GE OL OGY AND PE TRO LEUM GEO CHEM IS TRY
OF MIO CENE STRATA IN THE POL ISH AND UKRAI NIAN
CARPATHIAN FOREDEEP
AND ITS PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT
Maciej J. KOTARBA1 & Tadeusz M. PERYT21
AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Po land, e-mail: kotarba@agh.edu.pl
2
Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute, Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 War saw, Po land, e-mail: tadeusz.peryt@pgi.gov.pl
Kotarba, M. J. & Peryt, T. M., 2011. Ge ol ogy and pe tro leum geo chem is try of Mio cene strata in the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep and its Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 81: 211–220.
Ab stract: This the matic is sue of Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae con tains a set of pa pers pre sent ing re sults of a spe cial re search pro ject en ti tled “Pe tro leum ex plo ra tion prospectives and hy dro car bon po ten tial of the Mio cene strata and Me so zoic–Palaeozoic base ment in the bor der land area of Po land and Ukraine”, led by re search teams from the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków and the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute in War saw. The ob jec tive of this pa per is de ter mi na tion of the geo log i cal and geo che-m i cal con di tions, 1-D and 2-D che-mod el ling of pe tro leuche-m pro cesses and pe tro leuche-m sys teche-ms and their in flu ence on the prospectives of hy dro car bon ex plo ra tion of the Mio cene strata in the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep and its Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment. In par tic u lar, a co her ent model of geo log i cal struc ture of the area, based both on the syn the sis of the ear lier pub lished data and on new re sults of palynological stud ies of the Up per Pre -cam brian and Lower Palaeozoic, is given. New data on microfacies of the Up per Ju ras sic and Lower Cre ta ceous strata and on sedimentology, geo chem is try and micropalaeontology of the Mid dle Mio cene rocks are pre sented. Key words: pe tro leum sys tem, prospectives of hy dro car bon ex plo ra tion, Mio cene, Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base -ment, Carpathian Foredeep, Po land, Ukraine.
Manu script re ceived 28 September 2011, ac cepted 3 November 2011
IN TRO DUC TION
The Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin stretches for more than 1,300 km from the Vi enna area (Aus tria) to the Iron Gate on the Dan ube (Ro ma nia). To the west, it is linked with the Al -pine Molasse Ba sin, and to the east, it passes into the Bal kan fore land ba sin. The Carpathian Foredeep is filled pre dom i -nantly with Mio cene siliciclastic sed i ments, which over lie the base ment of the West and EastEu ro pean plat forms cov -ered by Perm ian–Me so zoic ter res trial and shelf sed i ments and lo cally by Palaeogene de pos its (Oszczypko et al., 2006, and ref er ences therein).
The sed i men tary, struc tural and geodynamic evo lu tion of the Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin in Po land and Ukraine was pre vi ously sum ma rized by Oszczypko et al. (2006), whereas as pects of pre-Perm ian stra tig ra phy and tec ton ics in the Pol-ish com po nent were syn the sized by Bu³a et al. (2008).
The fron tal part of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathians con sti tutes one of the old est pe tro leumpro duc ing re
-gions in the world. The ex ploi ta tion of oil started in 1853 in Bóbrka vil lage near Krosno in Po land in the Outer (Flysch) Carpathians, and nat u ral gas pro duc tion be gan in 1920 in Dashava vil lage near Boryslav in Ukraine, in the autochtho- nous Mio cene strata of the Bilche-Volytsia Unit of the Car-pathian Foredeep (Karnkowski, 1999; Vul et al., 1998a, b; Fedyshyn et al., 2001). At the end of the 1930s, pe tro leum ex plo ra tion started in the Carpathian Fore land, and in the years of 1945–1955 pe tro leum in dus try in Po land and Ukra- ine was re stored and re or ga nized. The ex plo ra tion ac tiv ity was fo cused mainly on the Outer (Flysch) Carpathians and partly on the Carpathian Foredeep (Karnkowski, 1994, 1999). In ten sive de vel op ment of pe tro leum ex plo ra tion took place in the mid dle of the 1960s and in the 1970s (Karnkowski, 1999; Fedyshyn et al., 2001; Myœliwiec et al., 2006; Popadyuk et al., 2006).
Part of the Carpathian Foredeep Ba sin en com pass ing the south-east ern Po land and west ern Ukraine has been the fo cus of a spe cial re search pro ject en ti tled “Pe tro leum ex -plo ra tion prospectives and hy dro car bon po ten tial of the Miocene strata and Me so zoic–Palaeozoic base ment in the borderland area of Po land and Ukraine” led by re search teams from the Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi -ron men tal Pro tec tion at the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków (leader: M. J. Kotarba) and the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute–Na tional Re search In sti tute in War -saw (leader: T. M. Peryt).
