A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S F O L IA LIN GU IST1CA 36, 1997
D ariusz M aciej Koniewicz
A SPE C T S OF CULTURA L RELATIVITY EN EFL H A N D B O O K S
"Language [...], is not self - dependent without reference to the culture o f which it is a part and the social relation which it mediates.”
[ N o s tr a n d 1966: 2]
1. IN TRO D U C TIO N
T h e abov e m o tto is the m ain idea o f this p ap e r, the p u rp o se o f w hich is th e ex am in atio n o f selected English teaching tex tb o o k s, used in P o lan d an d o th e r coun tries a t various levels o f edu catio n . We will exam ine them in respect o f th e q u a n tity o f cultural elem ents characteristic o f English sp eaking countries, and the native ones fo r p o ten tial users o f tex tb o o k .
1.1. Variuos attitudes towards the cultural load in textbooks
In languages teaching theory, as in all b ranch es o f science th ere are d ifferen t schools o f th o u g h t, and no general consensus. Som e applied linguists o r te x tb o o k w riters (e.g. L. G . A lexander) are o f the o p in io n th a t E nglish teaching tex tb o o k s should be free from any cu ltu ral elem ents, and c o n ta in only in tern a tio n al language n o t fav o u rin g any cultures. O thers, w ho are aw are o f the unity o f language and culture, p urpo sely insert c u ltu ra l elem ents into tex tb o o k s o r o th er teaching m aterials.
is n o t to give its ro u g h equivalent, sufficient fo r practical p u rp o ses, b u t to state exactly w hether a native w ord corresp o n d s to an idea a t last p artially existing fo r English speakers, o r w hether it covers an entirely foreign conceptio n. T h a t such foreign co nceptions d o exist fo r n ativ e languages and in great num b er, is clear. All w ords w hich describe th e n ativ e social o rd e r, all expressions re ferrin g to n ativ e beliefs, to specific cu sto m s, cerem onies, m agical rites - all such w ords are obviously ab sen t from English as from any E u ro p e an language. Such w ords can only be tran slate d in to E n glish, n o t by giving th e ir im ag in ary eq u iv ale n t, - a real o n e obviously c a n n o t be found - b u t by explaining the m ean in g o f each o f them th ro u g h an exact E th n o g rap h ic acco u n t o f th e sociology, cu ltu re and tra d itio n o f th a t native co m m u n ity ” [ M a l i n o w s k i 1923: 300].
M alinow ski gives an exam ple o f a tran slatio n from th e lan gu age o f natives in th e T ro b ria n d Islands, N .E . New G uinea. T h e given sentence tran slate d into English w ord for w ord, looks like a m eaningless sequence o f w ords, even fo r people acq u ain ted w ith th e language b u t n o t th e cu ltu re o f the natives. A n u n d ersta n d in g o f th e sentence is n o t possible w ith o u t placing the u ttera n ce in its p ro p e r setting o f n ative culture.
M alin o w sk i’s [1923: 305] essay includes an analysis o f prim itive linguistic texts which are to prove “ [...] th a t language is essentially ro o ted in the reality o f th e culture, the trib al life and custom s o f a people, an d th a t it c a n n o t be explained w ith o u t c o n sta n t reference to these b ro a d e r co n tex ts o f verbal u tte ra n c e ” .
2.2.2. The influence of language on thought in: O g d e n and R i c h a r d s 1923
T h e ab o v e presented o p tio n s o f M alinow ski are closely co nn ected to th e conclusions d ra w n by O gden and R ich ard s in 1923. In his o p tio n th e exam ples given in his essay are only “ an illu stratio n on a co ncrete exam ple o f the general principles so brilliantly set fo rth by O gden an d R ich ard s [...]”.
A ltho ugh w ith n o strict references to culture their w ork rem ains significant fo r the aim s being discussed in this pap er, as it discusses th e influence o f langu age u p o n h u m an th o u g h t. O gden and R ich ard s re p o rt here th eir op in io n s on th e essence o f m eaning, th a t is the co n n e ctio n betw een th e signifying and the signified. T h is con nection should be, in th eir o p tio n , discussed from three po in ts o f view: the linguistic, the psychological and the logical. T h e first p o in t aim s at the research o f th e sem antic system s o f h u m a n languages, th eir structures and tran sfo rm atio n s. T h e second o n e is to define w hat goes o n in the h u m an m ind d u rin g the process o f speech,
the th ird one deals w ith the relatio n o f language and signs, the fu n ctio n s o f sym bols and th e influence o f language on h u m an th o u g h t.
O gden an d R ich ard s stress the role o f m en tal consciousness. “T h a t every living w ord is ro o ted in facts o f o u r m en tal consciousness an d h isto ry it w ould be im possible to gainsay: b u t it is a very d ifferent m a tte r to determ in e w h a t facts m ay b e” [ O g d e n a nd R i c h a r d s 1923: 2]. Besides th e a u th o rs claim th a t p h ilo so p h ers and p h ilo lo g ists failed to ex p lain prop erly th e influence o f language u p o n th o u g h t. In th eir o p in io n th ere is, how ever a g ro u p o f researchers, the eth nologists, w ho are interested in this subject. Specialists in dealing w ith prim itive peoples quickly ju m p ed to the conclusion th a t. “ A n ad e q u ate acco u n t o f prim itive peoples is im possible w ith o u t an insight in to the essentials o f th eir languages, w hich c a n n o t be gained th ro u g h a m ere tran sfer o f c u rre n t In d o -E u ro p e a n g ram m atical distinction s [...]” (Ibid.: 6). A ccording to O gden and R ich ard s the aspect o f the en v iro n m en t is quite o ften neglected by researchers, w ho co n c en trate only on the “ ideas” regarded as “ expressed” .
2.2.3. The theory o f Linguistic Relativity - Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
T h e m o st em inent linguists w ho condu cted research o n the co n nection s o f language and th in k in g in the 20th century were th e A m ericans, E d w ard S ap ir an d B enjam in Lee W horf, the au th o rs o f th e th eo ry o f L inguistic R elativity, often referred to as the S ap ir-W h o rf hypothesis.
2.2.З.1. The way to the hypothesis, the role o f Edward Sapir
W h o rf entered linguistics as a n am ate u r. Being a chem ist, a n M .I.T . g ra d u a te he had a jo b as an insurance inspector, dealing m ainly w ith claim s in fire accidents. N u m e ro u s trip s o n business q u ite o fte n a ro u n d th e territo rie s inhabited by A m erican Ind ian s, and the results o f fires caused by lack o f care w hile dealing w ith “ em pty gasoline d ru m s” directed his interests to linguistics an d thinking processes.
W hile co n d u c tin g the M a y a studies W h o rf m et E dw ard S apir, a t th a t tim e an a u th o rity o n linguistics, especially on A m erican languages. F ro m th a t tim e on, S apir becam e W h o r fs intellectual an d scientific m aster, stim u latin g and supervising his intellectual developm ent. S apir him self did n o t deal w ith the p hilosophy o f language as such, b u t in his p ap ers it was
d o n o t find th ere because th ey stare every observ er in th e face; o n th e co n tra ry , th e w orld is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux o f im pressions w hich has to be organised by o u r m inds - an d this m eans largely by the linguistic system s in o u r m inds. W e cut n a tu re u p, o rgan ise it in to co ncepts, an d ascribe significances as we d o , largely because we are p artie s to an agreem ent to organise it in this way - an agreem ent th a t holds th ro u g h o u t o u r speech co m m u n ity an d is codified in th e p a tte rn s o f o u r language. T h e agreem ent is, o f course, an im plicit and u nstated one, B U T IT S T E R M S A R E A B S O L U T E L Y O B L IG A T O R Y ; we c a n n o t talk a t all except by subscribing to the organisation and classification o f d a ta which th e agreem ent d ecrees” [ W h o r f 1956: 212-214].
