Drafts From Sociology of Design. Introduction to Discussion

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DRAFTS

FROM

SOCIOLOGY

OF

DESIGN.

INTRODUCTION

T o

DISCuSSION

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d r a f t s

f r o m

s o c i o l o g y

OF

d e s i g n

.

i n t r o d u c t i o n

TO

d i s c u s s i o n

Editors

p a u l in a r ojek

-

a d a m e k

,

g r z e g o r z g a w r o n

KRAKOw, POLAND 2016

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Reviewer:

Professor Małgorzata Bogunia-Borowska Cover design:

Jakub Adamek Managing Editor: Halina Baszak Jaroń ISBN 978-83-65208-55-2

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication or its entirety may be reproduced, transmitted or stored in any m anner that allows repeated use in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, copying, recording or other without the express written permission of copyright owners.

Publisher:

AFM Publishing House 2016 DTP:

Joanna Sroka Print: MK Promo

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FOREWORD

The m o d e rn w orld is an ever m ore “designed”. It is n o t only about everyday objects, packages or b ra n d new car. It tu rn s out th at the design starts to be pres ent also in the p lanning different areas o f everyday life in m o d e rn societies. It is because in the speed o f the m o d e rn w orld alm ost every area o f h u m a n activ ity needs re-designing, re-defining, re-form ing and adjusting it to the changing h u m a n needs.

W h e n Charles Eams, A m erican designer, was asked about the bo u ndaries of design he answered shrewdly: A n d w hat are the boundaries o f problems? Because good design is a verb and n o t only a noun. It is a series of steps w hich helps to define a challenge, look for solutions and ren d er th e m possible. D esign could start by saying th at this is one o f the m ost creative sectors w hich directly and in directly contributes to im proving the quality of life. C o n tem p o rary design and the roles o f designers are increasingly associated w ith the search for solutions to m eet public expectations. Such an approach can be successfully described as

socially responsible design, for the tu rn o f the century XX / XXI it becam e not

only a tim e o f great challenges, b u t also opportunities and social expectations. The m ission of the m o d e rn designer, according to m any researchers, includes in th eir w ork needs o f the end u ser so we can observe the transfer o f its m echa nism s for the social area. C o n tem p o rary design proves th at it does n o t avoid re sponsibility for the im p o rta n t challenges of the future (sustainable design, social

design, environm ental design, universal design), b u t it is also looking for innova

tive and creative solutions.

Therefore it is appropriate to take discussions on the social application o f de sign, especially in the context of post-crisis realities and global processes o f so cial and cultural change. C ulture o f design, w hat Daniel Koh called, is b o th w hat designers are doing and w hat is “aro u n d us” It is sim ultaneously a process, p rac tice m odel and also the activity in the social environm ent.

The following publication is a collection o f texts on the co n tem p o rary m ea n ing of design, the changing in roles o f designers and cultural and social expec tations described in the b ro ad cognitive perspective. A lthough this topic raised in the field o f sociology quite recently,_the com plexity o f the phen o m en o n , its

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manifestations, form s and ways o f preventing provoked the debate on the field. Hence, presented volum e is prepared by the researchers, w hose interests have b een provoked by needs o f sociological inclusion in the debate in the area d o m inated so far by theorists and practitioners from the field o f art and related dis ciplines. Through the publication of this b o o k we w ould like to explore the area associated w ith the use and perception o f design in a b ro ad er social context and try to find the answers for few questions:

• W hat is the role or roles fo r design in m odern society?

• H ow design can be use in solving problems connected with social and cultur al changes?

• W hat are the examples o f the application o f design in processes o f social and cultural change?

• W hat are the boundaries o f socially responsible design?

• H ow to involve society in the process o f socially responsible design?

The debate about defining the m o d e rn design process, the social roles o f de signers and th eir participation in engaging and listening the final recipients at individual and collective level were discussed d u rin g the 12th Conference o f the

European Sociological Association in Prague, (Czech Republic, 25-28 August

2015), w here editors o f this b o o k had the u nique o p p o rtu n ity to chair the ses sion Design in use - the application o f design in global processes o f social and cul

tural change. The discussion initiated du rin g this m eeting provoked us to make

efforts to issue this volum e in order to encourage sociological association to open for a w ider interdisciplinary discussion in this area.