The pur pose of our stud ies is to eval u ate the hy dro car -bon po ten tial of autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpa- thian Foredeep and its Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment in SE Po land (be tween Kraków and the Pol ishUkrai nian bor -der) and west ern Ukraine (be tween Ukrai nian-Pol ish bor der and Ivano-Frankivs’k, and in Lopushna area near the boun-dary be tween Ukraine and Ro ma nia), to char ac ter ize their pe tro leum sys tem, and to de ter mine ex plo ra tion pros pects. The con di tions of hy dro car bon gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi -gra tion and ac cu mu la tion within the sed i men tary bas ins, as well as geo log i cal (lithological, sedimentological and tec -tonic) con straints of these pro cesses have been de ter mined. The pos si bil ity of gen er a tion of hy dro car bons and their mi -gra tion from the Lower to Up per Palaeozoic strata in the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep and from the flysch source rocks of the Outer Carpathians to the Me so zoic strata of the base ment have also been ana lysed. An a lyt i cal stud ies of source and res er voir rocks and 1-D and 2-D nu mer i cal mod el ling of hy dro car bon gen er a tion, ex pul sion and mi gra -tion pro cesses and fill ing of traps in re la -tion with geo log i cal lithofacies anal y sis and dy namic re con struc tion of de vel op -ment of sed i men tary bas ins en abled sci en tists to es tab lish pe tro leum sys tems, re gional eval u a tion of their pe tro leum value and rank ing of ar eas of prospectivity for con ven tional pe tro leum ex plo ra tion. Such stud ies are cru cial for di rect ing a fu ture ex plo ra tion for oil and gas in the near-bor der ar eas of the Carpathian Foredeep in Po land and Ukraine. The pres ent work syn the sises the avail able geo log i cal, geo phys i cal, geo chem i cal, pet ro log i cal and petrophysical data, at lo -cal and re gional s-cales, with the re sults of new an a lyt i -cal stud ies and mod el ling.
The main da ta base used for in ter pre ta tions con sisted of nu mer i cal geo phys i cal data (seis mic and well log geo phys -ics) ac quired dur ing years of pe tro leum ex plo ra tion in the Carpathian Pe tro leum Prov ince. These, aided with geochemical, geo ther mal and geo log i cal data were used for mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses (gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion), which pro vided the ba sis for es tab -lish ing pe tro leum sys tems in the autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpathian Foredeep and its Palaeozoic–Me so -zoic base ment.
The prin ci pal re sults of the pro ject are pre sented in a se -ries of pa pers en closed in this the matic is sue of Annales So-cietatis Geologorum Poloniae (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011; Ga-recka & Olszewska, 2011; Gedl & Peryt, 2011; Jachowicz-Zdanowska, 2011a; Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Kosa-kowski et al., 2011; Kotarba, 2011; Kotarba & Koltun, 2011; Kotarba et al., 2011a, b, c; Krajewski et al., 2011a, b; Kuberska et al., 2011; Kurovets et al., 2011; Wiêc³aw,
2011; Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). In ad di tion, some re sults have al ready been pub lished pre vi ously (Jarmo³owicz-Szulc et al., 2011; Jasionowski & Peryt, 2010; Kowalski et al., 2010; Koz³owska et al., 2011; Peryt & Gedl, 2010; Peryt & Peryt, 2009; Peryt et al., 2008, 2010; Wiêc³aw et al., 2008, 2010), and will be pub lished in the next vol umes of Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (Kosakowski et al., in press, a; Lis & Wysocka, in press;Wiêc³aw et al., in press, a; Wróbel et al., in press) and other jour nals (Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Kosakowski et al., in press, b, c, d; Ko-tarba, in press; Wiêc³aw et al., in press, b). All these re sults con trib uted ex ten sively to the knowl edge of both ba sic and ap plied na ture.
GEO LOG I CAL SET TING
Two cen tu ries of geo log i cal stud ies of the Carpathian Foredeep in SE Po land and west ern Ukraine re sulted in nu mer ous pa pers and mono graphs. One of them is the geo log i -cal at las of Galicia (At las Geologiczny Galicji) re al ized in years 1885–1914, which can be treated as a mile stone, greatly con trib ut ing to deep en ing the knowl edge of the stru- cture of the foredeep. The sed i men tary, struc tural and geo-dy namic evo lu tion of the Carpathian Foredeep in Po land and Ukraine was sum ma rized by Oszczypko et al. (2006, with ref er ences therein).