2.2.3.5. The interpretative conséquences o f WhorPs version of the theory of Linguistic Relativity
T h e new version o f the hypothesis assum es th a t no o ne is able to describe reality im partially, because we are restricted by o u r linguistic system s. C onsequently, no tw o persons can perceive th e w orld in the sam e w ay unless th eir linguistic system s arc sim ilar o r a t least co m p arab le. F u rth e rm o re , in agreem ent w ith his th eo ry W h o rf tried to p ro v e w ith the results o f his H o p i studies th a t the SAE languages and w orld views o f th e ir n ativ e speakers are n o t only different b u t also o p p o site to H o p i ones.
2.2.3.6. The comparison of linguistic systems and world views o f Hopi and SAE languages - the practical foundations
o f WhorFs theory
W h o rf claim s th a t people alw ays th in k in a certain lan gu age, w hich is a system o f stereotypes co n tro llin g thinking in a subconscious w ay. H e researched the stereotypes o f b o th SAE H o p i languages an d fo u n d se rio u s differences betw een them . SA E linguistic system perceives th e w orld as a set o f objects, h u m an p ro d u c ts m ainly, like fu rn itu re , buildings etc., w hich are artificially isolated from the o utside w orld. By w ay o f co n tra s t, H o p i language perceives the w orld as a set o f events an d h a p penings.
W h o rf also co m p ared the syntax system s o f SA E an d H o p i and their co n n ectio n s w ith thinking. H e claim s th a t the sentence stru ctu re o f b o th linguistic system s are entirely different. O ne c a n n o t find in H o p i th e typical
E u ro p e a n subject-object stru ctu re. In N o o tk a fo r exam ple “ ... the sentence w ith o u t subject o r p red icate is the only type. T h e term ‘p re d ic a tio n ’ is used, b u t it m ean s ‘sentence’. N o o tk a h as no p a rts o f speech; the sim plest u ttera n ce is a sentence, trea tin g o f som e event o r event - com plex. L o n g sentences are sentences o f sentences (‘com plex sentences’), n o t ju s t sentences o f w o rd s” [ W h o r f 1956: 242]. In N a v ah o , o n the o th er h a n d , all the in an im ate objects are divided in to tw o kinds: oval and lo n g itu d o n a l ones, w hich is com pletely c o n tra ry to SAE system.
O th e r im p o rta n t facto rs for W h o r fs th eo ry are the categories o f tim e and space. T h e categories o f space being sim ilar in b o th SA E an d H o p i, W h o rf devoted m o st a tte n tio n to th e category o f tim e. In p a rtic u la r, H o p i has n o general n o tio n o r in tu itio n o f T IM E as a sm o o th flow ing c o n tin u u m in w hich everything in th e universe proceeds at an eq ual ra te , o u t o f a fu tu re , th ro u g h a present, in to a past: or, in w hich, to reverse th e p icture, th e o b server is being carried in th e stream o f d u ra tio n co n tin u o u sly aw ay from a p ast an d into a fu tu re “ (Ibid.: 57)” . H ence, th e H o p i language co n tain s n o reference to ‘tim e’, either explicit o r im plicit. A t th e sam e tim e, th e H o p i language is capable o f accou nting for an d describing correctly, in a p ra g m a tic or o p eratio n al sense, all observable p h en o m en a o f the universe (Ibid.: 58).
Briefly speaking, W h o rf claim s th a t H o p i su b stitu te th e m etap hy sics o f th ree - d im ensional space and o ne - dim ensional tim e for w h a t is subjective an d objective. T h e futu re tense is su b stitu ted fo r w h at is subjective. T h e verb system does n o t function accord ing to the linear th ree - dim ensional system , b u t o n the basis on th e “ earlier - la te r” g ra d atio n . T h u s, th ere is a significant difference betw een the SAE catego ry o f “ tim e” and H o p i categ o ry o f “d u ra tio n ” , which can be called one o f the fo u n d a tio n s o f W h o r f s th eo ry o f L inguistic R elativity.
2.2.3.7. W h orfs theory o f Linguistic Relativity - conclusivc remarks
W h o r f s th eo ry im plies tw o m ain conclusions:
1. th e o u tsid e w orld is “ a kaleidoscopic flux o f im p ressio n s” , in term s o f the linguistic system o f people w ho use it for thin kin g and com m unicating,
2. languages, for exam ple In d ian and SA E, categorize the w orld in a different w ay on th e basis o f th eir g ra m m a r and logic, and th u s people perceive the w orld differently, depending on their n ativ e language.
Let m e bring to a conclusion this p re sen tatio n o f the th eo ry o f Linguistic R elativity w ith W h o r fs ow n w ords: “ W e are th u s in tro d u ced to a new principle o f relativity, w hich holds th a t all observers are n o t led by th e
sam e physical evidence to the sam e p icture o f the universe, unless th eir linguistic b ack g ro u n d s arc sim ilar, o r can in som e way be c a lib ra te d ” [ W h o r f 1956: 214].
2.3. The unity of language and culture an seen by m odern linguists and language tcachcrs
T h e S ap ir-W h o rf H ypothesis was n o t accepted in its rad ical version since its assum ptions are to o am biguous and full o f generalisations. H ow ever, its w eak version based o n w eak em pirical assu m p tio n s p re su p p o sin g the influence o f language on cognition seems to be m o re convincing. N evertheless, now , h a lf a century after the p u blication o f th e W h o rf and S ap ir h ypothesis, th e unity o f language and cu ltu re still interests linguists an d teachers o f English. T h e m o st im p o rta n t th in g is th a t those w ho teach stu d en ts w ho com c from entirely different cultures stress th e im p o rtan ce o f this unity m o st often. Let m e present therefore several selected exam ples o f p ap ers w ritten by researchers o r language teachers w hich tack le the p ro blem in co n n ectio n w ith language pedagogy.
2.3.1. The cultural background of teaching English to adults
In the study o f W o y t o w i c z - N e y m a n [1970] dev oted to teach in g a d u lts, we ca n find a c h a p te r discussing th e c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d o f language. A ccording to it, cu ltu ral values help in u n d ersta n d in g b o th th e ta rg e t language and its characteristic cultu ral aspects. L ang uage is n o t an a b stra c tio n existing in vacuum , b u t a precisely described verbal re actio n in a given c u ltu ra l fram ew o rk , the p u rp o se o f w hich is to co m m u n icate w ith a n o th e r h u m an being. T h erefo re, a know ledge o f th e cu sto m s, tra d itio n s a n d cu ltu re o f the co u n try w hose language we intend to stu d y helps in recognizing and acquiring elem ents different from o u r cu ltu re and beh av iou r, b u t w hich are typical fo r the o th e r n atio n . W oytow icz-N eym an p resen ts several exam ples o f c u ltu ra l m isund erstan d in g s. T h e first one describes an E nglishm an w ho having tran slate d the English p h rase come in literally resp onded to the knock a t the hotel ro o m d o o r w ith th e P olish p h ra se właź or wejdź. She also m en tio n s a Pole w ho, w hen asked H ow do you do?, resp o n d ed w ith a detailed d escription o f his health. A n o th e r P ole w hile h a n d in g over an object to som e o th e r person kep t saying please instead o f here yo u are. A nd finally we learn ab o u t a P ole w ho m isu n d ersto o d the
q u e stio n asked by an E nglish clergym an: D id yo u enjoy m y serm on? tra n sla tin g it in to Polish: C zy ubawiłeś się na m oim kazaniu?
2.3.2. The role o f culture in language teaching
Sim ilar views are presented by C. C r i p e r and H. G. W i d d o w s o n [1975] in the Edinburgh Course o f A pplied Linguistics. In th eir o p in io n teach in g a foreign language is n o t teaching an ability to m atch th e linguistic form s to one a n o th e r in o rd e r to create co rrect sentences, b u t it is a stud y o f th eir usage to create various com m unicative acts. A h u m an being w ho studies a foreign language m u st acquire, a t least to a certain degree, som e convictions, attitu d e s and beliefs characteristic to th e targ e t lan gu age native speakers. T h is process m ay becom e com plicated w hen th e new set o f cu ltu ra l relations is in conflict w ith the native language and cu ltu re o f the learner. T h e conscious process o f enriching the targ e t lang uag e w ith th e elem ents o f culture is beneficial fo r the process o f learning. In an extrem e case this a p p ro a c h m ight lead to the learn er’s isolation from his ow n cu ltu ra l env iro n m en t. T his problem is n o t so acute w hen the le a rn e r’s cu ltu re is n o t different from th e cu ltu re o f the targ e t language.