The publication opens w ith the article w ritten by by Liubov Bronzino and El ena Kurmeleva Design as a Socio-Cultural Phenomenon: ‘Epistemic’ Analysis. As they said, m any aspects of h u m a n activity are now being interpreted th ro u g h the p rism o f design as a conceptual fram ework. There is no general theoretical ap proach in the social sciences concerning the concept of design, w hich allows it to be unam biguously interpreted. Consequently, it seems logical th at we should appeal to the concept proposed by B. Latour, w ho has suggested the idea o f u n i versalization o f design and M ichel Foucault w ho proposes th at we can integrate the ‘w ords and things’ (m aterial objects and m eth o d s of th eir narration) into the concept o f discourse. However, on the oth er hand, he constructs a theory, which proposes a sequential change of ‘epistemes, w here the relationship o f w ords and things becom es the ultim ate d eterm in a n t in shaping the character of discourse.

The second chapter Dasein and Design. Life as a Project and Furnishing

a House w ith Using Polish Design, w ritten by Jacek M ianow ski concerns the ap 

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participato-FOREWORD

ry design and metadesign) in the context o f cooperation betw een two e n terpris

es (design - research com pany and one operating on the building materials and home furnishings market). The case study shows results of th eir collaboration. Problem s associated w ith the issue of the use o f dem ocratic m eth o d s o f the de sign are presented from the perspective o f phenom enological philosophy and sociology. The analysis o f dem ocratizing creative practices in the design takes into account its social consequences and w hat social actors th in k o f it.

A n o th er text, Participatory Design and N ew Roles o f Designers: M oje Czecho-

wice-Dziedzice. Projekt działań zachęcających do poznaw ania gminy, w ritten by

Paulina Rojek-A dam ek has taken the issues of social participation and reflec tio n on building a sense o f local identity in the perspective o f the opportunities offered by a m o d e rn approach to design. C o n tem p o rary design and the roles of designers increasingly are associated w ith the search for solutions to m eet public expectations. Such an approach can be successfully described as socially respon sible design. The tu rn o f the century XX/XXI becam e a tim e o f great challenges, b u t also o pportunities and social expectations. The present text o f assum ptions is to achieve three objectives: first - to brin g the idea o f co m m u n ity by reference to the definition o f the concept o f social participation; secondly - to show new approach to design u n d e rsto o d as a tool in solving social problem s in co opera tio n w ith users; thirdly - to show Participatory D esign as an approach to involve in design process.

A continuation o f the subject m atter is the text, w ritten by Olga Glumac,

Lab o f Collaborative Youth, aims at answ ering how the concept o f Lab fo r Col laborative Youth can be established th ro u g h a sustainable com m unity o f practice

(Wenger) to serve as a safe environm ent for individual and collective learning w here young people actively participate in decision-m aking processes. M ore over, the in q u iry is approached th ro u g h a practice o f co-design w hich investi gates how to co-create m ore inclusive learning processes and services with, for and by youngsters in th eir local context. The first set o f the ideas came from existing concepts o f living labs, design labs, co-labs, neighborhood labs and al so enabling platform s - netw orks o f h u m a n and n o n h u m a n stakeholders who play a m eaningful role in co-creation (Dolwick 2009) and in design-after-design (E hn 2008) allowing to have a flexible system in w hich its users can always a d just, even if it was already form ed and it is in use.

A uthor o f the fifth chapter, Grzegorz G aw ron presents the problem of age ing in the perspective of design. Seniors’ social integration is a m ajor challenge in societies w hich values solidarity and respects individual freedoms. C o n d i tions and quality o f daily life depend very m uch on the social and physical envi ro n m e n t w hich we live in. It often plays a m ajor role in facilitating o u r personal

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independence. As a result, the d em an d for the creation o f environm ents, p ro d ucts, technologies and services accessible and useful for “old” is growing. The ar ticle attem pts to present the theoretical and practical objectives o f possible use o f design for determ ine accessibility and social participation of people w ho are getting old.

