6.93 CaO 4.85 8.11 1.17 8.97 8.18 0.70 8.88 2.38 4.61 6.83 0.88 8.21 MnO 0.39 0.42 0.24 0.54 9.29 0.40 11.86 0.38 9.42 9.48 0.88 0.46 FeOtot 23.68 19.93 24.40 25.63 24.05 29.48 20.69 24.90 23.85 25.19 29.05 23.34 Total 99.41 100.45 99.57 100.59 100.44 99.92 100.34 100.25 100.26 99.87 100.50 99.98 Si 2.978 2.966 2.983 2.969 2.965 2.969 2.979 2.978 2.993 2.999 2.978 2.997 Ti 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.015 0.014 0.003 0.008 0.005 0.008 0.002 0.010 0.000 Al 2.019 2.013 2.013 1.971 1.988 2.011 1.986 2.007 1.948 1.959 1.922 1.882 Cr 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.000 0.001 0.003 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.000 Fe3+ 0.016 0.043 0.010 0.060 0.052 0.041 0.041 0.022 0.048 0.037 0.102 0.125 Mg 1.056 1.083 1.337 0.611 0.083 1.021 0.077 1.209 0.724 1.328 0.078 0.651 Ca 0.398 0.653 0.095 0.742 0.703 0.058 0.761 0.193 0.825 0.077 0.414 0.165 Mn 0.025 0.027 0.016 0.035 0.631 0.026 0.804 0.024 0.035 0.026 0.764 0.985 Fe2+ 1.502 1.209 1.539 1.595 1.562 1.867 1.343 1.557 1.417 1.570 1.732 1.196 Total 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 8.000 Prp 35.4 36.4 44.8 20.5 2.8 34.3 2.6 40.5 24.1 44.3 2.6 21.7 Sps 0.8 0.9 0.5 1.2 21.2 0.9 26.9 0.8 1.2 0.9 25.6 32.9 Alm 50.4 40.7 51.5 53.5 52.4 62.8 45.0 52.2 47.2 52.3 58.0 39.9 Uv 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Adr 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.6 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.3 Grs 13.2 21.5 3.2 24.1 23.0 1.9 25.0 6.4 26.8 2.5 13.1 5.2 The gar net for mu lae were cal cu lated on the ba sis of 12 oxygens and 8 cat ions; the Fe3+ con cen tra tions were es ti mated us ing the al go rithm of Droop (1987); b.d.l. – be low de tec tion limit

nal pro files (Fig. 5E). A char ac ter is tic fea ture of the gar nets of the third pop u la tion is greater abun dance of min eral in -clu sions, pri mar ily quartz, by com par i son with the other garnets. The fourth group (4) con sists of var i ous gar net com po si tions, none of which pre dom i nates: almandine-rich (Alm>75), high-spessartine almandine with el e vated pyrope

con tent (Alm40-60Prp10-15Grs2-5Sps20-45),

almandine-spes-sartine solid so lu tion, high-grossular almandine, and a few grains with the com po si tion Alm61-74Prp8-18Grs3-8Sps10-20,

typ i cal of the Sowie Góry gneiss es.

The de tri tal gar net as sem blages are dom i nated by groups (1) and (2), which to gether make up more than 60% (Fig. 7).

DIS CUS SION

With out doubt, the an gu lar, coarse, volcaniclastic ma te -rial was de liv ered from the vol ca nic rocks nearby (cf. Fig. 1; Dziedzic, 1961; Aleksandrowski et al., 1986). A tec tonic pulse at the end of Rotliegend de po si tion caused the re ju ve

-Fig. 3. Rotliegend con glom er atic sand stones, Radków For ma tion, Goliñsk, Intra-Sudetic Ba sin. A. Frag ment of ex po sure show ing mid-chan nel bar de pos its of braided river. B. Pho to mi cro graph of ignimbrite clast in sandy ma trix. Plane-po lar ized light. C, D. Well rounded sand-size frag ments of meta mor phic rocks com posed of K-feld spar and quartz; C – plane-po lar ized light; D – crossed polars. E. Well rounded polycrystalline quartz grain set in cal cite ce ment. Plane-po lar ized light. F. Sec ond ary elec tron SEM mi cro graphs of gar net grains