2.3.3. Use o f folklore in language teaching
A n o th e r o p in io n , fo r the cu ltu re - language con nection , is expressed by W endy F r a n k e l [1978], in h er article devoted to the use o f fo lk lo re in lan guage learning process. She claim s th a t “ stu d en ts need aw arness n o t only o f th e language itself b u t also o f the people and th e com plex c u ltu ra l b ac k g ro u n d from w hich the language com es” [ F r a n k e l 1978: 28].
2.3.4. How to use mail - order catalogues as educational aids
T im o th y M . S k a n l a n [1979] in his article stresses th e role o f cultu re in language learning and tries to persu ad e foreign lan gu age teachers to use m ail - o rd e r catalogues as m aterials giving the possibility o f linguistic and cu ltu ra l enrichm ent. A s far as cu ltu re is concerned th e a u th o r claim s th a t catalo g u es are useful fo r conveying som e n o tio n s o f cu ltu re to advanced learners. “ M ail - o rd er catalogues in p articular provide fascinating docum ents
th ro u g h w hich to study a c o u n try ’s culture and its lan g u ag e” [ S c a n l a n 1979: 69]. S canlan com pares catalogues to an encyclopedia o f everyday life free from “c u ltu ra l clichés” th a t should n o t be fixed in the le a rn e r’s m ind . H e even suggests using pages devoted to the sale o f u n d erg arm en ts which expose a c o u n try ’s tastes and stan d ard s in b o th flesh and cloth. L earners should answ er the questio n “ W h at m akes these people lo o k fo reig n ” to the learner o f English, finding differences and expressing their ow n op inions. T h e m a in task o f such organised classes should be the le a rn e r’s “ realisatio n o f his ow n system and attitu d e s to w ard o th er sets o f values a b ro a d , and his ability to talk an d w rite coherently a b o u t these to p ic s” [ S c a n l a n 1979: 71].
2.3.5. Teaching English and its literature - a means carrying cultural values - J a f a r p u r (1980)
In 1980 a g ro u p o f Ira n ia n specialists dealing w ith th e p re p a ra tio n ol m aterials in fo r Special P urposes fo r Iran ian stud ents o f science, m ath em atics and m edicine, published a re p o rt on their w ork in E nglish T ea ch in g F o ru m . T h e article beginning w ith a discussion o f N o s t r a n d ’ s [1966] op in io ns o n lan guage and culture, co n cen trates on teaching E nglish lite ra tu re as a m ean s o f carrying the values o f its culture. In th eir o p in io n th e learn er o f E nglish sh ould be able to in terp re t b o th th e language and cu ltu re o f th e people he is going to talk to. H ow ever, th e p resen tatio n o f th e cu ltu ra l values o f lite ra tu re is beyond th e scope o f this stu dy , b u t th e p a p e r o f th e Ira n ia n teachers o f English rem ains a piece o f evidence fo r th e cu ltu rally oriented teaching o f English.
2.3.6. Culturally - bound teaching materials versus the culturally neutral foreign language teacher — R a u f (1988)
A p a p e r o f the P akistani teacher, Syed M u h am m ad A b d u r R a u f [1988] firm ly su p p o rts the idea o f teaching a foreign language in co n n ectio n w ith its c u ltu ra l b ac k g ro u n d . In his o p in io n , “ th e m ean in g o f a w ord is n o t ab so lu te in any language. It is con ditioned by social co n v e n tio n s” [ R a u f 1988: 44]. T h u s it is extrem ely difficult to find th e exact equivalence betw een w ords in tw o languages, especially if w ords sim ilar in d e n o ta tio n differ in c o n n o ta tio n . R a u f also stresses the im p o rtan ce o f second lan gu age p ro g ram m es w hich m o tiv a te stu d en ts to u n d ersta n d th e cu ltu re o f th e ta rg e t
language. N o n -c u ltu re b ound read in g m aterials in foreign lan gu age teach in g have been criticized by m an y linguists, as destro y in g th e unity o f lan gu age and sep a ratin g it from its social context. M ateria ls based on texts reflecting a stu d e n t’s ow n cu ltu re destro y the unity o f th e targ e t language. T h is th eo ry w as proved by the already m entio n ed Ira n ia n specialists [ J a f a r p u r 1980], a t P ahlavi U niversity, w here studen ts w ho studied th e ta rg e t lan g uag e cu ltu re did b etter th a n those w ho used their read ing m aterials based on their ow n cu lture. “T ex tb o o k s th a t are «culturally n eu tral» will b lu n t the curiosity o f the SLL, and th u s the task o f language learn in g will be d efeated ” . L a te r on, R a u f suggests teachers should explain som e cu ltu ra l aspects peculiar to native speakers o f English, in c o n tra s t to th e n ative cu ltu re o f the students. O n the o th er h an d , a foreign lang uag e teacher, acco rd in g to R au f, should m a in ta in com plete c u ltu ra l n eu tra lity , w ith o u t giving his stu d en ts the im pression “ th a t he is selling a foreign c u ltu re to th e m ” [ R a u f 1988: 45].
2.3.6.1. The conclusions on teaching language and culture, made by R a u f (1988)
R a u f [1988: 46] reaches the follow ing conclusions in his discussion: 1. “ O ne o f the reasons fo r p o o r co m p rehen sio n is th e lack o f insight in to the cu ltu re o f th e T L ” .
2. “T h e greater their (student ’s) cultural know ledge, the m o re confidently will they be able to ap p ro ach the textual m a te ria l” .
3. “T h is is n o t to say th a t stu d en ts should be im m ersed in th e foreign cu ltu re at the cost o f their ow n cu ltu ral identity. T h e story o f a foreign c u ltu re does n o t necessarily m ean shap in g o n e’s life acco rd in g to it. It should be ra th e r confined to an academ ic in tere st” .
2.3.7. Cultural knowledge and the teaching of reading [ M c K a y 1989]
S a n d ra M c K a y [1989] discusses th is m a tte r, stressing th e fact th a t the role o f explaining cu ltu ral b ac k g ro u n d s has often been neglected in the re ad in g process. She also presents the opinions o f several a u th o rs w ho claim th a t the lack o f necessary c u ltu ra l b ac k g ro u n d know ledge is a very im p o rta n t fa cto r affecting the reading com prehen sio n o f second - lan gu age learners. She refers to J o h n s o n [1981], w ho co n c en trate d o n th e effect o f the c u ltu ra l origin o f a prose passage on the read in g co m p reh en sio n o f Ira n ia n stu d en ts, w ho read b o th an Ira n ia n and an A m erican folk tale. In
Jo h n s o n ’s o p in io n the cultural origin o f the sto ry had m o re effect on th e read in g com p reh en sio n o f stu d en ts th a t did th e level o f sy ntactic difficulty. C onseq u en tly c u ltu ra l back g ro u n d h as a very im p o rta n t effect on read in g co m p reh en sio n and in Jo h n s o n ’s o p in io n m u ch atte n tio n sh ou ld b e paid to cu ltu ra l know ledge in th e language teaching process.
