Evaluation of fatty acids daily intake and diets atherogenicity of dietetics students of Wroclaw Medical University

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Background. Dietary and lifestyle risk factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The excessive intake of products that could affect atherogenic effect and are rich sources of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and cholesterol conductive the occurrence of lipid metabolism disturbances in the body.

Objective. Evaluation of fatty acids dietary intake and assessment of the students’ diets atherogenicity in the aspect of the CVD risk.

Material and methods. 7KHVWXG\ZDVFRQGXFWHGLQ 7KHVWXG\JURXSLQFOXGHGIHPDOHVGLHWHWLFVWXGHQWVRI WKH:URFODZ0HGLFDO8QLYHUVLW\7KHDYHUDJHDJHRIWKHVWXGHQWVZDV\HDUV'LHWDU\KDELWVZHUHHYDOXDWHGE\WKHGD\ diet record method including one weekend day.

Results. $YHUDJHHQHUJ\LQWDNHZDVNFDOSHUGD\7KHDYHUDJHGDLO\WRWDOIDWLQWDNHZDVJDQGSURYLGHG RIWRWDOHQHUJ\LQWDNH7KHSHUFHQWDJHRIHQHUJ\IURP6)$LQWKHGLHWVRIVWXGHQWVH[FHHGHGWKHUHFRPPHQGHG DQGDYHUDJHG7KHDYHUDJHSHUFHQWDJHRIHQHUJ\IURPPRQRXQVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV08)$LQWKHVWXGHQWVGLHWV ZDVDQGLQWKHGLHWVRIVWXGHQWVGLGQRWH[FHHGHGUHFRPPHQGHG7KHDYHUDJHSHUFHQWDJHRIHQHUJ\IURP SRO\XQVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV38)$ZDVDQGLQWKHGLHWVRIVWXGHQWVGLGQRWIXOILOOHGWKHUHFRPPHQGHG $ERXWRIWKHVWXGHQWVFRQVXPHGOHVVWKDQUHFRPPHQGHGJRI&SHUGD\,QVXIILFLHQWLQWDNHRI(3$DQG'+$ ZDVREVHUYHGLQVWXGHQWV¶GLHWV7KHDYHUDJHQQ38)$UDWLRZDVDQGLQWKHRIIHPDOHGLHWVH[FHHGHGWKH UHFRPPHQGHGYDOXHRI7KHGLHWVRIRIVWXGHQWVZHUHFRQVLGHUHGDVDWKHURJHQLFEHFDXVHRIHOHYDWHGYDOXHRI.H\V VFRUH7KHUDWLREHWZHHQ38)$DQG6)$LQWKHIHPDOHGLHWVZDVLQFRUUHFWDQGDPRXQWHGWRUHFRPPHQGHGYDOXH• Conclusions. Incorrect energy intake from daily diet and improper dietary intake of selected fatty acids in the diets of students may contribute to the development of CVD.

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/LIHVW\OH SK\VLFDO DFWLYLW\ DQG QXWULWLRQ SOD\ DQ important role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular GLVHDVH&9'>@

Authors of the scientific research indicate that not only the quantity of fatty acids but also the quality and type of fatty acids in the diet have an important influence RQWKHDUWHULRVFOHURVLVGHYHORSPHQWK\SHUWHQVLRQDQG QHRSODVWLFOHVLRQV>@

The diet atherogenicity is defined as a potential ability to induce an inflammation in human body. The excessive intake of products that contain saturated fatty acids (SFA) and cholesterol could demonstrating DWKHURJHQLFDFWLYLW\DQGIXUWKHUPRUHLQVXIILFLHQWLQWDNH of products that are sources of monounsaturated fatty DFLGV08)$DQGSRO\XQVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV38)$ would also predisposes to lipid disorders development VLQFHWKHFKLOGKRRG>@