The next chapter is the text o f M anuela De Vicenzi, The Role o f Shape: Expe

riences and M eanings in the Contemporary City. As M anuela De Vicenzi wrote,

the co n tem p o rary m etropolis seems to be m ostly affected by the p h en o m en a of social disintegration and inequalities (Baum an, 2013; M agnaghi, 2010; Conde, M agalhaes, 2001). The m o d ern ist utopia o f progress, freedom and equality did n o t take place and there are m any examples o f u rb a n peripheries aro u n d the w orld th at rem ind us o f that. Given this context, the focus o f this p ap er will be p u t on Troia s u rb a n project and the Bairro do C ondado’s social housing proj ect in Lisbon, w here b o th cases present the same m o rp hology and project, al th o u g h w ith totally different results. O n one hand, we have the G arden City of

Troia, built and designed for up p er-m iddle class vacationers, while on the other

we have the Bairro do Condado’s n eighbourhood, representing one o f the m ost stigm atised areas o f Lisbon, particularly due to deviant behaviour, crim inality and environm ental degradation. The question th a t im m ediately com es to m ind is: W h y did a project based on the concept of “G arden City” like Troia, th o u g h t to enhance and im prove the inhabitants life quality, n o t w ork in a context like th at o f Bairro do Condado? The au th o r will try to answ er these questions in this article

The com plem ent o f this image is text Approaching Vernacular Design in

a Post-Socialist City. A Real Life Example, w hich refers to concept o f vern ac u 

lar design. As the authors said, it exists in opposition to the established language o f professional m arketing, it disregards official regulation, and often, com m on sense. V ernacular design is characterised by tactical approach - it is created on the spot, as a response to the m o m e n ta ry needs and it freely uses the techniques available at hand. By many, it is seen as an “ugly problem ” - it invades the p u b lic space and defies the rules o f a well p lan n ed u rb a n environm ent. In the same tim e it is an example o f tru ly local aesthetics, a visual language developed o u t side o f the ubiquitous discourse. In the m o d ern ist rhetoric, it is seen as som e thing th a t needs to be elim inated, u p ro o ted and repaired. The o th e r position is taken by those w ho see it as a m anifestation of a genuine local culture, as som e thing th at needs to be u nderstood, a nd to som e extent, protected. The question th at arises, is how to practically approach the vernacular design in rapidly devel oping cities, w hich seek to reestablish th eir own visual identity.

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FOREWORD

The closure o f the volum e is the text I t's Our Version o f Arabic - Connect

ing The Global and the Local Through Design. A uthor - Kristiane M arie Lind

land - takes the view th at p ro d u c t design can influence, express and re-inter- p ret the identity o f b o th product-developers and users o f the products. Likewise, b ran d -id en tity and com pany-identity can also influence the m eaning o f design. W h at then, w h en a custom er requests custom -tailored pro d u cts w ith very dif ferent design-preferences th a n the com pany itself? N ew p ro d u ct developm ent is b o th crucial and risky for developing design identity. In this p aper she address es m eaning m aking and m eaning m akers in custom ized N PD -processes that stretches the limits for n o t just w hat it is technically possible to make, b u t also for own design identity.

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We would like to make a cordially thanks to Mrs. Professor M. Bogunia- -Borowska for review of this publication. All com m ents and professor’ suggestions n ot only helped us to improve present volume, b u t have also becom e a contribu tion to undertake a deeper reflection on the issue. We are aware that the topic of Design in sociology seems to constantly enter into the new areas of knowledge and does not operate in isolation from the context o f sociological discourse. Therefore it seems that would be a huge abandonm ent to treat this publication as the final voice in discussion. Encouraged by the professor’ reviews authors w oud like to de clare that presented issue will have its continuation in subsequent hearings1. We al low ourselves at this point to p ut the fragm ent of review, w hich - in our - opinion - m ight be a reason to look into the content of presented book.

(...) It is a valuable com pendium o f theoretical and practical knowledge

fo r students o f architecture and applied arts, graphic designers, sociolo gists, and urban planners. Both theoreticians and practitioners will fin d a lot o f inspiring information in it. Undoubtedly it is a publication that will aid professionals, when im plem enting their ideas, first and forem ost helping them take on non-standard and non-stereotypical challenges. It should stim ulate the readers to search fo r unique projects and solutions that are fa r fro m obvious as well as to involve other people and create so cial bonds along the way. A ll that w ould be conducive to the development o f a better and friendlier world, securing everyone’s wellbeing.

1 Eg in th e publication of re-definition and description o f professional role o f designers in so ciological perspective, currently being prepared by Paulina Rojek-Adamek (in the publish ing plan for 2017).

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It is book recommended to those who doubt that constructing a better world and a more beautiful space is even possible (...). It is also recom m ended to those who keep searching fo r ways o f a more sustainable design o f the different dom ains o f our social life.