2.3.7.1. Cultural background and proper understanding o f texts - practical example
M c K a y presents a reading passage, the p ro per un derstan din g o f which is only possible fo r a re ad er w ho has b ac k g ro u n d know ledge a b o u t A m erican culture. A lth o u g h the text is quite easy on the syntactic an d lexical level stu d en ts com ing from a different culture, having different sets o f values and beliefs m ay develop problem s in its p ro p e r u n d ersta n d in g . It m ay be strang e fo r A sians or A fricans th a t, fo r instance, in A m erica m en help w om en cook m eals and the learners m ay go to extremes treating this “ picture” as typical for all A m ericans, w hich is n o t alw ays the case. H ence we could com e to th e conclusion th a t a teacher alw ays o u g h t to choo se read in g m ateria ls afte r h av in g tak en into co n sid eratio n its cultural load. T his gives an ad v a n ta g e to n o n -n a tiv e teachers sharin g the culture w ith the learners b u t n ativ e speak ers are b etter in deciding w hether a passage describes a typical fraction o f reality o r not. In the final p art o f her paper M cK ay states th a t it is alm ost im possible to find com pletely cu ltu re - free reading m aterials. Even superficially sim ple texts, such as th e follow ing one are n o t free from c u ltu ra l elem ents:
‘It is 7:55. T h e Sm iths are com ing to d in n er a t 8:00. G in a and F ra n k arc n o t ready fo r the Sm iths. T hey w ant everything to be perfect w hen the S m iths arrive. M r Sm ith is F r a n k ’s boss.
“ H u rry , F ra n k , the Sm iths are com ing soon. W e have to set th e table. B ring in the dishes, please. I already have the bow ls fo r salad an d the cups fo r the coffee. I d o n ’t have th e knives, fork s, and sp o on s. B ring th ose w ith th e dishes. I have to p u t the tableclo th on the tab le and find the good nap k in s. H u rry , F ra n k , th e re ’s so m u ch to d o !”
“ I ’m co m in g ” , says F ra n k . F ra n k is carrying th e dishes, th e knives, the forks and the spoons. H e and G in a begin to set the table. E v ery th in g is ready. It is 8:00. A t 8:01, the Sm iths knock o n the d o o r. G in a an d F ra n k answ er the d o o r together. T hey are ready for their perfect evening ’ [ D e - f i l i p p o and S k i d m o r e 1984: 113 after M c K a y 1989].
O n th e o th e r h a n d , in ten tio n al usage o f texts including a c u ltu ra l load im proves reading com prehension, and gives a b etter u n d e rsta n d in g o f the ta rg e t language culture.
2.3.8. The cultural aspects o f an artificial language - Esperanto
S. D u c z m a l ’ s [1990] p a p e r refers to th e c u ltu ra l aspects o f E sp eran to , b u t his conclusions are also interesting fo r language teaching. E sp e ra n to is a n artificial language, so it is easy to conclude th a t it has n o th in g to do w ith culture. In the light o f D u c zm al’s p a p e r how ever, this is n o t the case, because it is spoken by people w ho are native speakers o f n atu ra l languages. T h u s they reveal certain cu ltu ral attitu d e s acquired to g eth er w ith th e native language, w hich are au tom atically tran sferre d to E sp eran to . F o r exam ple if we tak e the E nglish sentence “I am happy about it” , it h as tw o P olish e q u iv ale n ts, “ Jestem szczęśliw y z tego p ow odu" an d “ To m nie bardzo cieszy” . L et us assum e it is a p a rt o f a dialogue, '’''M ary has left the hospital. She is well again” . “ I ’m happy about it". A Pole w ould tra n sla te it as: “ Jestem szczęśliw y z tego pow odu". It m ay h ap p e n how ever th a t th e Pole is a speaker o f E sp eran to and w ants to tra n sla te th a t d ialo g u e into this language. H e w ould p ro b a b ly tra n sla te the E nglish p h ra se ‘7 am happy about it" from the dialogue according to this P olish way o f u n d e rsta n d in g “T io gojigas m im ” . I f the sam e p h rase w as tran slate d in to E sp eran to by a n E nglish m an it w ould p ro b a b ly sound: “M i estas fe lic a pro tio” , which is th e equivalent o f Polish: “ Jestem szczęśliw y z tego pow odu”. T h u s the sam e p h rase would be tran slate d into different E sp eran to stru ctu re s w ith the n atio n ality o f speakers being the reason for the difference. W hy? Because they perceive reality by m eans o f th eir native languages [D u c z m a l 1990: 193].
2.3.9. Cultural knowledge in English for Science and Technology
B a u m g a r d n e r and K e n n e d y [1991], teachers ol th e A sia F o u n d a tio n , w orking w ith P akistani stu d en ts discuss cu ltu ral b a c k g ro u n d in EST (E nglish fo r Science an d T echnology). T h e trad itio n a l assu m p tio n , w hich a c co rd in g to them is n o t tru e, is th a t scientific a n d tech n ical E nglish is co m pletely devoid o f aspects o f cu ltu re , w ith science and technology being in tern a tio n al. A ccording to B au m g ard n er an d K en n ed y th ere are aspects o f science w hich convey culture. T hey refer to S t r e v e n s [1971], w ho claim s th a t science also has classical an d p o p u larised lite ratu re , legends and m yths and th a t m o ra l and aesthetic values vary from cu ltu re to culture. T hey criticise the so-called w estern way o f p resenting scientific an d technical p o in ts o f view, w ith o u t considering the cu ltu ra l b ac k g ro u n d o f readers, w hich S t r e v e n s [1980] calls a new co lo n isatio n . B au m g ard n e r
an d K en n ed y assum e th a t the m ajo rity o f problem s typical fo r lang uag e learners o riginate n o t from purely linguistic reason s b u t reflcct the tro u b les caused by c u ltu ra l adjustm ent. L ocalization o f scientific con tex t is o n e o f th e rem edies fo r such problem s. In the W est, any d escrip tio n o f a m ach in e begins from left to right; w hich is the exact op po site o f fo r exam ple, P a k ista n . A n e a rlier a d ju stm e n t o f an E n glish tech n ical te x t fo r th e reception o f P ak istan is m ultiplies the possibilities o f p ro p e r u n d e rsta n d in g an d interest.
2.3.10. More attention needs to be given to the role o f culture
W u S ong-chu and H a ro ld A. S t e p h e n s [1991] w ho teach (T E F L ) in C h in a stress the problem o f a “ lack o f em phasis on th e role th a t the cu ltu re o f E nglish - speaking people plays in th e learning o f their la n g u ag e” [ S o n g - c h u , S t e p h e n s 1991: 29]. It is tak en fo r g ran ted in C h in a, th a t the proficiency in English m u st be supp o rted by th e know ledge o f c u ltu ra l differences. Ig n o ran ce in th a t field m ay lead to vario us m isu n d erstan d in g s, as in the situ atio n s below.
“ C u ltu re - based co m m u n icatio n problem s
T h e follow ing exam ples are represen tative o f m an y such situ atio n s th a t m ig h t occur.
E x a m p l e 1. T w o people m eet in the street. C hinese stu d en t: Hello! W here are you going? A m erican T eacher: O h, to the m a rk e t.
CS: (cheerfully) W h a t for?
A T: (a bit defensively) T o d o som e shopping. CS: (sm iling) W h at d o you plan to buy? A T: (som ew hat sullenly) E r...
E x a m p l e 2. In a classroom .
A T : A ny questions? H a v e I m ad e everything clear? CS: (silence)...
E x a m p l e 3. T h e A m erican teacher arrives a t th e classroom to begin class. A T : G o o d m orning!
CS: G o o d m o rn in g , sir. G ee, y o u ’re so pale. A re you sick?
A T : (taken aback) W ell... yes. I have h ad a cold fo r several days..., CS: (interrupting) W ell, you should go to the clinic an d see the d o c to r as
A T: (som ew hat undecided) Well, if I lo o k th a t b ad , p e rh a p s I sh ou ld see th e d o cto r. T h en I ’ll be back late. W ill you please inform th o se w ho are n o t p resent yet? ( The Am erican teacher hesitantly leaves f o r the clinic, fe e lin g worse all the time.)
E x a m p l e 4. T w o persons have ju s t been intro d u ced an d are exchanging “ sm all ta lk .”
A T : Y o u speak qu ite good English. CS: O h, no. M y English is very p o o r. A T : (at a loss f o r words) E r...
E x a m p l e 5. D u rin g a b re ak betw een classes.
A T : I ’ve ju s t learned a b o u t the talen t show to be held next w eek. I love y o u r singing voice. A re you p lanning to particip ate?