Sufficient and regular intake of products that are sources of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids /&38)$LQFOXGLQJĮOLQROHQLFDFLG&$/$ HLFRVDSHQWDHQRLFDFLG&(3$GRFRVDSHQWDHQRLF DFLG&'3$DQGGRFRVDKH[DHQRLFDFLG& DHA) may protect against CVD by reducing serum WULJO\FHULGHV WKURPERWLF WHQGHQF\ ORZHULQJ EORRG SUHVVXUHDQGKHDUWUDWH>@7KH(XURSHDQ$FDGHP\ of Nutritional Sciences (EANS) recommendations indi-cate that the total daily intake of EPA and DHA should DPRXQWPJ>@+RZHYHUWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV of the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) suggest that the total daily intake RI'+$DQG(3$VKRXOGDPRXQWPJLQFOXGLQJWKH '+$LQWDNHVRIDWOHDVWPJGD\>@$FFRUGLQJWR The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the daily dietary and supplementary intake of EPA and DHA VKRXOGQRWH[FHHGJGD\>@

According to the Polish Forum for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease the proper n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio LQWKHKHDOWK\GLHWVKRXOGEHOHVVWKDQ>@,QWKH Western diet the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio is significantly im-SDLUHG>@7KLVVLWXDWLRQLVFRQQHFWHGZLWKH[FHVVLYH FRQVXPSWLRQRISURGXFWVEHLQJDVRXUFHRIQ38)$ promoting the effect of proinflammatory and proth-URPERWLFHLFRVDQRLGVIRUPDWLRQ>@Dietary sources rich inOLQROHLFDFLGQ&/$DUHVXQIORZHURLO

VR\EHDQRLOFRUQRLOVDIIORZHURLOJUDSHVHHGRLOZKHDW JHUP RLO DQG WKHLU GHULYDWLYHV OLNH PDUJDULQH Cold--pressed rapeseed oil is characterized by particularly low content of SFA and also the correct n-6/n-3 PUFA UDWLRDPRXQWLQJWR>@

Dietary LA and ALA are metabolized by the same JURXS RI HQ]\PHV EXW WKH HIIHFWLYHQHVV RI PHWDER-lism is different and depends on the source and ratio of amounts of these fatty acids in the diet. Efficient PHWDEROLVP RI Q 38)$ ZLWKRXW WKH GLVUXSWLRQ LQ bioconversion pathway of those fatty acids is possible only when the daily diet is rich in both EPA and DHA >@7KHELRFRQYHUVLRQHIILFLHQF\RI$/$IURPWKH diet could be inhibited by excessive intake of LA even DERXW>@7KHPDLQVRXUFHVRIQ38)$LQWKH GLHWDUHIDWW\PDULQHILVKZKLFKVKRXOGEHFRQVXPHGDW OHDVWWZLFHDZHHNDFFRUGLQJWRWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV Supplementary sources of n-3 PUFA in the diet are food VXSSOHPHQWVDQGIRUWLILHGIRRG>@

The aim of the study was to evaluate the fatty acids daily intake and assessment of the students diet athero-JHQLFLW\IURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKH&9'SUHYHQWLRQ

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7KHVWXG\ZDVFRQGXFWHGLQ7KHVWX-G\ JURXS LQFOXGHG  IHPDOH VWXGHQWV RI GLHWHWLFV of Wroclaw Medical University. The anthropometric characteristics of the study group are presented in Table 1. The nutritional status of the study group was evaluated based on anthropometric parameters such as ERG\ZHLJKWDQGKHLJKW7KH%RG\0DVV,QGH[%0, Table 1. Anthropometric characteristic of the study group

Q  Parameter Unit :RPHQQ  X ± SD Median Age year “  Height cm “  %RG\ZHLJKW kg 57.9±8.6 57.5 %0, kg/m _{“ } Waist cm “  %RG\IDW  “ 

%0,ERG\PDVVLQGH[;±SD- arithmetic mean ± standard deviation

and the ideal body weight were computed based on the anthropometric parameters. 7KH FRUUHFW %0, UDQJHG ZDVGHWHUPLQHGE\:+2>@7KHSHUFHQWDJHFRQWHQW of body fat was determined by the body composition DQDO\]HU7DQLWD&RUSRUDWLRQ-DSDQW\SH%&0$ The energy intake requirements for students with %0,EHORZNJP_{DQGDERYHNJP} _{were set} DWLGHDOERG\ZHLJKWYDOXHVZKLOHIRUWKHUHVWRIWKH students on the actual weight. The daily energy intake and contents of selected nutrients in the diets of each student were compared with the recommendations spe-FLILHGLQGLYLGXDOO\IRUDSDUWLFXODUSHUVRQWDNLQJLQWR DFFRXQWJHQGHUDJHSURSHUERG\ZHLJKWDQGPRGHUDWH SK\VLFDODFWLYLW\>@