There ex ist sig nif i cant dif fer ences in views con cern ing the palaeotectonic and palaeogeographic evo lu tion of the area of the Carpathian Foredeep dur ing the Pro tero zoic and Palaeozoic and the age of con sol i da tion of var i ous tec tonic units (see Bu³a & Habryn, 2011 for re view). Bu³a and Hab-ryn (2011) clar i fied some of the con tro ver sies re gard ing the above-men tioned prob lems and pre sented a co her ent model of geo log i cal struc ture in the area that is based both on the syn the sis of the ear lier pub lished data as well as on the re sults of palynological stud ies. In par tic u lar, they suc cess -fully adopted the scheme of geo log i cal struc ture de vel oped pre vi ously for SE Po land (Bu³a et al., 2008, and ref er ences therein).
Two re gional tec tonic units have been dis tin guished in south ern and south-east ern Po land: the Up per Silesian and Ma³opolska blocks (Bu³a & Jachowicz, 1996; Bu³a et al., 1997). They are sep a rated by the Kraków–Lubliniec Fault Zone, and are lo cated in the East-Eu ro pean Craton fore land (Bu³a & Habryn, 2008). The Ma³opolska Block rep re sents a tec tonic unit of un known prov e nance. The Kielce part of the Holy Cross Moun tains is in cluded in this block (Po¿aryski, 1990; Po¿aryski et al., 1992) and, thus, the north ern bound -ary of the Ma³opolska Block is marked by the Holy Cross Moun tains Fault. Bu³a and Habryn (2011) showed that both the Ma³opolska Block and the Holy Cross Moun tains Fault con tinue into the ter ri tory of Ukraine.
In the Ma³opolska Block, crys tal line Pre cam brian base -ment has not been en coun tered yet. The old est Pre cam brian rocks re corded within the Ma³opolska Block are clayey-muddy and sandy de pos its interbedded with con glom er ates or sandy grav els that show many fea tures of flysch de pos its (e.g., Samsonowicz, 1955; G³owacki & Karnkowski, 1963; Kruglov & Tsypko, 1988; Bu³a, 2000; ¯elaŸniewicz et al.,
2009). These rocks have un der gone strong diagenesis, or slight meta mor phism (anchimetamorphism), and pre vi ously have been con sid ered as Pre cam brian (Riphean and Ven-dian) to early Cam brian in age (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011, and Jachowicz-Zdanowska, 2011b, with ref er ences therein). Now, these de pos its are re garded to be of a late Ediacaran age (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
The stud ies on rock sam ples pre vi ously con sid ered to be of Pre cam brian or early Palaeozoic ages in west ern Ukraine (Kruglov & Tsypko, 1988; Drygant, 2000, with ref er ences therein) per mit ted to ver ify their strati graphic po si tion in some cases (JachowiczZdanowska, 2011a). In ad di tion, these re sults in di cate that fur ther re search on ad di -tional bore holes, es pe cially those which were the ba sis for the strati graphic sub di vi sions, but which were lack ing a suf -fi cient biostratigraphic frame work, is needed.
An other re sult of the pro ject is a sig nif i cant prog ress in the un der stand ing of the Up per Ju ras sic and Lower Cre ta -ceous strata com pared to the for mer con cepts (e.g., Gutow-ski et al., 2005a, b, 2007; Urbaniec et al., 2010). KrajewGutow-ski et al. (2011a) pre sented a new cor re la tion of the Up per Ju -ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous com plex in SE Po land that is based on a de tailed microfacies study. In west ern Ukraine, the microfacies study of co eval de pos its made it pos si ble to dis tin guish fif teen ba sic fa cies types cor re spond ing to a nar row basinal zone, slope plat form, mar ginal plat form, and in -ner plat form (Krajewski et al., 2011b). Sim i larly, the study by Lis and Wysocka (in press) re fined and mod i fied the pre vi ous con cepts on sed i men tary mech a nisms and en vi ron -ments of the Mid dle Mio cene strata (e.g., Kurovets et al., 2004; Dziadzio et al., 2006). Kuberska et al. (2011) pub -lished the first pet ro log i cal data on sand stones from the Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep ba sin. Some key sec tions from the basinal part of the Carpathian Foredeep ba sin in SE Po land and west ern Ukraine were