CS: (em barrassed) O h, no! M y singing is really q u ite p o o r. I w ould d isa p p o in t every one present.
A T : (disappointed) W ell...
E x a m p l e 6. T h e A m erican teacher is a guest for dinner in a Chinese hom e. CS: M o re wine?
A T: N o , th a n k you. I ’ve h ad plenty. Y o u ’re a very gracious host. CS: (persistently) Well, if you really th in k so, y o u ’ll have one m o re ! A T : All right, in th a t case...
E x a m p l e 7. A guest is in tending to leave his h o st’s house.
CS: I ’m going now. Y o u m u st be tired. I ’m sorry to have w asted y o u r time. A T : (com pletely puzzled) E r...” [ S o n g - c h u , S t e p h e n s 1991: 29-30].
“ H u m a n beings are culturally labelled and b ou nd from b irth ” . (Ibid.: 30) T h is m ean s th a t w ith o u t an aw areness o f cu ltu ral differences, c o m m u n icatio n is n o t full, utteran ces are am big u o u s and peo ple perceive one a n o th e r as “ o d d ” , “ q u ee r” , o r “ w eird ” . T h e m ain m essage o f th e article is as follows: it is necessary “ to be bicultural to be bilingual!” (Ibid.: 31).
2.3.11. English teaching in Japan - the importance o f cultural information
S ophia S h a n g [1991] a Jap a n ese college teacher, w rites th a t J a p a n is try in g to “ in tern a tio n alize its people by em phasising th e stu d y o f language, especially E nglish, b u t it is im p o rta n t to study cu ltu re as well [ S h a n g 1991: 39]. C onsequ ently S hang fo und the C u ltu rg ram series published by B righam Y o u n g U niversity a useful to o l fo r p rov id in g s h o rt an d conscise
c u ltu ra l in fo rm atio n . In S h an g ’s o p in io n E F L teachers “ sh ould n o t only teac h language b u t also in co rp o rate cu ltu re an d global aw areness, so th a t stu d en ts can p u t th e in fo rm atio n they learn from teachers an d o th er sources in to perspective an d enhance th eir com prehesion an d co m m u n icatio n skills” . (Ibid.: 40). In h er o p in io n studying b o th lan guage an d cu ltu re leads to becom ing an “ in te rn a tio n a l p e rso n ” .
2.4. How can we define cultural elements in language pedagogy?
It is necessary to close this section with one general conclusion. A language is deeply ro o ted in its culture, an d it is im possible to th in k a b o u t successful language teaching w ith o u t paying atte n tio n to its c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d . T h e ab o v e p re sen tatio n o f various opinions show s how im p o rta n t elem ents o f culture are in the developm ent o f linguistic skills, from reading com prehension to the teaching o f scientific an d technical English. E lem ents o f cu ltu re in lan g u ag e p edagogy a re n o t only re ad in g passag es a b o u t red L o n d o n double-deckers, the Q ueen and the stereotypical cold and reserved Englishm en. T h o se w ho th in k so are m istak en because th e term elem ents o f cu lture com prises everything w hich in a language is ch aracteristic o f its n ativ e speakers, such as: w ays o f th in k in g an d expressing th o u g h ts, ch a rac te ristic beliefs, values a n d sentim ents, idiom s, lan guage responses, th e co n ten ts o f typical conversatio n s and o f co urse the m o st typical ones: h isto ry and lite ratu re . L an guag e courses should be organized in such a w ay as to allow learners a know ledge o f cu ltu ral b ac k g ro u n d , g raded acco rd in g to th e level o f adv ancem ent. T h is is the only way to teach a real an d live n atu ra l lan guag e an d p ro tect learners from “ the cu ltu re sh o ck ” , “ th e sho ck th a t com es o f encountering a distinctly different way o f life and set o f assum ptions” [ N o s t r a n d 1966: 4].
3. TEX TBO O K REVIEW
“ On the surface, m ost textbooks look pretty much alike. Publishers see to it th a t their books look attractive and th at the titles sound enticing. T h a t is p a rt o f their business. 1Г a teacher is professionally trained, however, he will be able to look beyond attractive illustrations and binding. He should be able to see whether the book presents the language and culture patterns* th a t form the system to be studied, and does n o t merely disparate items from here and there. [...] T extbooks should be
graded as to gram matical structure, pronunciation, vocabulary, and cultural content” L a d o [1957: 2-3].
(* italics mine)
3.1. Textbook division according to the cultural contents
T h is p a p e r co n c e n tra te s on th e p re s e n ta tio n o f selected te x tb o o k s published betw een th e years 1938-1992, which ca n be divided in to the follow ing kinds:
1) tex tb o o k s published in the 1930s, 40s, and 50s in G e rm an y , the Soviet U n io n an d P oland. In these b ooks the cu ltu ral load is so stro n g th a t they reflect the political reality o f the coun tries in w hich they w ere published . T o this g ro u p one should also add the E ast G e rm a n tex tb o o k s published in the 1980s;
2) targ e t language culturally o riented tex tb o o k s, pu blished in P o la n d in the 1960s, 70s, and 80s, where auth o rs purposely use the cultural backgrounds o f the targ e t language countries;
3) th e so-called “ culture free” tex tb o o k s w hose a u th o rs claim they do n o t fa v o u r any cultures. T h e tex tb o o k set presented in th e p ap e r w as published in the 1960s;
4) in tern a tio n ally o riented tex tb o o k s w hich co n c en trate n o t only o n the targ e t language culture b u t also o n m ulticu ltu rally based re ad in g passages, because they tre a t English as an in tern a tio n al system o f co m m u n icatio n . T o this kind belong the new est tex tb o o k s published in B ritain in th e 1980s a n d 90s.
3.2. Politically saturated textbooks
T o s ta rt this te x tb o o k review , let m e c o n c e n tra te o n th e k in d o f tex tb o o k s w hich are so strongly cu lturally sa tu ra te d th a t they reflect the political preferences o f the countries they were published in. T h ey are n o t arran g e d in the sam e way as m o d e rn textbook s. T hey lack th e dialog ue an d p ra c tic e sections, in clu d in g only longish re a d in g texts w ritte n by n o n -n a tiv e a u th o rs o r carefully selected excerpts from E nglish o r A m erican literature.
3.2.1. German textbooks full o f explicit political N A Z I propaganda
Englishes Unterrichtswerk f ü r H öhere Schulen [ F i s h e r 1938] includes texts com pletely devoted to variou s w alks o f life in E n g lan d a t th a t tim e, an d passage on German Youth in a Changing World. T h e passag e explains in E nglish to learners, specific goals set fo r y oung m en serving the G e rm an n a tio n , “ In th e H itler Ju g en d , in the R eich L a b o u r Service, an d in the A rm y , the G e rm an y o u th does n o t care fo r class and p o sitio n , p ro fessio n an d ed u c atio n , b irth and m oney. I t is th u s th a t th e unified N a tio n a l Socialist n a tio n is being constructed. F o r it is fo r G erm an y th a t th ey are filled w ith the tru th o f the N a tio n a l Socialist m axim ‘W o rk en n o b le s’ [ F i s h e r 1938: 51].