na tion of re lief and re sulted in coarse-grained sed i men ta tion in the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin (Dziedzic, 1961; Nemec et al., 1982; Wojewoda and Mastalerz, 1989). Coarsegrained de -pos its have been in ter preted mainly as al lu vial fan de -pos its (Dziedzic, 1961; Wojewoda and Mastalerz, 1989). The Goliñsk suc ces sion also doc u ments a braided river en vi ron ment (Aleksandrowski et al., 1986). This river car ried vol ca nic peb bles, as well as finer siliciclastic ma te rial that orig -i nated from meta mor ph-ic rocks (cf. F-ig. 3C–E). The lat ter ma te rial could have come from the east ern part of the Kar-konosze-Izera Mas sif or the Orlica-Œnie¿nik Mas sif, which also de liv ered coarse-grained rock frag ments into the nearby sed i men tary bas ins (Dziedzic, 1961; Aleksandrowski et al.,

1986; Prouza and Tásler, 2001). The der i va tion from older sedimentary rocks also can not be ex cluded. How ever, the small size of the lithic grains and the lim ited di ver sity of al tered heavy min eral as sem blages hin der a di rect in ter pre ta -tion. The study of de tri tal gar net sheds new light on the pro-venance of the fine-grained de tri tus.

Prov e nance of de tri tal gar net

The de tri tal gar net of group (1) – a solid so lu tion of al-mandine, pyrope, grossular with mi nor an dra dite and spes-sartine – shows the char ac ter is tic com po si tion of gar nets in high-pres sure (HP) meta mor phic rocks, such as eclogites

Fig. 4. Tri an gu lar di a grams show ing pro por tions of almandinepyropegrossular and almandinepyropespessartine com po nents in de -tri tal gar nets from Rotliegend sand stones, Goliñsk, Intra-Sudetic Ba sin

and HP granu lites (e.g., O’Brien and Vrána, 1995; Bröcker and Klemd, 1996; Kryza et al., 1996; Vrána et al., 2005; O’Brien, 2006; Kotková, 2007). The lack of compositional zon ing in the small gar net grains and the slight de crease of Ca com po nent to wards the rims are in ac cord with nu mer ous ob ser va tions in highgrade rocks, in which gar net zon ing pat terns are usu ally at trib uted to diffusional ho mogeni -sa tion and de com pres sion (O’Brien, 1999, 2006; Anczkiewicz et al., 2007; Kotková, 2007). Eclogites and HP granu lites formed in the deep roots of the Variscan orogen in Eu rope, un der went rapid ex hu ma tion, and are pres ently ex -posed at many places along the Variscan belt, in clud ing the Bo he mian Mas sif (O’Brien and Carswell, 1993). Be cause they re corded ex treme meta mor phic con di tions, they have been in ten sively ex am ined and their oc cur rences are widely known. The Góry Sowie, Œnie¿nik, Kutná Hora com plexes and a few oc cur rences within the Moldanubian Zone (west -ern Moravia, South -ern Bo he mia, Lower Aus tria) rep re sent the geo graph i cally clos est lo cal i ties to the Goliñsk site. Al -though eclogites and HP granu lites oc cur in var i ous tectonostrati graphic units that ex pe ri enced di ver sity of geo -log i cal evo lu tion, the ma jor-el e ment com po si tion of gar net is al most iden ti cal. This, and the lack of in for ma tion on the bulk chem is try of the par ent rocks of the de tri tal gar nets, as well as the ab sence of many rock-form ing min er als in the heavymin eral suites (clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, am -phi bole, spinel, kyan ite, zoisite), make any thing other than a qual i ta tive in ter pre ta tion of PT con di tions im pos si ble.

The group (2) gar net dif fers from group (1) by hav ing a lower grossular com po nent, which sug gests a lower pres -sure of crys tal li za tion (Spear, 1993). High-pyrope alman-dine, with mi nor spessartine, grossular and an dra dite, is char ac ter is tic of me dium-pres sure granu lites. The ob served lack of gar net zon ing is con sis tent with the high tem per a -tures of the granulite fa cies, which pro mote ho mog e nous growth and ad vance diffusional ho mogeni sa tion (O’Brien, 1999; Caddick et al., 2010). In trigu ingly, me dium- and low- pres sure granu lites are rare at the pres ent-day ero sion level of the Bo he mian Mas sif (Janoušek et al., 2006), and where they oc cur, their gar nets show a slightly dif fer ent com po si tion to the de tri tal gar net. This gar net type is typ i cal of an -cient granu lites (Fig. 8E; Èopjaková et al., 2005; Kotková