Dietary habits in the study group were evaluated by the method of the 3-day diet record method including RQHZHHNHQGGD\2YHUDOOGLHWDU\LQWHUYLHZVZHUH analyzed. The weight of consumed products were deter-mined by the “Album of photographs of food products DQGGLVKHV´>@$QDO\VHVRIWKHGLHWVZHUHSHUIRUPHG XVLQJ WKH ³)RRG 3URFHVVRU´ 64/ YHUVLRQ ¶V E\ (6+$5HVHDUFK86$FRQWDLQLQJGDWDEDVHRIQXWUL-WLRQDOYDOXHVRI3ROLVKIRRGSURGXFWVDQGGLVKHV>@

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The proportion of energy from macronutrients in WKH GLHW ZDV DVVXPHG DV IROORZV  HQHUJ\ IURP SURWHLQ  HQHUJ\ IURP IDW DQG  HQHUJ\ IURP carbohydrates. It was assumed that the proper content RIILEHULQWKHGLHWVKRXOGEHJGD\DQG6)$08)$ DQG38)$VKRXOGSURYLGHUHVSHFWLYHO\ RIGDLO\HQHUJ\LQWDNH>@

The average daily energy intake and the average FRQWHQWRISURWHLQFDUERK\GUDWHVGLHWDU\ILEHUWRWDOIDW FKROHVWHUROVHOHFWHG6)$&&&&& & & & & & & 08)$ & & & & & & & Q38)$&&DQGQ38)$&& &&DQGWKHVXPRIWKHVHIDWW\DFLGVLQWKHVWXG\

JURXSGLHWVZHUHDVVHVVHG,Q7DEOHDQGWKHSHUFHQWDJH of students whose nutrients in the daily diet deviated from the accepted recommendations were presented.

The atherogenicity of the diets were evaluated using the P/S ratio (the ratio of PUFA to SFA) and .H\V score >@7KH.H\V score was calculated as follows:

.H\VVFRUH   6)$±38)$ ¥ (diet FKRONFDO where: 6)$HQHUJ\LQWDNHIURPVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV>@ 38)$HQHUJ\LQWDNHIURPSRO\XQVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV>@ GLHWFKROFKROHVWHUROIURPGLHWSHUNFDO>PJ@

In order to determinate the diet atherogenicity the reference .H\VVFRUH.6_ref.ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQFOXGLQJ the average daily recommended energy intake (female - NFDOGD\DYHUDJHDJH\HDUVROGDQGPRGHUDWH SK\VLFDODFWLYLW\OHYHO3$/ RIWKHUHVSRQGHQWV >@$FFRUGLQJWRWKH1DWLRQDO)RRGDQG1XWULWLRQ,Q-stitute recommendations SFA should provide less than RIGDLO\HQHUJ\LQWDNHDQG38)$RIGDLO\ HQHUJ\LQWDNH>@$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHGDLO\HQHUJ\LQ-WDNHRI6)$DQG38)$ZDVUHVSHFWLYHO\DQGRI WKHGDLO\HQHUJ\LQWDNHDQGFKROHVWHUROZDVPJGD\ the reference .H\V score was 35.9. While assuming WKDWWKHGDLO\HQHUJ\LQWDNHRI38)$ZDVHTXDOWR reference .H\VVFRUHZDV

The ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA in analyzed diets was FDOFXODWHG E\ XVLQJ D PRGHO Q 38)$ &  &Q38)$&&&

5(68/76$1'',6&866,21

Among all of the respondents the vast majority KDGFRUUHFWERG\ZHLJKW7KH%0,IRURI 7DEOH 7KHDYHUDJHHQHUJ\LQWDNHDQGFRQWHQWVRIVHOHFWHGQXWULHQWVLQWKHGDLO\IRRGUDWLRQVRIWKHVWXG\JURXSQ 