English als 1. Frem dshprache [ E d e r m a n 1939] p resen ts a lo t o f m a te ria l on th e h isto ry , lite ra tu re , custo m s an d tra d itio n s o f E n glish sp eaking co un tries like B ritain, th e U .S.A . an d C an ad a . T h e ch a p te rs arc long texts sa tu ra te d w ith c u ltu ra l m aterial. O ne o f them is co nn ected w ith in te rn a tio n a l relations betw een B ritain an d G erm an y in 1939. I t is entitled The A n glo-Saxon W orld and Germ any an d it com prises several articles by A m erican an d B ritish a u th o rs w ho deal w ith the sim ilarities betw een th eir co u n tries and G erm any. D iscussing G erm an s in A m erica, E .A . R oss gives th e figures dexribing how m an y G erm an s em igrated to the U .S.A . “ C o u n tin g G e rm an s from R ussia, A u stria, B ohem ia and eastern S w itzerland, we have, n o d o u b t received m o re th a n 7,000,000 w hose m o th e r to n g u e w as the speech o f L u th e r an d G oethe. It is p ro b a b le th a t G e rm a n blo od h as com e to be a t least a fo u rth p a rt o f the c u rre n t in th eir veins o f the w hite peo ple o f this co u n try . N o o th e r foreign elem ent is so generally d istrib u te d over th e U nited S tates as the G e rm a n s” . “ In the m ean tim e, G e rm a n y ’s e x tra o r d in a ry rise as a m an u fa c tu rin g co u n try , her successes in foreign tra d e and h er w onderful system o f p ro tec tio n and insurance fo r h er la b o u r p o p u la tio n , h ad m ad e h er sons an d d au g h ters lo ath to m ig rate oversee. T h e im m ig ratio n from G erm any in the U nited States is virtually a closed ch ap ter” [ E d e r m a n 1939: 124]. A few lines fu rth e r on, M . B oo th discusses p o litical in stab ility in E u ro p e an d its causes, rejecting the accusation o f J a p a n o r Italy o f “ lust o f co n q u e st” o r “ aggressive m ilitarism ” (Ibid.: 126).
A n o th e r ch a p te r, full o f politics, idealises th e G e rm an p olitical system , the p a rty a n d its “ beloved F ü h re r” . F o r T . P. C onw ell-E vans “T h e P a rty C ongress a t N ü rn b e rg leaves a lasting im pression o n visitors from o th e r la n d s” , an d “ one o f th e m o st im pressive sights is th e assem bly o f boys an d girls represen tativ e o f th e H itler Y o u th O rg a n isa tio n s” . Besides the a u th o r “ w as privileged to be in the car im m ediately behind th e F ü h re r as h e proceeded to th e B urg fo r lu n ch eo n ” an d in his o p in io n “ th e G e rm an s are essentially a peace - loving peo p le” [E derm an 1939: 127-129].
In the sam e tex tb o o k , you can find a very interesting article fro m The Tim es entitled A n English Picture o f Germany, glorifying the c o u n try and its political system . T h e c h a p te r is illustrated w ith p h o to g ra p h s, th e one presen tin g m arc h in g soldiers in fro n t o f their F ü h re r being o u tstan d in g .
3.2.1.1. Implicit political clues in German textbooks
T h e third G e rm an tex tb o o k The N ew Guide J u n io r B ook 1 [ D u v e , K r e t e r 1943] includes n o political com m ents, b u t a read in g passage w ith L esso n 21 seem s fairly stran g e , a n d I th in k its o rig in s ca n be explained on the basis o f c u ltu ra l back g ro u n d . I t is entitled G randfather's D eath an d it describes the d ea th o f Sylvia’s g ra n d fath er. “ N ex t m o rn in g Sylvia’s g ra n d fa th e r did n o t open his eyes, his face was q u ite w hite, his h a n d s w ere cold an d stiff. H e had gone to sleep fo r ever, he h a d passed aw ay ” [ D u v e , K r e t e r 1943: 56]. Such a passage is n o t typical text- -b o o k piece. T h e d escrip tio n o f a corpse in a tex tb o o k fo r y o u th seems to be o u t o f place. B ut a closer look at the b o o k p ro m p ts a re aso n ab le ex p lan atio n . I t w as published in 1943, when luck ab a n d o n ed th e G e rm an s in th e w ar and a large n u m b er o f them w ere dying every day . T h u s, even foreign lan gu age tex tb o o k s to o k a p a r t in the ed u c atio n o f brave y o u n g m en w ho were n o t supposed to be afraid o f d e a th , fo r w hom it w as n a tu ra l. Indeed, if necessary each o f these young m en should die fo r th eir m o th e r coun try .
3.2.2. Russian textbooks including Stalinist propaganda
G erm an y was n o t the only co u n try w here politics entered th e sp here o f E nglish teaching. A sim ilar situ atio n can be observed in the Soviet U n io n an d P o lan d in the 1940s and 50s d u rin g the Stalin era, and in th e G e rm an D e m o c ratic R epublic even in the 1980s.
L et us s ta rt th e discu ssio n w ith th e R u ssia n te x tb o o k o f E n glish [В e 1 о V a, T о d d 1950]. E ven a t first sight, you ca n n otice th a t th e b o o k is far from being targ et language oriented. A t the sam e tim e, it is clear th a t R u ssian cu ltu re and politics d o m in ate the contents.
L esson O ne (Ibid.: 7) begins w ith a longish passag e en title d The L eader's Birthplace devoted to Stalin, the next page co n tain s a poem by A. S urko v, Stalin. B oth sections are the sign o f a perso n ality cult glorifying th e politician into alm ost divine dim ensions.
“ S T A L IN ’s nam e,
like a frie n d sh ip ’s beginning, in all ton gues
sounded w arm and w innin g” . “ S T A L IN
-stan d s fo r no m o re war! S T A L IN
-is freedom and hum an-ism ! S T A L IN
-is building Social-ism !” (Ibid.: 10-11).
In a n o th e r passage the person ality cult o f S talin is expressed by the w ords o f a young R ussian soldier Lazarev: “ I shall be killed to o , I k n o w ” , he th o u g h t, “ b u t w hat does th a t m atter? I shall die for S talin an d m y c o u n try ...” (Ibid.: 10).
O th e r read in g o r exercise sections are also co nnected w ith th e political situ a tio n , an d as in the G e rm an bo oks, they are designed to help p ro d u ce a good citizen - here, a good com m unist. F o r exam ple, an exercise on p age 10 asks the learners to w rite d ow n in alp h ab etical o rd e r all the “ in te rn a tio n a l w o rd s” he is likely to m eet in his studies. A n o th e r passage expresses the S ta te ’s care fo r ch ild re n ’s literatu re, there is also a read in g tex t a b o u t th e R ussian n atio n al hero Ivan S usanin, w ho saved his co u n try fro m “ b an d s o f P olish h o rse m e n ” [...] “ which ro d e from village to village ro b b in g an d killing the p o p u la tio n ” after they h ad been driven o u t o f M osco w in 1613. (Ibid.: 19) Poles are presented here as d ed icated enem ies o f the R u ssians, w hich is n o t in agreem ent w ith the S ta te ’s official claim o f in tern atio n alism .
T h e tex tb o o k is full o f passages the action s and topics o f w hich are connected w ith the learn er’s co u n try , the Soviet U nion . T h u s, th ere arc texts like: Soviet Railw ays, The Volga, Soviet W aterw ays to g eth er w ith passages on Ivan M ich u rin and L uth er B u rb an k w ho is called by the R ussians, an A m erican M ich u rin and one o f th e best D arw in ists in the cap italist countries.
A n o th e r R ussian tex tb o o k published in 1955 [ N e l i d o v a , T o d d 1955] is q u ite sim ilar in its flavour to the one discussed above. T h is tim e, the op ening lesson begins w ith an excerpt from L enin, The T asks o f the Youth L eagues, the second one, being The Speech delivered at a reception in the K rem lin to higher educational w orkers by J. V. S talin. A lto g e th e r the bo o k con tain s fewer passages explicitly praising R ussian cu ltu re co n cen tratin g o n a larger n u m b er o f original E nglish texts.
З.2.2.1. The picture o f Western countries in Russian textbooks
Beside passages w hich p ro m o te R u ssian cu ltu re an d politics B elova, T o d d [1950] co n tain s read in g sections based o n excerpts by n ativ e a u th o rs like M a rk T w ain, D aniel D efoe, J o n a th a n Swift, C harles D ickens, E m ily B rontë o r Jerom e K . Jerom e. T h ere are also opin io n s o penly criticising the W est, fo r exam ple com ics published in A m erica are called “ p o iso n fo r the m in d s o f A m erican ch ild re n .” (Ibid.: 16). T o conclude, if in this te x tb o o k th ere are references to foreign culture they are usually n eu tra l excerpts from n o n - co n tem p o rary novelists e. g. Jerom e K . Jero m e, B ro ntë, D ick ens or from tho se w ho criticise th e political system and th e way o f life in W estern countries.