et al., 2007). The group (2) gar net, in com par i son with group (1), does not in di cate un am big u ously a new li thol ogy. These grains could have orig i nated from the same rocks as

group (1). How ever, in con trast to the group (1) gar nets, they show a more ad vanced high-tem per a ture/me dium- pres sure over print, at tained at me dium crustal depth. The oc cur rence of the gar net char ac ter ised by de creas ing Ca con tent from its core to rim (Fig. 5D), and a grad ual de crease of the grossular com po nent from the group (1) to group (2) gar net (Fig. 4), sup port ar gu ments for such an in ter pre ta tion.

The com po si tion of the group (3) gar net, an almandine-spessartine-grossular solid so lu tion, is also dis tinct and quite rare (cf. Deer et al., 1997). Gar nets of this type were de -scribed from me dium/high-pres sure am phi bo lites and gneis-ses of the East Karkonosze com plex (Kryza and Mazur, 1995), an area not dis tant from Goliñsk, c. 25 km to the west (Fig. 1). The strik ing sim i lar ity be tween the range of com po si tions of the group (3) gar net and the compositional vari a tion of gar net from the rocks of the East Karkonosze com plex (Figs. 4 and 8C), the sig nif i cant fre quency of this gar -net type (Fig. 7), and a re cord of Perm ian con glom er ates, in which the peb bles were de rived from the East Karkonosze com plex (Dziedzic, 1961), all in di cate that part of de tri tus was sup plied from this prox i mal source di rectly, or was re -cy cled from older sed i ments.

The gar net types in group (4) are not fre quent and could have orig i nated in a va ri ety of me dium- to low-pres sure me- tamorphic rocks. If we com pare the compositional data of this group with the com po si tion of gar nets from the dom i -nant lithologies of the sur round ing mas sifs (Fig. 8A–C),

Fig. 6. Back-scat tered elec tron im age and three X-ray maps of granulitic gar net from Rotliegend sand stone

Fig. 7. Pie di a grams show ing fre quen cies and in ferred prov e nance of de tri tal gar net as sem blages from Rotliegend sand stones, Goliñsk, Intra-Sudetic Ba sin

then sev eral grains char ac ter is tic of the Góry Sowie gneiss -es and migmatit-es, few almandine-grossular grains sim i lar to gar nets in gneiss es and metapelites of the Orlica-Œnie¿nik Mas sif, and few grains of typ i cal gra nitic almandine-spes-sartine com po si tion can be rec og nized. This set of gar nets oc curs mainly in the G3 sam ple. It also re sem bles de tri tal gar nets from the Car bon if er ous siliciclastic rocks of the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin (Fig. 8F; Felicka, 2000). The pos si bil ity can not be ex cluded that a part of the group (4) is ge net i cally linked to the other pop u la tions and may rep re sent their ex -treme compositional vari a tion. The almandine-spessartine with el e vated pyrope con tent, de tected in both sam ples, has hith erto been un re cog nised in the Sudetic crys tal line rocks. This un usual gar net com po si tion has been de tected re cently in man ga nese-rich meta sedi ments of the Moldanubian Zone of south ern Bo he mia (Vrána, 2011). The gar net host rocks are volumetrically minor and have been described as litho-strati graphic markers (Vrána, 2011).

De tri tus from a lower crust

The de tri tal gar nets from the Goliñsk con glom er ates and sand stones rep re sent di verse and dis tinct pop u la tions. For the most part, they orig i nated in highgrade meta mor phic rocks. Judg ing by the sandsize frag ments of meta mor -phic rocks, they could have come from HP fel sic granu lites, typ i cal of the orogenic lower crust (cf. Schulmann et al., 2008). The near est known oc cur rences of HP granu lites are the Góry Sowie and Œnie¿nik com plexes. How ever, at the pres ent-day de nu da tion level, the sur round ing crys tal line mas sifs con tain only lens and inliers of HP meta mor phic rocks (¯elaŸniewicz, 1985; Kryza et al., 1996). If the siliciclastic ma te rial did come from the Góry Sowie Mas sif or the OrlicaŒnie¿nik Mas sif, it should have also been ac com pa nied by other lowpyrope gar nets, typ i cal of the dom -i nant l-itholog-ies there – gne-iss es, m-igmat-ites and metape-lites (Fig. 8A, B). How ever, only the nearby East Karko-nosze com plex has yielded a sig nif i cant con tri bu tion that is rec og nized in the de tri tal gar net re cord. Thus, ei ther the ero -sion level of the orogen in the Perm ian was dif fer ent than that ob tained at pres ent, and in the vi cin ity of the IntraSudetic Ba sin highgrade meta mor phic rocks were ex ten sively ex posed, or the highgrade de tri tal ma te rial was de -liv ered from a more dis tant source of pre dom i nantly lower-crust com po si tion. None of these pos si bil i ties can be to tally ex cluded. Re cent thermochronological data from the east -ern part of the Orlica-Œnie¿nik Mas sif in di cate that meta-morphic rocks of the pres ent de nu da tion level were sev eral km be low the sur face in the Perm ian–Tri as sic (Danišík et