sub jected to de tailed micropalaeontological ex am i na tion (foraminifers and cal -car e ous nannoplankton), which en abled one to cor re late the Mid dle Mio cene de pos its be tween the both ar eas (Garecka & Olszewska, 2011). In gen eral, the new re sults con firmed ear lier con cepts based on these two groups of microfossils and de vel oped in de pend ently in Po land and Ukraine (e.g., Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al., 1997, 2003; Olszewska, 1999; Peryt, 1997, 1999; Peryt et al., 1998). In ad di tion to the basinal part of the Carpathian Foredeep, some sec tions from the mar ginal part of the ba sin were sub ject to de tailed palaeoenvironmental in ter pre ta tion of the strata ad ja cent to evaporites, based on foraminifers and dinoflagellate cysts and car bon and ox y gen iso topes of bulk rock sam ples and in di vid ual foraminifer taxa (Peryt & Peryt, 2009; Peryt & Gedl, 2010; Gedl & Peryt, 2011). In par tic u lar, di ver si fied palynological and foraminiferal as sem blages re corded in strata ex posed in the Kudryntsi sec tion (west ern Ukraine) above the gyp sum in di cated vari able en vi ron men tal con di tions dur ing the late Badenian trans gres sion: re stricted en vi -ron ment dur ing be gin ning of the trans gres sion, and grad ual pas sage into ma rine en vi ron ment dur ing its later stages (Peryt & Peryt, 2009; Gedl & Peryt, 2011). The fora-miniferal as sem blages from the Up per Badenian of the Kudryntsi sec tion con tain Elphidium reginum (d’Orbigny) and Elphidium koberi Tollmann (Gedl & Peryt, 2011). Both
spe cies are com mon for the Sarmatian, and Elphidium reginum (d’Orbigny) is re garded as the in dex spe cies of the biozone in the Lower Sarmatian. The oc cur rence of Elphidium reginum (d’Orbigny) and Elphidium koberi Tollmann in the Up per Badenian of Kudryntsi is, there -fore, re lated to spe cific en vi ron men tal con di tions, which were very sim i lar to those char ac ter is tic of the Sarmatian (Gedl & Peryt, 2011).
PE TRO LEUM OC CUR RENCE,
AND GEN ER A TION, MI GRA TION
AND AC CU MU LA TION PRO CESSES
Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment
Twenty-six oil, gas-con den sate and gas fields within the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep (from 1948), and eleven fields within the Me so zoic base ment of the Ukrai nian part of the Carpa-thian Foredeep (since 1944), have been dis cov ered so far (Kotarba et al., 2011c).
The ma jor pe tro leum res er voir rocks in the Pol ish part of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment are: Mid dle and Up -per De vo nian car bon ates, Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates, Up per Ju ras sic lime stones, Up per Cre ta ceous (Cenomanian) sand stones, and Up per Cre ta ceous (Seno(Cenomanian) sand -stones lo cally in ter ca lated with marls (Karnkowski, 1999; Florek et al., 2006; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). More over, some small hy dro car bon ac cu mu la tions were also dis cov -ered in the Cam brian sand stones and Or do vi cian–Si lu rian strata (Karnkowski, 1999; Kotarba et al., 2011c). The traps in oil and gas de pos its of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base -ment are sealed by ei ther the Mio cene strata alone, or the Mio cene cover and the Up per Cre ta ceous marls. The Car-pathian Overthrust and flysch strata pro vide an ad di tional seal (Kotarba & Jawor, 1993; Kotarba et al., 2011c).
Eleven fields were dis cov ered within the Me so zoic base ment of the Ukrai nian part of the Carpathian Foredeep (Vul et al., 1998a, b; Shcherba et al., 1987; Kurovets et al., 2011; Kotarba et al., 2011c). Three of them are oil fields. The Kokhanivka and Orkhovychi fields are heavy oil ac cu -mu la tions in the Up per Ju ras sic res er voirs and the Lopushna oil field in the south-east ern part of the plat form base ment un der the Carpathian Overthrust is lo cated in the Up per Ju ras sic, Cre ta ceous (Albian–Cenomanian) and Eocene res er voirs. Seven fields con tain con den sate and/or gas in com -bined Me so zoic–Mio cene res er voirs (Kurovets et al., 2011; Kotarba et al., 2011b, c).