Nutrient Unit X ± SD Median RIWKHVWDQGDUG X ± SD

RIDYHUDJHGDLO\ food rations below the

standard Energy kcal “  “  Protein g “ 63.7 “ 56 Carbohydrates g “  “ 99 Total fat g “ 61.6 “ 73 'LHWDU\¿EHU g “ 19.9 “ 91 Cholesterol mg “ 198.8

Energy from protein  “ 15.9 Energy from

carbohydrates

 51.6±55.5 

Energy from fat  “ 

the students had a value of less than 18.5 kg/mDQG pointed to underweight.

The average energy intake and the average amount RIWRWDOSURWHLQWRWDOFDUERK\GUDWHVGLHWDU\ILEHUWRWDO IDWDQGFKROHVWHUROZHUHSUHVHQWHGLQ7DEOH$OVRWKH percentage of energy from macronutrients in the ana-lyzed diets was presented.

The average energy intake in the analyzed female GLHWVZDVNFDOGD\ZKLFKFRYHUHGRIWKH recommendations. Appointed standard average energy YDOXHIRUZRPHQDJHG\HDUVDQGPRGHUDWHSK\VLFDO DFWLYLW\ZDVNFDOGD\7KHWRWDOHQHUJ\LQWDNHRI WKHGLHWVRIVWXGHQWVVKRXOGEHUHJDUGHGDVWRRORZ in relation to the acceptable daily recommendations. The authors of several studies have observed the abnormal energy intake in the students diet and tend to keep WKHHQHUJ\GHILFLW>@+RZHYHUGLHWDU\ assessment of Iranian students demonstrate the energy LQWDNHDWDVLPLODUOHYHOWRWKHUHFRPPHQGYDOXHV>@

Average protein content in the analyzed diets was 68.5 g/day. 7KHVHYDOXHVFRYHUHGWKHVWDQGDUGLQRI the average daily demand for protein for that population. ,QWKHGLHWVRIIHPDOHVWXGHQWVWKHSHUFHQWDJHRI HQHUJ\IURPSURWHLQH[FHHGHGWKHUHFRPPHQGHG DQGDYHUDJHGWR7KHDXWKRUVRIRWKHUVWXGLHV also reported too high protein energy intake in the daily VWXGHQWVGLHWV>@

Carbohydrates intake in the analyzed female stu-GHQWVGLHWVZDVRQDYHUDJHJGD\ZKLFKLQ fulfilled the recommendations. The percentage of ener-gy from carbohydrates in the analyzed diets amounted WR  DQG RQO\ LQ WKH GLHWV RI  VWXGHQWV ZDV FRQVLVWHQWWRWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV+RZHYHULQ of female students diets the energy intake from carbo-hydrates was too low in relation to recommendations. The dietary fiber intake with the diets also seems to be LQDSSURSULDWH&RQVLGHULQJWKHJGD\RIILEHULQWKH GDLO\GLHWDVDQRSWLPXPYDOXHLWZDVIRXQGWKDWLQWKH GLHWVRIVWXGHQWVWKHGLHWDU\ILEHULQWDNHZDVWRR ORZDQGDYHUDJHDPRXQWHGWRJGD\$FFRUGLQJWR the studies of 6]F]HSDĔVNDHWDO>@DQG/LHWDO>@WKH students diets did not provide the recommended levels RIILEHUZKLFKDYHUDJHFRQWHQWZDVUHVSHFWLYHO\ g/day and 15.9 g/day. 5HJXOVND,ORZHWDO>@UHSRUWHG WKDW WKH VWXGHQWV GLHWV ZHUH GHILFLHQW LQ ILEHU ZKLFK average intake amounted to 19.6 g/day.