al., 2012). Since the base ment of the east ern part of the Bo

-he mian Mas sif shows a com pli cated struc ture of mixed lower- and mid dle-crust boudins and blocks (Schulmann et

al., 2008), a wider oc cur rence of lower-crust rocks was likely. On the other hand, the high de gree of round ness of sand-size par ti cles in di cates that a more dis tant source also was pos si ble. The dis tance from the Góry Sowie and Orlica- Œnie¿nik Mas sifs is short so the de tri tus should have been com posed of unabraded grains, rather than well rounded rock frag ments. There fore, it is pos si ble that a Perm ian river in the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin car ried de tri tus from the ‘in te rior’

Fig. 8. Compositional data for gar net in dom i nant lithologies of mas sifs sur round ing the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin (A–C) and in se lected siliciclastic rocks of the Bo he mian Mas sif (D–G) shown in almandinepyropegrossular and almandinepyropespessartine tri an gu -lar di a grams. Data from: A – Felicka (2000), Budzyñ et al. (2004); B – Grzeœkowiak (2004), Szczepañski (2010); C – Kryza and Mazur (1995); D – Otava and Sulovsky (1998); E – Èopjaková et al. (2005); F – Felicka (2000); G – au thor’s data for sand stone from Starý Rokytník quarry

of the Bo he mian Mas sif, where granulites formed larger bodies, i.e. from a distance of a hundred kilometres or more. Possibly, this detritus was of recycled rather than first-cycle origin.

The granu lites were ex humed shortly af ter for ma tion and al ready in Early Car bon if er ous times they were the source of de tri tus for the Moravo-Silesian Culm Ba sin (Hartley and Otava, 2001). Clasts of these granu lites con -tain low-grossular pyrope-almandine gar net, which is also an abun dant heavy min eral in the ma trix of their host rocks, the Late Viséan Culm con glom er ates (Fig. 8E; Èopjaková et

al., 2005). Kotková et al. (2007), on the ba sis of a de tailed

petro gen etic study of granulite peb bles in these con glom er -ates, sug gest that they came from a higher part of the Moldanubian Zone than the one ex posed at the pres ent de nu da -tion level. Pre sum ably, granu lites from the Sudetic part of the Bo he mian Mas sif were at the sur face as early as in the Tournaisian. Con glom er ates de pos ited north of the Góry Sowie Mas sif, in the Œwiebodzice Ba sin, con tain de tri tal gar nets typ i cal of the Góry Sowie gneiss es, with a mi nor ad -mix ture of granulitic garnet (Fig. 8D; Otava and Sulovsky, 1998).

The rapid ex hu ma tion of the deep roots of the orogen from a depth of c. 60–70 km, and the pres entday re la tion ship of lower and up percrustal rocks, have been the sub -ject of long stand ing de bate (e.g., O’Brien and Carswell, 1993). Re cently, Schulmann et al. (2008) pro posed a twostage mech a nism for the east ern part of the Bo he mian Mas -sif: ver ti cal ex tru sion of the lower-crustal rocks to a midcrustal depth, fol lowed by thrust ing in a subhorizontal chan nel. These pro cesses even tu ally led to the rapid sur face ex -po sure of mixed lithologies. Since the Early Car bon if er ous, part of these rocks of un known thick ness has been eroded. The de tri tal high-pyrope gar net bears wit ness to an cient exposures of lower-crustal rocks.