In the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep, five pe tro leum source rock ho ri zons in nine gen er a tion and ex pul sion ar eas were iden ti -fied (Fig. 1A): Or do vi cian–Si lu rian rocks (III and V ar eas), Mid dle-Up per De vo nian car bon ates (II and IV ar eas), Lower Car bon if er ous clastics (Culm) (I and VI ar eas), Mid -dle Ju ras sic siliciclastics (VIII area), and Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates (IX area) (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d; Wiê-c³aw et al., 2011, in press, a). The Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rock com plex with Type-II kerogen oc curs in two se- parate ar eas: Busko Zdrój–Rzeszów and Tarnogród–Luba-czów. In the Busko Zdrój–Rzeszów area, the best source
rocks con tain ing about 3 wt% of TOC were found in the Nawsie-1 and Hermanowa-1 wells. Fa vour able source rocks in the Tarnogród–Lubaczów area oc cur only in a nar -row zone in the vi cin ity of Wola Obszañska, where me dian TOC of up to 1.74 wt% was re corded (Wiêc³aw et al., in press, a). The Mid dle and Up per De vo nian car bon ate strata con tain small in ter ca la tions of source rocks of TOC con tent more than 1 wt% and show ing thick nesses of a few centi -metres in the Kraków–Brzesko area, mostly in the vi cin ity of Grobla. The oil-Type II kerogen dom i nates, with lo cal ad mix tures of the gas-prone Type III kerogen (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). The source rocks con tain the gas-prone, Type-III kerogen in the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic fa cies oc cur ring only in the Pol ish part of the study area, mostly be tween Dêbica and Rzeszów, be neath the Carpathian Overthrust (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). Their hy dro car bon po ten tial is gen -er ally low. The Mid dle Ju ras sic strata con tain ing the source rocks ca pa ble of gen er at ing thermogenic hy dro car bons oc cur in the Dêbica–Rzeszów and the Mostys’ka–Horodok ar -eas. Hy dro car bon po ten tial of the gas-prone, Type-III kerogen of dis persed or ganic mat ter is kerogen er ally low. Ad mix -tures of Type-II kerogen oc cur lo cally only (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d; Wiêc³aw et al., 2010). In the Pol ish part of the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep, the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates are usu ally low in or ganic mat ter and only lo -cally show me dium TOC con cen tra tions. In the Ukrai nian part, in the vi cin ity of Mostys’ka and Horodok, the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ate strata con tain oil-prone, Type-II and Type-IIS kerogens fa vour able for thermogenic hy dro car bon gen er a tion (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d; Wiêc³aw et al., 2010). Source rocks of Ju ras sic strata in the Pol ish Outer Carpathians were eval u ated by Golonka et al. (2009).
Us ing com pre hen sive, geo chem i cal meth ods it was pos si ble to ex plain the ge netic re la tion ships be tween dis -persed or ganic mat ter and liq uid (oils and con den sates) and gas eous hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in the Palaeozoic– Me so zoic strata of the Carpathian Foredeep base ment between Kraków and Ivano-Frankivs’k (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d; Kotarba, in press; Kotarba & Koltun, 2011; Wiêc³aw, 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., 2010, 2011, in press, a, b). Both the 1-D and 2-D mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses was car ried out in se quences of twenty-seven wells and along nine cross-sec tions (Kosakowski & Wró-bel; 2011, in press; Kosakowski et al., 2011, in press, b; Wróbel et al., in press). The re sults of such mod el ling en abled for pre cise iden ti fi ca tion of source rocks and de ter -mi na tion of the time of gen er a tion, ex pul sion, -mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion pro cesses.
Be low, some ex am ples of ge netic cor re la tion be tween source rocks and oils, con den sates and nat u ral gases and eval u a tion of pe tro leum pro cesses are given. Oils and nat u -ral gases from the Grobla field were gen er ated from the Type-II kerogen with sig nif i cant com po nent of the Type-III kerogen of the De vo nian source rocks (Kotarba, in press; Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). The gen er a tion of hy dro car bons from the De vo nian source rocks started in the late Car bon if er ous, but the main stage took place dur ing the Mio cene. The ac cu -mu la tion of hy dro car bons in the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ate and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stone res er voirs took place al most ex clu sively in the Mio cene.
Oils and gas from the Tarnów de posit and con den sate from the £¹kta de posit were pro duced prob a bly mainly from the Si lu rian Type-II kerogen (Kotarba, in press; Wiê-c³aw et al., 2011). Hy dro car bon gen er a tion pro cess from the Si lu rian source rocks started in the early Cre ta ceous, al -though the main phase of gen er a tion took place dur ing the Neo gene (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011). The mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in struc tural and strati -graphic traps took place in the Neo gene as well (Wróbel et al., in press).
Oils and gas from the Nosówka de posit were gen er ated from the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian Type-II kerogen (Kotarba, in press; Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). The pe tro leum pro cesses had two sig nif i cant pe ri ods of de vel op ment: the Ju ras sic and the Neo gene. In the north-east ern part of this area, the ana lysed source rocks al ready at tained higher ma tu rity in the Ju ras -sic, while in the south-east ern part their ma tu rity in the main phase of the “oil win dow” was reached at the end of the Neogene. Hy dro car bon gen er a tion took place at the end of the Neo gene (Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Wróbel et al., in press).