A lth o u g h a later R ussian tex tb o o k , [ N e l i d o v a , T o d d 1955] in cludes texts by such a u th o rs as D ickens, H a rd y , Jerom e, W ells, O ’H en ry , D reiser, G alsw o rth y , Shaw, A b ra h am s o r F a s t it does n o t m ean th a t the situ a tio n had changed so m u ch or th a t any E nglish o r A m erican a u th o r was allow ed to be cited th a t tim e. It still was a ru le th a t no co n te m p o ra ry a u th o rs describing everyday life in w estern co u n trie s were allow ed, w ith the exception o f those w ho criticised the w estern situ atio n a n d ta c k le d th e p re ssin g social p ro b lem s. T h u s T . H a rd y d e s c rib in g social inequality, D ickens w ho criticised ch ild re n ’s la b o u r, G . B. Shaw w ho w as k now n as a socialist, T. D reiser a m em b er o f th e A m erican C o m m u n ist P a rty , w ere p ublished in th e Soviet U n io n a n d te x tb o o k au th o rs could ta k e excerpts from th eir novels. Beside th e in tern a tio n ally k n o w n au th o rs, you can find reading passages by tw o less k n o w n a u th o rs. P eter A b ra h am s, w hose novel The P ath o f Thunder “ gives a tru e p ic tu re o f life in th e U n io n o f S o u th A fric a ” [ N e l i d o v a , T o d d 1955: 98] an d G id eo n Jac k so n a N egro “ progressive w riter in A m e ric a ” (Ibid.: 106).
3.2.3. Polish, textbooks promoting politics in the 1950s
English tex tb o o k s published in P o land in th e 1950s p resent sim ilar a p p ro a c h to A nglo-S axon cu ltu re as the R ussian ones. T h e fa v o u rab le clim ate w hich existed in the 1940s fo r English tex tb o o k w rites, w hen c e n so rsh ip did n o t lim it th e p ictu re o f th e A n g lo -S ax o n w o rld , [e.g. J a s t r o c h 1947] ceased very quickly.
З.2.З.1. The official attitude towards the Anglo-Saxon world [ H e l s z t y n s k i 1951]
T h e first P olish te x tb o o k to be discussed in this p ap e r is H elszty nsk i’s Antologia tekstów do n auki ję z y k a angielskiego designed for th e 11th class [ H e l s z t y n s k i 1951], and this bo o k can be boldly co m p ared to the ab ov e discussed R u ssian ones. T h e political situ atio n an d censorship forced th e a u th o r to p resent only those aspects o f life in A ng lo -S ax on w orld w hich were connected with com m unism or criticised from the com m unist standpoint.
E ven the general arran g e m e n t o f the b o o k betrays th e official a ttitu d e to w a rd s co m m u n ism an d B ritish o r A m eric an c u ltu re s. T h e ta b le o f co n ten ts carries th e follow ing ch a p te r headings Socialism , Utopian and Scientific, Im perialism , the L a st S ta ge o f Capitalism, The U .S .A ., the C am p o f the reactionary Forces [ H e l s z t y n s k i 1951: 273-275].
C h a p te r I presents a few re ad in g passages on th e U to p ia n socialism o f O w en, the C h artists, th en it switches to so called scientific socialism , there follow sections on The L ife and W ork o f Frederick Engels, E n g els’s The C ondition o f the W orking Class in England in 1844, The L ife and W ork o f K arol M a rx , The M anifesto o f the com m unist P arty, 1848, K arl M a r x ’s H a rd W ork and D aily H abits, W alks with M a r x to H am pstead H eath, L ondon, The Friendship o f Engels and M a rx , Frederick Engels, Speech at the Graveside o f K arl M a r x and The First London M a y D ay, 1890.
C h a p te r II, Specim ens o f Victorian Prose and P oetry brings a certain n u m b e r o f original literary texts, which were, how ever selected acco rd in g to political criteria, an d they all tackle social p ro blem s. T h u s D ick e n s’s Oliver Twist and D avid Copperfield were suitable, E lizabeth B arret-B row ning’s poem The C ry o f the Children, a b o u t the abused children forced to w ork in factories, T h a c k e ra y ’s social criticism and a few critical essays on B ritish b o urgeo is cu ltu re an d im perialism also satisfied the criteria.
C h a p te r III, The G uilded A g e beyond the Ocean, presents n u m ero u s excerpts from English and A m erican lite ratu re w hich w ere also selected ac co rd in g to the p attern : n o th in g fav ourable a b o u t E n g lan d o r A m erica, and social topics above all. H ere are som e o f the titles o f th e passages: K arl M a r x to Abraham Lincoln, M a r k Twain and the Am erican Im perialism .
C h a p te r IV, Im perialism , the L a st S tage o f Capitalism , p resents m ain ly ten d en tio u s passages, Lenin in London, L enin on Im perialism , W ells visits Soviet Russia, W ell's Second Visit to Russia, The C haracter o f the English Em pire Builders by G . B. S haw and o th e r texts by less kn ow n w riters w ho usually d epict the h ard life o f p o o r people in E n gland o r A m erica.
1 he fifth an d final c h a p te r co n tain s passages by w riters criticising the bourgeois system (e.g. Steinbeck, Caldw ell), w hich are m e a n t to create
a n asty p icture o f A m erica. T h e ch a p te r also co n tain s tw o passages by Soviet w riters, R ep ly to a Questionaire R eceived fr o m an Am erican M agazine by M axim G o rk i and A Peace A ppeal A nno 1950 by Ily a E h re n b u rg . B o th passages express g reat criticism o f the A m erican political system .
3.2.3.2. Teaching English against the background o f Polish everyday life and politics [ B a s t g e n et a l 1957]
B aslgen, R o góyska, S m olska’s tex tb o o k J ę z y k angielski f o r the 8th class h ad been in use since 1957 [ B a s t g e n et a l. 1957]. T h is is how ever n o t an an th o lo g y full o f literary excerpts b u t a m o re m o d e rn tex tb o o k w ith p a tte rn sections, reading texts an d exercise sections. T h e m o st in te resting case is the fact th a t it describes the reality o f P olish life w ith few references to E n g lan d . P ictures p resent faces o f P olish cars, a c a le n d a r in Polish, a P olish classroom an d street (architecture). A few passages p re sen t a n E nglish fam ily, the B row ns w here the fa th e r is a p lu m b er an d the m o th e r a salesw om an in a d e p a rtm e n t sto re, a w o rk in g class fam ily ac co rd in g to the idea o f com m unism . T h e fam ily consists o f the p aren ts, a g ra n d m o th e r, an d five children w ho live in tw o co m fo rta b le ro o m s in E n g lan d , a situ atio n which was typical o f P o lan d in the 1950s ra th e r th a n o f E n g lan d . O th e r passages, how ever, are universal; they describe every d ay ro u tin e in P o land. “ W e buy food a t a co-op erative sto re ” , “ W o rk in g m en an d w om en often ta k e their m eals in ca n te en s” [ B a s t g e n et a l.
1957: 80].
T h e passage a b o u t city traffic describes the traffic in W arsaw , L ife in the country passage in troduces M r S ocha a P olish p e a sa n t w ho lives in a village n ea r K ło d z k o and is a m em ber o f a p ro d u cers co -o perativ e, w here all o f the m em bers w ork collectively. A t the R epair Shop, a read in g passage w hich in tro d u ce s a skilled m echanic, M r Z ych. F ra n k , w ho com es to the re p air shop, greets M r Z ych w ith th e w ords: “ G ood m orning, M r Z y c h . H ow are yo u today?" (Ibid.: 108), the second p h rase being m o re typical o f a B ritish en v iro n m en t th a n a P olish one.
Y o u ca n also find a passage devo ted to a P olish h o lid ay , T h e D a y o f the L ib era tio n o f W arsaw . A t the school cerem ony, child ren recite the follow ing poem : “T hey clapped their h an d s w hen he recited w ith deep feeling the follow ing lines:
‘C o m ra d e ’ is the w ord th a t m ak es you welcome, T o w hatever race you d o belong,
Black or w hite or yellow — you are welcome, I f y o u r h e a rt is full o f o u r so n g ” (Ibid.: 122).