First-cy cle vs. multi-cy cle or i gin

Sev eral lines of ev i dence sug gest that the de tri tal gar net may have been re cy cled from older sed i ments. The sand-size grains of meta mor phic rock frag ments and polycrystal-line quartz are sub-rounded to well rounded (Fig. 3), which in di cates long trans port. Yet the dis tance of a hun dred or more kilo metres is not enough to pro duce well rounded sand-size grains in one cy cle, be cause of the slow rate of round ing of such par ti cles, par tic u larly quartz grains (Pettijohn et al., 1987). Many cy cles of trans port, each con -trib ut ing a small part of abra sion, are much more prob a ble. Sim i lar rounded grains oc cur also in stratigraphically equiv -a lent s-and stones in the Czech p-art of the Intr-a-Sudetic B-a sin (Tásler, 1979) and in the nearby Karkonosze Piedmont Ba -sin (the Trutnov For ma tion; Prouza and Tásler, 2001). These grains were in ter preted as in di rect ev i dence for the pres ence of ae olian dunes in the early/mid dle Perm ian. In deed, trans port in many cy cles and ad di tional ae olian abra -sion could even tu ally pro duce the al most spher i cal sandsize grains. Rare rounded sand stone frag ments are di rect ev -i dence of re cy cl-ing. M-id dle Perm -ian sed -i men tary rocks cover late- to post-orogenic molasse, several kilometers thick, and recycling must have operated in many places.

On the other hand, the oc cur rence of sed i men tary rocks that are older than early/mid dle Perm ian (Saxonian) and con tain a sim i lar as sem blage of de tri tal gar net is prob lem -atic in the case of the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin. A re con nais sance study by Felicka (2000) showed that Lower and Up per Car -bon if er ous con glom er ates and sand stones from the IntraSudetic Ba sin con tain com pletely dif fer ent gar net pop u la -tions (Fig. 8F). The oc cur rence of de tri tal gar net in lower Perm ian al lu vial siliciclastic rocks has not been rec og nized yet. This prob lem re quires a more sys tem atic ap proach, but it is pos si ble that granulitic de tri tus reached the IntraSudetic Ba sin no ear lier than the early/mid dle Perm ian. A pos si -ble source might have been some Car bon if er ous siliciclastic rocks in the Czech part of the Bo he mian Mas sif, but rel e -vant pub lished data are lack ing, ex cept for the work of Èopjaková et al. (2005).

Re gional dis per sion of de tri tal high-pyrope gar net

The oc cur rence of this dis tinct gar net pop u la tion is not lo cal. Sim i lar de tri tal gar nets were re cog nised in flu vial con glom er ates and sand stones of the Trutnov For ma tion, in the east ern part of the Karkonosze Piedmont Ba sin (the Trut-nov–Náchod area; Fig. 1), which are stratigraphically equi-valent to the de pos its of the Radków For ma tion (Martínek et

al., 2008; Martínek and Štolfová, 2009). Al though the num

-ber of re ported gar net grains (Martínek and Štolfová, 2009) does not per mit sta tis ti cal eval u a tion, the only no tice able dif fer ence is the pres ence of Cr-pyrope, a typ i cal man tle gar net. This gar net va ri ety, how ever, is in ac cor dance with the HP gar net pop u la tion. The au thor’s data from a sand stone from the Starý Rokytník quarry (the Trutnov For ma -tion; Fig. 8G) show that c. 60% of the gar net pop u la tion is com posed of a high-pyrope va ri ety (pyrope high-grossular almandine or high-pyrope almandine). A lower abun dance of grains typ i cal of the East Karkonosze com -plex and a slightly greater abun dance of high-spessartine almandine, char ac ter is tic of Al-rich gran ites and pegmati-tes, were no ticed by com par i son with the Goliñsk gar net po- pulations. Re gional palaeocurrent data from the east ern part of the Karkonosze Piedmont Ba sin sug gest north ward and north east ward sed i ment sup ply (Martínek and Štolfová, 2009). This and the sim i lar ity of the de tri tal gar net pop u la -tions sug gest a south ern prov e nance for the high-pyrope gar net. The Intra-Sudetic Ba sin and the Karkonosze Pied-mont Ba sin might have been con nected in the early/mid dle Perm ian, as pos tu lated by Prouza and Tásler (2001). It can -not be ex cluded, how ever, that fine-grained ma te rial got to both bas ins in de pend ently, from a com mon sed i men tary pre de ces sor cov er ing large ar eas in the vi cin ity.