The average intake of total fat in analyzed female VWXGHQWVGLHWVDPRXQWHGWRJGD\7KHSHUFHQWDJH RIHQHUJ\IURPIDWLQWKHGLHWVZDVDQGH[FHHGHG UHFRPPHQGHGYDOXHLQRIUHVSRQGHQWV7DEOH $YHUDJHWRWDOIDWFRQWHQWLQWKHDQDO\]HGGLHWVLQ FRYHUHGWKHVWDQGDUGIRUWKLVQXWULHQWIRUWKHVWXGLHG JURXS+RZHYHUWRRORZHQHUJ\LQWDNHIURPFDUERK\-drates caused that the percentage of energy from total fat exceed the recommendations. These data indicate on

the disturbed in energetic structure of diet. Disturbed energy intake from fat in students diets was observed DOVRLQWKHUHVHDUFKHVRIRWKHUDXWKRUV>@ Table 3. The percentage of respondents whose nutritional habits could cause the increase risk of lipid disor-GHUVQ  Nutrient RIUHVSRQGHQW 7RWDOIDW!(  6)$!(  08)$( 5 PUFA (  !(  $/$JGD\  n-6/n-3 >  76 (3$'+$JGD\ 71 &KROHVWHURO!PJGD\  'LHWDU\¿EHUJGD\ 91 36  .6! 

 ( WKH SHUFHQWDJH RI WRWDO HQHUJ\ 6)$ VDWXUDWHG IDWW\ DFLGV 08)$ PRQRXQVDWXUDWHG IDWW\ DFLGV 38)$ SRO\XQVDWXUDWHG IDWW\ DFLGV$/$ ĮOLQROHQLF DFLG (3$ HLFRVDSHQWDHQRLF DFLG '+$ GRFRVDKH[DHQRLF DFLG 36 38)$6)$.6.H\VVFRUH

The average content of cholesterol in the female VWXGHQWVGLHWVZDVPJGD\,QWKHGLHWVRI students the content of cholesterol was consistent with the recommendations and not exceeded the recommen-GHGPJGD\7DEOH Different results received

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characterized by high average amount of cholesterol PJGD\LQUHODWLRQWRWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV$V D ULFK VRXUFH RI FKROHVWHURO FDQ EH FRQVLGHUHG PHDW JLEOHWVGDLU\SURGXFWVEXWWHUDQGHJJV>@

The content of each fatty acids and the percentage of energy from these fatty acids in analyzed diets of IHPDOHVWXGHQWVZHUHVKRZQLQ7DEOH

The sum of SFA content in the female students diets DYHUDJHDPRXQWHGWRJGD\7KHDYHUDJHSHUFHQWD-ge of energy from SFA in female students daily food rations pointed on the derogations in comparison with UHFRPPHQGHGYDOXHVDQGZDV,QWKHGLHWVRI VWXGHQWVWKHHQHUJ\LQWDNHIURP6)$H[FHHGHGWKH recommended values (Table 3). Related results were ob-tained by 5HJXOVND,ORZHWDO>@DQGDOVR:DĞNLHZLF] and6\JQRZVND>@LQZKRVHVWXGLHVWKHSHUFHQWDJHRI energy from SFA in women diets amounted respectively WRDQG

The main sources of SFA in daily diet are: animal SURGXFWVIDVWIRRGVVQDFNVDQGVZHHWV7KHUHVXOWRI excessive consumption of products that are sources of SFA could affect the increase levels of total cholesterol and in particularly the increase of atherogenic

chole-VWHURO/'/IUDFWLRQLQEORRGVHUXP>@'HSHQGLQJRQ the length of the carbon chain of SFA they could affect different effects on cholesterol levels in blood serum.

Among SFA in the pathogenesis of CVD the most LPSRUWDQW DUH P\ULVWLF DFLG & SDOPLWLF DFLG & DQG ODXULF DFLG & ZKLFK PHWDEROLVP

can cause the strongest hypocholesterolemic effect. 6WHDULFDFLG&DQGFDSULFDFLG&KDYHQRW demonstrate significant hypercholesterolemic effect. Furthermore the stearic acid could also exhibits the SURWKURPERWLFHIIHFWV>@