Professor Małgorzata Bogunia-Borowska

Passing this b o o k into the hands o f readers we hope th at it will encourage to look at the problem o f co n tem p o rary m eaning o f design and its role in m o d ern w orld as a p h en o m e n o n th at is n o t lim ited to a single perspective. This dis course showed th at design can successfully respond to dem ographic changes, social or cultural challenges. We therefore hope th at the publication will be a n o ticed voice in a conversation about the dynam ics and changes taking place in the area o f social application o f design.

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DESIGN AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON:

'EPISTEMIC' ANALYSIS

L iu b o v B ro n z in o , Elena K u rm e le v a

People's Friendship U niversity o f Russia, Moscow, Russia

A bstract: the prism the social

interpreted. Consequently, it seems logical that we should appeal to the concept proposed by B. Latour, who has suggested th e idea of universalization o f design and proposes that there are ‘Five advantages o f the concept of design’. A nother prom ising approach for the study o f the concept of design comes from the scholarship o f M ichel Foucault. O n the one hand, Foucault proposes that we can integrate the ‘words and things’ (m aterial objects and m ethods o f their narration) into the concept o f discourse. However, on th e other hand, he constructs a theory, w hich proposes a sequential change o f epistemes, w here the relationship of w ords and things becom es the ultim ate determ inant in shaping the character of discourse.

Following on from these two concepts, some research was conducted to study design as a so cial practice, w hich possesses special com m unicative elements. We investigated the existence o f design in each o f the epistemes described by Foucault - these were the Renaissance, clas sical and m odern. In addition we looked at the features o f design as a sphere o f co-existence, or constituting a space ‘o f words and things.’ These are th e backbone elements in helping to determ ine their relation between m an and nature (i.e. m aterial objects, terrain, etc.). Fou cault’s scheme was further supplem ented by two m ore epistemes in order to have the op portu n ity to reflect on design in the pre-Renaissance period. This kin d o f prototype design stage and th e operation o f the concept of design in th e contem porary postm odern epoch are core concepts th a t Foucault considered as being in the process of formation. For each of the epistemes, key com ponents were identified. These were the specific cultural phenom ena and conceptual schemes, w hich m anifested th e features of functioning design specific to that particular epoch. This approach allows us to identify the specificity of social interactions, as im plem ented and organized by the objects and related cultural practices prevalent in the episteme.

Key w ords: design, B. Latour, M. Foucault, epistemes, ‘words and things’, universalization of design

Increasingly, m any aspects of hum an activity are now being interpreted through of design as a conceptual framework. There is no general theoretical approach in sciences concerning the concept o f design, w hich allows it to be unam biguously

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1. The universalization o f the concept o f design:

establishing the problem

The concept of design carries a diverse and com plex m eaning. It is used in a n u m b e r o f different contexts, and is defined differently d epending on the focus o f the study and the researcher’s paradigm atic preferences. It suggests an alm ost endless connotative interpretation. O n the one hand, w h en we speak of design, we often refer to a p articular sphere o f professional activity associated w ith the transform ation o f h u m a n living space. However, such a tra nsform ation cannot be reduced to only the establishm ent o f com fortable living conditions, or to the creation o f aesthetically significant objects. Naturally, the question arises about w hat features com prise the ‘extra’ dim ension th a t is b ro u g h t about by design in the created environm ent.

C onsidering the consequences o f the ‘linguistic tu rn ’ in the social sciences, w hich includes the perception o f a variety o f p h e n o m en a in th eir symbolic d i m ension, the accentuation o f the symbolic aspect of design also becom es a n e cessity. The im plications of this p articu lar symbolic system m ay only appear and m anifest themselves, in the process of com m unication. Design is also u n derstood as a special form o f com m unicative practice, w hich can be explored th ro u g h the structure o f displayed (or even generated by design) social interac tions. This inevitably leads to an expansion o f the concept o f design, w hich b e com es an alm ost universal concept in the end. The m ost notable th e o ry w hich utilizes the concept of design in this context, is the one proposed by B. Latour (Latour 2009), w ho proclaim ed the need to redesign everything, including as pects o f m o d ern ist science (especially in the social sciences), and operated (and som etim es played) w ith the am biguity of this term.