Some Tri as sic siliciclastic rocks that oc cur in the Kar-konosze Piedmont Ba sin (Martínek and Štolfová, 2009) and in the NE fore land of the Bo he mian Mas sif – the Fore- Sude-tic Monocline (Muszyñski et al., 2007), also con tain high-pyrope gar net of sim i lar com po si tion. Fur ther more, Up per Cre ta ceous quartz-rich sand stones in the North-Sudetic and Intra-Sudetic Bas ins show high-pyrope gar net in their heavy- min eral spec tra (Biernacka and Józefiak, 2009; un pub lished data of the au thor). This garnet type oc curs also in more dis -tant ar eas, out side the Bo he mian Mas sif (Aubrecht and

Méres, 2000; Aubrecht et al., 2007). All these gar net as sem -blages might have been re cy cled from Perm ian siliciclastic rocks, and ul ti mately from a lowercrust unit of the Bo he -mian Mas sif. This so lu tion seems sim pler than der i va tion di rectly from nearby Sudetic crys tal line rocks, as sug gested by Biernacka and Józefiak (2009), be cause it ex plains the pre dom i nance of HP gar net among other gar net types. The ex tent of an cient ex po sures of lower-crustal rocks as well as the ex tent of Perm ian siliciclastic rocks in post-Perm ian times have not been rec og nized in de tail (e.g., Mazur et al., 2010). The re cord of the gar net pop u la tion dom i nated by the high-pyrope va ri ety in flu vial Perm ian sand stones from the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin may be a miss ing piece of ev i dence that Bo he mian high-pres sure rocks could be re cy cled into the Me so zoic sed i men tary rocks de pos ited in re mote ar eas at a time, when palaeo ge ogra phy ex cluded di rect de liv ery of them.

SUM MARY AND CON CLU SIONS

It long has been rec og nized that peb bles in Perm ian con glom er ates of the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin were de rived from the nearby Variscan mas sifs, which were com posed largely of up per-crustal rocks. In the case of the con glom er ates and sand stones ex posed at Goliñsk, the coarse-grained ma te rial came from ignimbrite cov ers oc cur ring in the vi cin ity. The sandsize par ti cles in these con glom er ates show a more di -verse than solely volcaniclastic com po si tion. A study of de-trital garnet revealed that:

(1) part of the de tri tus ul ti mately came from high-grade meta mor phic rocks typ i cal of an orogenic lower crust, such as HP granu lites;

(2) the com po si tions of the de tri tal gar nets for the most part do not cor re spond to the com po si tions of gar nets from the rocks of mas sifs sur round ing the Intra-Sudetic Ba sin. Only a sig nif i cant in put from the East Karkonosze com plex was recognized.

These re sults cou pled with a pre vi ously re ported pop u la tion of sim i lar de tri tal gar net in stratigraphically equiv a -lent con glom er ates and sand stones from the Karkonosze Piedmont Ba sin sug gest a com mon source for the lower-crustal de tri tus, prob a bly of re cy cled na ture. This de tri tus could have been de rived ul ti mately ei ther from the Molda-nubian Zone of the Bo he mian Mas sif, or from a lower-crust com plex of the Orlica-Œnie¿nik Mas sif that were exposed in the Carboniferous–Permian.

Pre sum ably, the Perm ian siliciclastic rocks cov ered a much wider area than the pres ent-day oc cur rences, but they were eroded in the Me so zoic and Palaeogene. De tri tal ma te -rial from the Perm ian rocks con trib uted to the Me so zoic sand stones de pos ited in the Sudetes and their fore land re -gion. Thus, from the Car bon if er ous on wards, siliciclastic ma te rial de rived ul ti mately from the lower-crustal rocks of the Bo he mian Mas sif could have been trans ported grad u ally to wards the north ern pe riph ery and fur ther out side the massif, by multiple-sediment recycling,

In ves ti ga tion of the com po si tion of Perm ian sand stones on a larger-scale should ver ify these con clu sions.

Ac knowl edge ments

Piotr Dzier¿anowski and Lidia Je¿ak of the Uni ver sity of Warsaw are thanked for their help in the microprobe anal y ses. Jacek Michniewicz of the Uni ver sity of Poznañ helped with the SEM ob ser va tions. The care ful re views and the com ments on the manu script by Ryszard Kryza and Callum J. Hether ing ton are grate fully ac knowl edged.

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