In the daily diets of female students the sum of lau-ULF&PLULVWLF&DQGSDOPLWLFDFLG& DFFRXQWHGIRURIDOO6)$7KHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRI WKHVXPRIVWHDULFDFLG&DQGFDSULFDFLG& DFFRXQWHGIRUDQDYHUDJHRIDOO6)$$FFRUGLQJ to the study of 5HJXOVND,ORZHWDO>@WKHDYHUDJHFRQ-WHQWVRIODXULFPLULVWLFDQGSDOPLWLFDFLGLQWKHVWXGHQWV GLHWVZHUHRQDYHUDJHRIDOO6)$)XUWKHUPRUHWKH VWHDULFDQGFDSULFDFLGDFFRXQWHGIRURIDOO6)$,Q the study of 5DG]\PLĔVNDHWDO>@LQGLFDWHGWKDWWKH ODXULFPLULVWLFDQGSDOPLWLFDFLGVLQGDLO\VWXGHQWVGLHWV DFFRXQWHGIRURIDOO6)$ZKHUHDVWKHVWHDULFDFLG DFFRXQWHGIRURIDOO6)$

Average value of the .H\V score in the diets of IHPDOHVWXGHQWVZDVDQGKLJKO\H[FHHGHGWKHSHU-PLWWHGUDQJHIRUWKLVSRSXODWLRQDPRXQWLQJWR Average value of P/S ratio in study group was incorrect DQGDPRXQWHGWR0HUHO\LQWKHGLHWVRIIHPDOH students the P/S ratio was at the recommended level •7DEOH,QWKH:2%$6=VWXG\0XOWLFHQWUH Nationwide Study of the Polish Population’s Health) >@ DQG WKH 32/021,&$ ELV:DUVDZ VWXG\ 0XO-tinational MONItoring of trends and determinands in &$UGLRYDVFXODUGLVHDVH>@WKH.H\V score determined IRUWKHSRSXODWLRQRIZRPHQDJHGDPRXQWHGUH-VSHFWLYHO\WRDQGDQGZHUHKLJKHUWKDQWKRVH obtained in the present study. Furthermore also in the POL-MONICA bis study for the same age group the average value of P/S ratio not fulfilled the recommen-GHGYDOXHVDQGDPRXQWHGWR>@$FFRUGLQJWRWKH study of :DĞNLHZLF] and 6\JQRZVND>@WKHDYHUDJH students daily food ration was also characterized by KLJK DWKHURJHQLFLW\ UHVXOWLQJ IURP WKH KLJK WRWDO IDW and SFA intake.

Polish dietary recommendations indicate that MUFA should constitute a difference between the total IDWFRQWHQWDQGWKHVXPRI6)$DQG38)$>@7KH recommendations of Polish Forum for Prevention of &DUGLRYDVFXODU 'LVHDVH >@ DQG$PHULFDQ 'LHWDU\ $VVRFLDWLRQ>@LQGLFDWHWKDWLQWKHGDLO\GLHW08)$ VKRXOGSURYLGHXSWRRIWRWDOHQHUJ\LQWDNHDQGLQ SUHYHQWLRQLQ&9'HYHQXSWR08)$UHGXFHVWKH concentration of total cholesterol and LDL atherogenic OLSRSURWHLQLQWKHEORRGVHUXP>@7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLYH of MUFA is oleic acid (C18:1 n-9). The oleic acid occurs abundantlyLQROLYHRLODQGFDQRODRLO>@ The dietary intake of MUFA in the students diets ZDVRIWRWDOHQHUJ\,QWKHGLHWVRIIHPDOH students the percentage energy from MUFA was incor-UHFW DQG QRW H[FHHGHG UHFRPPHQGHG  7DEOH  7DEOH &RQWHQWDQGYDOXHRIHQHUJ\LQWDNHRIVHOHFWHGIDWW\

DFLGVLQWKHGDLO\GLHWRIIHPDOHVWXGHQWVQ  Nutrient Unit X ± SD Median

6DWXUDWHG)DWW\$FLGV

Ȉ6)$ g “ 

Energy from SFA  “  %XW\ULFDFLG& g “  &DSURLFDFLG& g “  &DSU\OLFDFLG& g “  &DSULFDFLG& g “  /DXULFDFLG& g “  0\ULVWLFDFLG& g “  Pentadecanoic acid & g “  3DOPLWLFDFLG& g “  Heptadecanoic acid & g “  6WHDULFDFLG& g 5.6 ± 3.3 5.3 $UDFKLGLFDFLG& g “  0RQRXQVDWXUDWHG)DWW\$FLGV Ȉ08)$ g “ 