The heavy, high-sul phur oils of the Lubaczów, Kokha-nivka and Orkhovychi de pos its were gen er ated from the Type-IIS kerogen de pos ited in Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates (Kosakowski et al., 2011; Wiêc³aw, 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). The Up per Ju ras sic source rocks gen er a tion pro cess took place dur ing the late Ju ras sic (Kosakowski et al., in press, c).
Autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpathian Foredeep
Hy dro car bon (mostly gas, and gas-con den sate, and only lo cally oil) ac cu mu la tions oc cur in the autochthonous Mio cene strata (e.g., Karnkowski, 1999; Boyko et al., 2004; Fedyshyn et al., 2001; Kurovets et al., 2011; Kotarba et al., 2011a) of the outer part of the Carpathian Foredeep. Gas ac -cu mu la tions oc -cur ring in the Mid dle Mio cene strata (Lower and Up per Badenian and Lower Sarmatian) show a clear pat tern and are dis trib uted within three zones ex tend ing close to the mar gin of the Carpathian Overthrust, at the front of the Carpathian orogen, and along the north-east ern limit of the outer Carpathian Foredeep (e.g., Karnkowski, 1999; Krups’kyy, 2001). The larg est gas de pos its oc cur in the Lower Sarmatian strata close to the Carpathian Overthrust (Karnkowski, 1999; Fedyshyn et al., 2001).
There are 101 gas and gas-con den sate de pos its (first dis cov ery in 1945) in the autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Pol ish Carpathian Foredeep, 44 gas and gas-con den sate de pos its, and one oil de posit in the Bilche-Volytsia Unit of the Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep (first dis cov ery in 1920). The con den sates (£êkawica-1, Pilzno-37, Tarnów39 and Tarnów45 wells) and oil (Tarnów47 well) ac cu mu -lated in the lower part of the autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Pol ish Carpathian Foredeep and were gen er ated by or ganic mat ter dis persed in the Mid dle Ju ras sic and Lower Car bon if er ous clastic fa cies (Wiêc³aw, 2011; Kotarba & Koltun, 2006). They mi grated into the Mio cene strata through var i ous faults (Kotarba & Koltun, 2006).
The re sults of sta ble car bon iso tope anal y ses of meth ane, eth ane, pro pane, butanes and pentanes, and sta ble hy
-Fig. 1. (A) Tec tonic sketch-map of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Carpathian Foredeep with lo ca tion of gen er a tion and ex pul sion ar eas from main source rocks: I – Lower and Up per Car bon if er ous, II – Mid dle-Up per De vo nian and Lower Car bon if er ous (?), III – Or do vi cian and Si lu rian, IV – De vo nian, V – Or do vi cian and Si lu rian, VI – Lower Car bon if er ous, VII – Mid dle Ju ras sic, VIII – Up per Ju ras sic, IX – Mid dle Ju ras sic. Ge ol ogy mod i fied af ter Bu³a and Habryn (2011) and source rock ar eas af ter Kotarba et al. (2011c); and (B) sketch map of the cen tral and east ern parts of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep and lo ca -tions of hy dro car bon gen er a tion test ar eas and zones of mi cro bial and thermogenic pro cesses (af ter Kotarba et al., 2011a). Lith. – Lith u a nia
dro gen iso tope anal y ses of meth ane, all in di cate that the gas eous hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated within the autochtho-nous Mio cene strata of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep were mainly gen er ated dur ing mi cro bial proce-sses, and spo rad i cally dur ing low-tem per a ture thermogenic pro cesses (Kotarba, 1998, 2011; Kotarba & Koltun, 2006, 2011). In the Lubaczów de posit, gas filled also a trap in the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates (Kotarba & Koltun, 2006). Ge net i cally, this gas is a typ i cal mi cro bial meth ane, which mi -grated to the Up per Ju ras sic trap from the autochthonous Mio cene strata along a fault zone (Kotarba, 1998). In the Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep, seven fields con tain con -den sate and/or gas and the Orkhovychi de posit con tains oil in com bined Me so zoic–Mio cene res er voirs (Kotarba & Koltun, 2011; Kotarba et al., 2011b). The mi cro bial gases (meth ane, hy dro gen and partly eth ane and pro pane) were gen er ated dur ing mi cro bial pro cesses within the Mio cene strata and then mi grated to the Up per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous (Cenomanian) res er voirs in the Me so zoic base ment, and to the bot tom most Lower Badenian SandyCal car e ous Se ries res er voirs of the traps of the above men -tioned de pos its (Kotarba & Koltun, 2011).