Latour’s research began on the concept o f design, and spoke o f it as a way to tran sfo rm the local social environm ent, b u t only in the sense o f its total recon struction. H e wrote: ‘I was aware th at corporations had to be reengineered, n a t ural ecosystems reclaimed, th at cities had to be rem odelled and wastelands re developed.’ This ‘rem aking’ in accordance w ith the specific - ‘designer’s’ vision o f individual objects in the environm ent a n d / or the entire environm ent lets you use the Five advantages o f the concept o f ‘design’, w hich Latour describes as fol lows:

1) M odesty - Is cause by design th at does n ot create, b u t re-creates exist ing objects. Latour associates this w ith a ‘p o st-P rom ethean’ concept of the actor. This actor, unlike his m ythical counterpart, does n o t consider the m ere presence o f innovation to be the justification for any catastrophic ef fects;

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DESIGN AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON: 'EPISTEMIC' ANALYSIS

2) A n Attentiveness to Detail - Latour writes: ‘The m odification is so deep that things are no longer ‘m ade’ or ‘fabricated’, b u t rath er carefully ‘designed’, and, if I m ay use the term , precautionarily designed... it is as th o u g h we h ad to im agine P rom etheus stealing fire from heaven in a cautious way!’; 3) The Symbolic Character o f Design - O n the one hand, w h en analyzing the

design o f som e artefact, the task is unquestionably about m eaning, be it symbolic, com m ercial, or otherwise. It constructs design simultaneously, as the object in need o f interpretation, and using it as a w ay o f in terp ret ing things. O n the o ther hand, it reflects the symbolic character o f m o d ern culture and acts as its em bodim ent;

4) To Design is Always to Redesign - This is how Latour form ulates the fourth advantage o f the concept o f design. Its essence is derived by ‘adding’ som e th in g to existing objects, w hich makes th e m better, and: ‘m ore lively, m ore com m ercial, m ore usable, m ore user friendly, m ore acceptable, m ore sus tainable, and so on.’ Design does n ot look like the divine act of creating som ething ‘from nothing,’ it uses w hat is here, w hat exists already, and in this sense it never breaks w ith the past, b u t rath er develops from it. This feature gives rise to its sem antic ambivalence. It cannot be in terp ret ed as an art form, w hich originally focused on the novelty, th o u g h it bears, am ong oth er things, an im p o rtan t aesthetic content. Design acts as the fo cus o f co n tem p o rary p o stm o d e rn culture, a pluralistic, fragm ented one, based on citations and carrying an endless series of connotations;

5) The concept o f design inevitably introduces itself into the realm o f th e oretical study w ith ‘an ethical dim ension,’ although, this can interpreted quite differently from the classical vision o f this dim ension. Latour’s argu m ents can be associated w ith the logic of D ieter Rams, w ho is realizing in practice in w hat is pro d u ced by the com pany Braun. His functional design is w ell-know n, in particular, for his Ten Principles fo r Good Design. Instead o f the traditional ethical dichotom y o f good and evil, Latour offers the o p position o f ‘good and b ad design,’ w hich involves criteria to be used for as sessing the quality o f the environm ent and its objects. These are based on the idea o f im proving the w orld as a place o f existence for m o d e rn man. The outcom e o f Latour’s discussion becom es the infinite expansion o f the ‘coverage’ o f the concept o f design. D esign can be used to replace the concept of ‘nature’ and ‘society’ and ‘culture, as Latour explains: ‘if entire provinces can be redesigned th en the te rm no longer has any lim it’. This approach n o t only makes it impossible to reduce the concept o f design to the professional activity as some k in d o f aesthetic reconstruction o f a p articular environm ent, b u t it also points to a u nique place in the ‘designer’s’ approach. This is now b o u n d to acquire the

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status o f a p articular style o f thinking, endow ed w ith the ability to convert all spheres o f h u m a n life, including the com m unicative aspect. The latter can be in terpreted as the ability to create interaction (the netw ork type, in Latour’s inter pretation) in a p articular social environm ent, tran sfo rm ed by th in k in g as a d e signer. Design is som ething th at has the ability to establish com m unication, and as such, it requires special analysis, w hich clarifies the essence o f relations, oc cu rrin g at each historical stage o f societal development.