Energy from MUFA  “  0\ULVWROHLFDFLG& g “  Pentadecenoic acid (C15:1) g “  Palmitooleic (C16:1) g “  Margaroleic acid (C17:1) g “  Oleic acid (C18:1) n-9 g “  (LFRVHQRLFDFLG& g “  (UXFLFDFLG& g “  3RO\XQVDWXUDWHG)DWW\$FLGV Ȉ38)$ g “ 

Energy from PUFA  “ 

Linoleic acid&Q g “ 7.8

ĮOLQROHQLFDFLG& n-3 g 1.5±1.1 1.1 $UDFKLGRQLFDFLG& n-6 g “  && g “  Eicosapentaenoic acid – (3$&Q g “  Docosapentaenoic acid '3$&Q g “  Ȉ(3$'+$ g “  n-6/n-3 “ 5.7 .H\VVFRUH “  P/S ratio “ 

; “ 6' DYHUDJH “ VWDQGDUG GHYLDWLRQ 6)$ VDWXUDWHG IDWW\ DFLGV 08)$ PRQRXQVDWXUDWHG IDWW\ DFLGV 38)$ SRO\XQVDWXUDWHGIDWW\DFLGV3638)$6)$

7RSUHVHUYHWKHSURSHUOLSLGVPHWDEROLVPLQWKHERG\ it is advantageous if the energy of MUFA in daily diet partially cover the energy deficit arising from a shortage of carbohydrate in the diet. Insufficient energy intake from MUFA in analyzed students diets was caused by the permanent nutritional mistakes occurring in students population.

$PRQJ08)$SUHGRPLQDWHGWKHROHLFDFLGZKLFK DPRXQWHGWRRIDOO08)$5HJXOVND,ORZ et al. >@ DQG 5DG]\PLĔVND HW DO >@ DOVR LQGLFDWHG WKDW the oleic acid was dominated among MUFA as in the present study.

The content of PUFA in the diets of female students ZDVRQDYHUDJHJGD\$FFRUGLQJWRWKH,ORZ >@ study the content of PUFA in the diets of female was RQDYHUDJHJGD\7KHVWXGHQWVGLHWVIURP%LDO\-stok were characterized by lower content of PUFA in FRPSDULVRQ ZLWK WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ ZKLFK DPRXQWHG UHVSHFWLYHO\WRJGD\DQGJGD\>@,QWKH analyzed students diets the percentage of energy from 38)$ZDVDQGLQWKHGLHWVRIIHPDOHVWXGHQWV did not fulfilled the recommendations (Tab. 3). 5HJXO

VND,ORZ HWDO>@DQG:DĞNLHZLF]and6\JQRZVND >@

also reported improper energy intake from PUFA in the VWXGHQWVGLHWVZKLFKDPRXQWHGWR'\ENRZVND et al >@SRLQWHGWKDWWKHDYHUDJHHQHUJ\LQWDNHIURP38)$LQ WKHDYHUDJH3ROLVKIRRGUDWLRQDPRXQWHGWR g/day). The main source of PUFA in the daily diet are YHJHWDEOHIDWVZKLOHWKHORZHUDPRXQWVRIWKHVH fatty acids are consumed with meat and meat products DQGFHUHDOSURGXFWV>@

Linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are two of the main representative compounds of n-6 PUFA. %HQHILFLDODQWLDWKHURVFOHURWLFHIIHFWRI/$FRQVLVWVLQ UHGXFLQJWKHOHYHOVRI/'/FKROHVWHUROUHGXFLQJVX-sceptibility to thrombosis and mild hypotensive effects >@,QWKHGDLO\GLHWWKH$$LVQHHGHGRQO\LQVPDOO TXDQWLWLHVEHFDXVHLWFDQEHV\QWKHVL]HGLQWKHERG\ IURP/$7KH$$LVDQHLFRVDQRLGVSUHFXUVRUDQGWKH excessive amount of AA in the daily diet could stimulate WKHLQIODPPDWLRQHIIHFW>@7KHPDLQVRXUFHRIWKH $$LQWKHGLHWDUHPHDWDQGPHDWSURGXFWVHJJV DQGDQLPDOIDWV>@