The re sults of or ganic geo chem is try anal y ses en abled for the as sess ment of the dis persed or ganic mat ter (DOM) con tained in the autochthonous Mio cene se quence of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Outer Carpathian Fore-deep (Kotarba, 1998; Kotarba & Koltun, 2006; Kotarba et al., 1998, 2005, 2011a). In the Up per Badenian strata, to tal or ganic car bon (TOC) con tents vary from 0.02 to 1.48 wt% (av er age 0.75 wt%) in the Pol ish Carpathian Foredeep, and from 0.44 to 2.01 wt% (av er age 0.96 wt%) in the Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep. In the Lower Sarmatian strata, the TOC var ies from 0.02 to 3.22 wt% (av er age 0.69 wt%) in the Pol ish Carpathian Foredeep, and from 0.01 to 1.45 wt% (av er age 0.71 wt%) in the Ukrai nian Carpathian Foredeep. This dis persed or ganic mat ter in ma rine Mio cene sed i ments is gas-prone and ter res trial (humic) in or i gin.
In the Pol ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep, high sed i men ta tion rates, to gether with rhyth mic and cy clic de po si -tion of Mio cene clays and sands, as well as the vig or ous gen er a tion of mi cro bial meth ane re sulted in gas pro duced in claystone beds that was ac cu mu lated in the over lay ing sand stones, and capped by the suc ceed ing claystones. The mi gra tion range of the gas was in sig nif i cant. The gas ac cu mu -lated in nu mer ous traps (compactional anticlines sit u ated above base ment up lift, sealed by the Carpathian Overthrust, sealed by faults, strati graphic pinch ing out and strati graphic traps re lated to un con formi ties). The gen er a tion and ac cu -mu la tion of this gas gave rise to the for ma tion of - multi-storey gas fields (Kotarba et al., 2011b). North and along the pres ent edge of the Carpathian Overthrust in Ukraine, the Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries con tains twelve gas and gas-con den sate de pos its, and one oil de posit.
PE TRO LEUM PROSPECTIVES
Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment
Based on the re sults of geo chem i cal anal y ses con ducted for Palaeozoic (Wiêc³aw et al., in press, a, b) and Me so zoic
(Kosakowski et al., in press, a, c) source rocks, oils and gases, and on re sults of 1-D (Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Kosakowski et al., 2011) and 2D (Wróbel et al., in press) mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses, two sep a rate pe tro leum sys tems were es tab -lished: (i) the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block, and (ii) the Pala-eozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and the west ern part of the Kokha-nivka Zone (SE Po land – west ern Ukraine) (Kotarba et al., 2011c). The west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block has a con sid er ably greater pro spec tive for oil and gas ex plo ra tion than the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and the west -ern part of the Kokhanivka Zone (Kotarba et al., 2011c). More over, based on the same sets of geo chem i cal and mod -el ling data and anal y sis of pe tro leum sys tems, nine ar eas were es tab lished where hy dro car bon gen er a tion and ex pul -sion pro cesses pro ceeded at the larg est scale (Kotarba et al., 2011c). Seven gen er a tion and ex pul sion ar eas oc cur in the west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and only two ar eas are pres ent within the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep in south-east ern Po land and west ern Ukraine (Fig. 1A). These ar eas could be a start ing point for strat egy of a fu ture pe tro leum ex plo ra tion. As far as the ge netic type of source rock and ex pul sion po ten tial (Kotarba et al., 2011c) are con -cerned, a greater pro spec tive for oil and gas ex plo ra tion have I and VI (Car bon if er ous) and III and V (Si lu rian and Or do vi cian) ar eas in the west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and VIII (Up per Ju ras sic) can be en coun tered in the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and the west ern part of the Kokhanivka Zone (Fig. 1A). Pe tro leum sys tem in the Pol ish Outer Carpthians was worked out by Leœniak et al. (2010).
Autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpathian Foredeep
Over 90-years-long ex plo ra tion ac tiv ity in the autoch-thonous Mio cene strata of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpa-thian Foredeep was mainly fo cused on its north ern part, along the pres ent edge of the Carpathian Overthrust. Gases ac cu mu lated in this part of the Carpathian Foredeep are mainly of mi cro bial or i gin (Kotarba, 1998, 2011; Kotarba & Koltun, 2011). Oil from one Orkhovychi de posit (Ukraine) and from pe tro leum in flows near Tarnów (Po land) mi grated to the Mio cene strata from the Me so zoic base ment (Wiêc³aw, 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., in press, b). Re cent use of mod -ern, so phis ti cated 3-D seis mic and lith o logic-sedimentolo-gical meth ods en abled one to dis cover sev eral gas fields (Myœliwiec, 2004; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). This long and in tense ex plo ra tion ac tion brought about great ef fects and it seems likely that only few gas fields are wait ing for dis cov -ery in that area.