2. Design as a m ethodological problem:

the heuristic value o f 'archeology o f know ledge' by Foucault

Belonging to such a com plex phenom ena, w hich determ ines the nature of social relationships, the concept o f design needs a special analytical tool. Latour wrote about the need for the re-design o f social science m ore generally (based on the provisions o f A N T (Latour 2006)), suggesting th a t the ‘m o d ern ist style’ is totally unacceptable for the study of the th e o ry and practice of design. D esign in his interpretation needs a different philosophy w hich was described by P. Sloter- dijk (Sloterdijk 2014) for example.

The idea o f interpreting design, in term s o f sociology and its perception th ro u g h the p rism o f design’s com m unicative aspects - although it is n o t found in Latour’s term inology - has b een actively discussed after the problem atiza- tio n o f history. In particular, this becam e m ore co m m o n after the w ork o f M i chael Foucault. By the 1970s, the discipline o f history, the narrative, descrip tive type, w hich ten d ed to capture the causal relationships betw een objects of cultural heritage and historical events, has undergone a com prehensive critique by M arxism , fem inism , and post-colonialism . Design, and the artifacts w hich were created by design as elements o f culture, and / or its context, while b e c o m ing a subject o f research, did n o t fit well into the classical notions o f the field of study. The history o f design (a discipline, w hich is still in relative infancy and searching for its m ethodological foundations) cannot be built on classical m e th odological models. Cultural history, w hich includes the history o f art, tech n o l ogy and engineering, science, p ro d u c tio n and consum ption, etc., fixes itself in an interdisciplinary field, and from this stan d p o in t focuses on a specific object, w hich needs to be interpreted. Today, it is impossible to th in k o f the history ex cept as in an interdisciplinary way, in particular w h en we consider the paradigm o f cultural history. The proposal to use the te rm Design Studies (M argolin 1995: 4 -1 5 ) becam e handy. It contains the intention to use the two m ost im p o rtan t

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theoretical and m ethodological aspects of m o d e rn science, interdisciplinarity and multiparadigmality.

The cu rrent state o f design studies can be described in term s o f its c o n tra dictions and ambivalence. O n the one hand, there are all the signs of its institu tionalization as a discipline, as various aspects o f design and its concrete m a n ifestations are studied well enough and are reflected in n u m erous publications. You can also select a n u m b e r of studies, the p u rpose o f w hich is to explore d e sign as a universal concept o f a p articular type (Carvalho, Dong, M aton 2009: 483-502) or presenting design as cognitive activities affecting the totality o f so cial relationships (Visser 2009). O n the o th er hand, w h en assessing m o d e rn de sign studies, researchers have discovered th at it contains a significant n u m b er o f anomalies, w hich determ ine the c u rren t m o m e n t as a revolution-w aiting-to- hap p en and see a pressing need for re-conceptualising design research (D orst 2008).

W ith o u t claim ing to have found the ultim ate solution to the problem o f the form ation of a m ethodological base o f design as a universal concept, this arti cle aims to explore the possibility of using the explanatory model, p roposed by Foucault, as an option to study the concept o f design. A second research task for this study is to clarify the design features of a p articular historical period. This is based on Foucault’s ow n approach, w hich involves a description of the func tioning o f social practices (m ental and material), as discourses th a t appear w ith in the context o f one episteme.

The basic principle of Foucault’s m ethodology and the obvious benefit o f his p roposed research m odel for u n d erstan d in g design can be described as, Adae-

quatio rei et intellectus. This can be understo o d , n o t just in the form o f the thesis

o f a correspondence betw een the m aterial w orld and its intellectual in terp reta tion, b u t as a concrete u n ity betw een ‘w ords and things’. In this sense, discur sive practices, as an object o f historical analysis, realize this unity, and discourse analysis in the form in w hich it is un d e rsto o d by Foucault (archaeological m e th od), becom es a m ethodology for th e ir studies.

The concept o f an episteme, w hich is defined by Foucault as a set o f rules of thought, form conditions for the existence o f specific historical form s of culture, the variety o f social practices related to them , and knowledge. These th o u g h t patterns are h id d e n in a continuous stream o f em erging knowledge and the p ro du ctio n o f culture, including tangible and intelligible objects. They can be d e scribed as discursive practices, w hich convey im portance for the study o f d e sign, and represent a u n ity o f the m aterial and intellectual. The study of design, using Foucault’s archeology o f knowledge, perceives design as a discursive p rac tice, and aims at identifying the specific th in k in g - let’s call it designer’s thinking