Excessive consumption of products being a source RIQ38)$LQGLHWSURPRWHVWKHLQKLELWLRQRIWKHV\Q-WKHVLVRISURVWDF\FOLQZHDNHQLQJRIWKHLPPXQHV\VWHP and increase the risk of gallstones. Furthermore during the consumption of large quantities of n-6 fatty acids !RIHQHUJ\PD\DOVRUHGXFHWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI+'/FKROHVWHUROOHYHOV>@

The average content of LA in female students diets ZDVJGD\ZKLFKDFFRXQWHGIRURIHQHUJ\RIDOO PUFA. These values coincide with the results obtained by

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of energy of all PUFA. In view of the recommendations can be concluded that the content of ALA in the students GLHWVZDVWRRORZDQGDERXWRIWKHIHPDOHFRQVXPHG PXFKOHVV$/$WKDQWKHUHFRPPHQGHGJGD\

7KH VXP RI HVVHQWLDO IDWW\ DFLGV ()$ &  & LQ WKH VWXGHQWV GLHWV ZDV RQ DYHUDJH  J GD\$FFRUGLQJWRWKH,66)$/UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV>@ WKHDPRXQWRI/$LQGLHWVKRXOGSURYLGHRIHQHUJ\ ZKLOHWKHDPRXQWRI$/$VKRXOGSURYLGHDERXW of energy in daily diet. In the analyzed students diets /$DPRXQWHGWRRIWRWDODYHUDJHHQHUJ\LQWDNHDQG exceeded the recommendations set out by the ISSFAL. However the average percentage of energy from ALA LQWKHGLHWVZDVDSSUR[LPDWHO\ZKDWZDVORZHU than recommendations. '\ENRZVNDHWDO>@SRLQWHGRXW that LA content in the average food ration was about JGD\ZKLFKDFFRXQWHGIRUDERXWRIHQHUJ\ RIWKHGLHWDQG$/$FRQWHQWZDVDERXWJGD\ZKLFK DFFRXQWHGIRURIHQHUJ\RIWKHGLHW

The sum of EPA and DHA in the analyzed diets ZDVJGD\DQGWKHUDWLRRIQQ38)$DPRXQ-WHGWR,QVXIILFLHQWLQWDNHRI(3$DQG'+$ZHUH REVHUYHGLQWKHGLHWVRIRIIHPDOHVWXGHQWV,QWKH GLHWVRIRIWKHVWXGHQWVWKHQQUDWLRH[FHHGHG the recommended value. '\ENRZVNDHWDO>@HVWLPDWHG that in the average Polish food ration the n-6/n-3 ratio is 5.5:1.

There is a need to preserve the balance in n-3 and n-6 PUFA intake in the daily diet according to the recommendations. Excessive amount of n-6 PUFA in WKHERG\LQUHODWLRQWRWKHDPRXQWRIQ38)$FDQ contribute to the synthesis of the compounds having D SURLQIODPPDWRU\ DQG SURWKURPERWLF DFWLYLWLHV > @,WLVWKHUHIRUHMXVWLILHGWKHVHOHFWLRQRIDSSURSULDWH food products which are rich in n-3 PUFA and exhibit a beneficial n-6/n-3 ratio.

&21&/86,216

1. Excessive content of SFA in the female students diets and insufficient intake of MUFA and PUFA may be the cause of atherosclerosis lesions and is one of the nutritional risk factor for prevalence of the CVD.  7KH.H\V score and P/S ratio used as an

atherogenici-ty criterion of the diets pointed to the need to reduce consumption of products being a source of SFA and increase consumption of the products being a source 38)$ZKLFKKDYHWKHDQWLDWKHURVFOHURVLVDFWLYLW\ 3. Eating habits preferred among students population

may cause the increased proatherosclerosis activity incidence. In order to effectively plan and implement the healthy lifestyle it is need to expand the know-OHGJHRIQXWULWLRQLQRUGHUWRSUHYHQWLRQRI&9'

Conflict of interest

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