An other sit u a tion has been en coun tered in the autoch-thonous Mio cene strata south of and be neath the Carpathian Overthrust. The Up per Badenian and Lower Sarmatian strata prob a bly pre vail there as on the north and along the pres ent edge of the Carpathian Overthrust; thus, they can also con tain a sim i lar lithofacies de vel op ment, and have sim i lar quan tity and sim i lar ge netic type of gas-prone
kerogen (Kotarba et al., 2011a). Their thick ness be neath the Carpathian Overthrust ex ceeds 1.5 km. Geo chem i cal stud ies and TTI mod el ling show that the pro cess of lowtem per -a ture thermogenic hy dro c-ar bon gen er -a tion (“oil win dow”) be gan at 2,500 metres (Kotarba, 1998; Kotarba et al., 1998; 2011a). At greater depths, more than 7,500 metres, a hightem per a ture meth ane gen er a tion zone (“gas win dow”) ex -isted within the autochthonous Lower Mio cene ba sin (Ko-tarba et al., 2011a). Data sug gest that in both low- and high- tem per a ture thermogenic zones, con sid er able quan ti ties of gases might have been gen er ated and ac cu mu lated (Fig. 1B). It is, there fore, highly prob a ble that low- and high-tem per a ture thermogenic gas ac cu mu la tions can be found be neath the Outer Carpathians. This, how ever, would need drill ing down to depths of 4 to 11 km.
Ac knowl edge ments
The re search was un der taken as the pro ject No. UKRAINE/ 193/2006 of the Min is try of Sci ence and Higher Ed u ca tion in War -saw car ried out at the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków and the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute in War saw. Sci en tific work was fi nanced from the sci en -tific funds for the years 2007–2010. In ad di tion to the re search ers from the above-men tioned in sti tu tions, sci en tists from the Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy at the War saw Uni ver sity, In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ences of the Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences, In sti tute of Palaeo bi ol -ogy of the Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences, In sti tute of Ge ol -ogy and Geo chem is try of Com bus ti ble Min er als of the Na tional Acad emy of Sci ences of Ukraine in Lviv, and Ivano-Frankivs’k Na tional Technical Uni ver sity of Oil and Gas in IvanoFrankivs’k par tic i -pated in the pro ject. Ge ol o gists from the Re search In sti tute ”Na-ukaNaftoGaz” from Kiev as sisted with con sul ta tions.
Our fore most grat i tude is due to Pro fes sor Maria El¿bieta Or-³owska, Sec re tary of State, and Pro fes sor Krzysztof Kurzyd³ow-ski, for mer Under sec re tary of State, from the Min is try of Sci ence and Higher Ed u ca tion, and Józef Potera, Di rec tor of Pe tro leum Ex plo ra tion of Sanok Branch of the Pol ish Oil and Gas Com pany, for their kind and pa tient sup port of the Pol ish-Ukrai nian pro ject.
Sin cere thanks are due to Pro fes sor Antoni Tajduœ, Rec tor of the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków, Pro -fes sor Jacek Matyszkiewicz, Dean of the Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geophys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion of the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, and Pro fes sor Jerzy Nawrocki, Di rec -tor of the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute in War saw for their sup port.
Par tic u lar grat i tude goes to Pro fes sor Myroslav I. Pavlyuk, Dr. Igor V. Dudok and Dr. Yuryi V. Koltun of the In sti tute of Ge -ol ogy and Geo chem is try of Com bus ti ble Min er als of the Na tional Acad emy of Sci ences of Ukraine. Their as sis tance was de ci sive for field work in the Ukrai nian Carpathian area.
Our spe cial thanks are ex pressed to Pro fes sor Witold Zuchie-wicz, Ed i tor-in-Chief of the Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, and Pro fes sor Jan Golonka for their help with the ed i to -rial work. Thanks are due to all the re view ers of the manu scripts at var i ous stages of prep a ra tion, who de voted time bor rowed from their busy sched ules in or der to crit i cally read the pa pers.
We also thank Pro fes sor John B. Curtis of the Col o rado School of Mines in Golden, Dr. Paul Lillis and Dr. Mark J. Pawle-wicz of the U.S. Geo log i cal Sur vey in Den ver, and Ms. Jolanta Lepiarczyk of the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków for lin guis tic im prove ments, and also to Ms. Joanna Ga-wêda-Skrok, Ms. Maria Fremel, Ms. Wioletta Wiêc³aw, Mr. Se-bas tian Ptak, Mr. Tomasz Kowalski, Mr. Leszek Chudzikiewicz and Mr. Hieronim Zych for tech ni cal ed i to rial work.
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