T h e official line o f the P olish state a t th a t tim e is p resen t everyw here in th e book. T h e re p o rt on M ay -D ay in W arsaw , th e M ay -D ay procession, the city full o f flags and ban ners, slogans: “ L o n g life Socialism !, L et us all jo in in th e fight fo r peace!, Peace! P eace!” these elem ents rep resen t P olish cu ltu re o f th a t period th ro u g h the English language. N o w o n d e r these passages sou nd n o n - E nglish as they describe a foreign en v iro n m en t. T h e Som e Good N ew s passage describes the joy o f M r B row n, a shockw orker, w hen he receives som e ex tra m oney as a bonu s, a typical socialist ro u tin e. A n o th e r passage presents P olish g raduates “ in a village o n the V istu la” afte r the final school exam ination s, then T o m goes to M ielno fo r his h oliday s an d also visits Szczecin and its h a rb o u r. “T h e R escue” passage describes a flood in a sm all P olish to w n w ith th e co m m en t “ we m u st regu late all o u r rivers” , w hich w as p ro p a g ated by th e socialist state a t th a t tim e. T o m receives a special prize, a free ticket to C raco w , an d th e read in g passage describes W arsaw an d the c o u n try ’s achievem ents in rebu ild in g th e ca p ital city. T o m is im pressed by the Palace o f C u ltu re, th e W -Z R o ad an d o th e r new districts, in C racow by N o w a H u ta , the largest fo u n d ry in P o la n d , w hich w as built by y o u th brigades.
3.2.3.3. Nauka angielskiego - a textbook with greater emphasis on English culture
T h e last o f the P olish tex tb o o k s published in the 1950s, w hich is to be discussed in this p ap e r is N a u ka angielskiego by P rejbisz, Siw icka, S m ólska a n d H elsztynski [ P r e j b i s z et a l. 1958]. It h ad been in use since 1952, b u t the revised edition o f 1958 includes m o re explicit c u ltu ra l elem ents.
T h e m a in ch a rac te rs o f th e tex tb o o k do live in E n g lan d , b u t on the o th e r h an d , th ere are a lot o f connections w ith P o lan d. T h u s, yo u can learn th a t schools in the P eople’s R epublic o f P o lan d are o p en to all children, a p icture presenting a co u n try h ouse is a n im age o f a typically P olish co u n try house. A n n ’s fa th e r is a sh o ck w o rk er w orking in a m in e, A n n ’s m o th e r w orks in a co-operative store. T h e p ictu re o n p ag e 40 presents th e fam ily a t hom e, b u t the fath er is n o t sitting by a fireplace like in E n g lan d , b u t in fro n t o f a w indow . A s h o rt passag e o n p ag e 43 describes the daily ro u tin e o f a fam ily. T hey h ave b re ak fa st in the m o rn in g , d in n e r in the a fte rn o o n and su p p er in the evening - a typical arra n g e m e n t o f m eals in P o la n d ra th e r th a n in E ngland.
3.2.4. The “socialist” character o f East German textbooks in the 1980s
In spite o f the political changes since the 1950s, tex tb o o k s published in the G .D .R . preserve th eir “ socialist” ch a racter, even in th e 1980s. M odern English 1 f o r teacher students [G raustein 1983] an d M odern English f o r teacher students 4 [ B e h r e n d 1983] p resent b o th A nglo-S axo n cu ltu re and c u ltu ra l know ledge o f E ast G erm any. G erm an learners get ac q u ain ted w ith the English speaking w orld from the view point o f the socialist state. All links betw een the w orking class and com m un ist ideas are em phasised. L earners m ig h t get the im pression th a t B ritain o r th e U .S.A . are co un tries w here the idea o f com m unism is as p o p u la r as in th eir co u n try .
R ead in g sections p resent excerpts from The M orning Star, a com m u n ist n ew spaper in E n g lan d , and passages devoted to social criticism o f B ritain o r A m erica. W hile discussing the school system in B ritain and th e U .S.A . a co m p ariso n is m a d e to the E ast G erm an school system , w ith criticism o f th e form er. ‘It is n o t, in o th er w ords, the q u ality o f th eir ed u c atio n w hich gets p ublic schoolboys into O xford an d C am b rid g e and helps them to becom e im p o rta n t people in governm ent, business and th e professions; it is m o re the fact th a t they com e from socio-econom ic élite a n d th e “ oldschool tie ” m akes it easy fo r them to find a place in to p circles’ [ G r a u s t e i n 1983: 113]. B oth tex tb o o k s include a large n u m b e r o f cultural elem ents referring to B ritain or A m erica (e.g. custom s, the description o f an E nglish house, teenage m arria g e problem s, sh o p p in g an d travelling in B ritain, excerpts from native E nglish novelists) b u t th e p ictures o f the w estern w orld show n by b o th tex tb o o k s are like those seen in a d isto rtin g m irro r. It is a typical exam ple o f fact m an ip u latio n fo r political pu rp oses. T h e tex tb o o k s d o n o t say an y th in g u n tru e, b u t they th ro w light only on the disad v an tag es o f life in E ng lan d , the U .S.A . o r S o uth A frica, stressing only one sphere o f life there; social inequality, poverty racial d iscrim in atio n and th e trou b les o f everyday life.
3.2.5. Why was politics connected with teaching English?
T h ere are a t least tw o reasons fo r m ixing tw o entirely d ifferen t spheres o f life like teaching a foreign language and politics. T h e first one is identified as the a u th o r ’s interest in raising y ou ng peo p le to be good citizens, w ho should su b o rd in a te th eir lives to the benefit o f th eir h om elan d . I he o th e r reaso n is m o re prag m atic. In the tex tb o o k m a rk e t, a b o o k w hich reflects the politics o f the day an d pleases the censors, m ay be fav ou red
a n d th u s published in a larger edition an d m a d e m o re p o p u la r th a n o th ers. F o r the boo k s published u n d er th e S talinist regim e, how ever, tho se “ special” them es w ere th e only possible ones w hich w ould o b ta in perm issio n fo r the teach in g o f the language o f “ th e enem ies” .
3.2.6. The linguistic evaluation o f the above discussed textbooks
F ro m th e p o in t o f view o f discourse analysis th e ab o v e m en tio n ed b o o k s lack exam ples o f typical, everyday con v ersatio n al register o f E nglish, being d o m in ated by stiff, b o o k ish and form al lang uag e w hich is q u ite often em bedd ed in th e cu ltu re o f a n o n -native a u th o r. T h e a u th o rs did n o t p re sen t m a te ria l w hich enabled stu d en ts to p ractise the linguistic skill o f sp eak in g an d it is very h a rd to trace o n an im plicit level, any cu ltu rally typical E nglish speech acts o r o th e r discourse p attern s.
3.3. The cultural content of target language based textbooks
T h is kind o f tex tb o o k s is represented in this p ap e r by S m ólsk a an d Z a w a d z k a ’s set o f tex tb o o k s w hich have been in use in P o lan d fo r a t least th irty years. T w o editions o f these b ooks will be c o m p ared , th e first one being pu blished in th e early 1970s and the second being the revised version o f the 1980s.
3.3.1. General characteristics o f Smôlska-Zawadzka’s set o f textbooks
B o th sets o f tex tb o o k s fa v o u r B ritish English, by using th e B ritish sta n d a rd variety o f English in spelling, syntax, v o cab u lary , idiom s, and suggested p ro n u n c ia tio n . T hey are also the first k in d o f tex tb o o k s discussed here w hich include exam ples o f cu ltu re specific discourse trac ab le o n an im plicit level. T h e explicit conten t o f reading passages, especially conversations an d p a tte rn sections in the first form tex tb o o k h overs over the B ritish w orld in the second edition [ Z a w a d z k a 1980] an d b o th B ritish and A m erican life in the first ed ition [ S m ó l s k a , Z a w a d z k a 1972].