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- w hich is in itself the condition o f the creation o f cultural objects w hich are b e com ing p a rt o f the design. Foucault explains that: ‘In every culture, betw een the use of w hat could be called collating codes and reflections on the order is clear practice o f the order and its m odes o f being’ (Foucault 1966 : 5). Here, Fou cault aims to explore these orders in the three epistemes: Renaissance, Classical and M odern. The basic m odel of knowledge in the Renaissance is, in Foucault’s term s, likeness or similarity. This was replaced by the classical episteme, asso ciated w ith the rationalism o f 17th and 18th centuries w ith its m ain dichotom y o f identity-difference (for instance, tables and classifications w hich were built based on the rationally selected criteria), and the m o d e rn episteme. The em er gence o f which, Foucault establishes to be at the end o f 19th and early 20th cen tury, is characterized by interpretation and formalization.

As a starting p oint for his historical research, Foucault chooses the late 16th century. However, because the form ation of the conditions and prerequisites for the designer’s thinking begins, in o u r opinion, m uch earlier, there is a necessi ty for a p relim inary stage. Before this, a k in d o f pre-design, em erged from the developm ent o f the p rim a ry cultural experience of m ankind. M o d ern ity in the historical classification, used by Foucault, precedes post-m odernity. The cu r ren t state o f society is w here the M o d ern pe rio d reached its climax and has tr a n sitioned into the Postm odern. This has involved the loss of the category o f the subject as basic elem ents of m o d e rn culture. This is also the m ain signal for the appearance of the po stm o d ern . The operation o f design in the cu rren t era, w here it acquires a universal character, represents the last stage o f its dynam ic developm ent.

Thus, in the ‘archeology of knowledge’ there are im p o rtan t issues co n cern ing the study o f design ideas. First, those im plem ented in Madness and Civiliza

tion: A History o f Insanity in the Age o f Reason (Foucault 1961). This historical

w o rk concentrates on the study o f a p articular p h en o m en o n , w hich manifests itself in two aspects o f discourse; those w hich exists in the form o f ‘things’ and historically h appened events; and those, theoretical ones, presented in a v ari ety o f reflective practices. This is aim ed at im proving o u r u n d ersta n d in g o f the p h e n o m e n o n and the ‘p ro n u n ciatio n o f it.’ A n o th er aspect o f the study, is the idea o f consistently carried o ut in the course o f history (the ideas and events) the change o f epistemes, in w hich in each new episteme an other relationship is form ed betw een ‘w ords and things.’ O n the basis o f this methodology, the study o f design has b een conducted w here design is u n d e rsto o d as a specific step for each stage along a p ath for the developm ent of a culture’s way of relating to the tran sfo rm atio n o f nature.

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3. Design: Epistemological Analysis

3 . 1 .'Proto-design': Preconditions o f 'Designer's Thinking'

Following the logic suggested by Foucault, the study o f design is im plem ent ed in chronological order, ru n n in g from ancient times, w here there were enough artifacts, and m ore importantly, the possibility o f science to know anything about th e m and describe them , to the m o d e rn period. Archaeological analysis reveals the structure of the order o f language and expressions. It also reveals the order of discourse, in Foucault’s term inology. This is sim ilar to the structure of social in teractions. As p a rt of the study o f design, at this stage it is necessary to solve two problem s o f the m ethodological plan; the theoretical, w hich involves identifying the order of discourse, w hich is described by Foucault for study o f the epistemes, b u t has n ot b ee n studied in the ‘pre-epistem e’ times; and the empirical, w hich describes the source selection on the inform ation about the episteme, including its cultural characteristics. These are sufficient to determ ine its basic properties and interpret th e m in term s o f the formative process in the designer’s thinking.

The process o f the form ation of a culture is described in the theoretical lit erature in term s o f two opposite approaches. The M arxist trad itio n places w ork as the m ain d eterm in an t o f the form ation of culture. As elaborated in the works o f M arx and Engels (M arx and Engels M arx 1844) and th e ir followers, the co n cept o f w ork determ ines th at the cultural justification for the actual b irth o f h u m a n sociality is only possible resulting from the need to m eet the essential needs o f prehistoric hum ans. The m om ent, w h en the devices provided to h u m an s by nature alone are no longer enough for the p ro d u ctio n o f vital resources, intelli gence gets ‘tu rn e d on’. It is at this tu rn in g p o in t th at people begin to extract these resources w ith the help o f artificial means. Ultimately, according to M arxism, this is how a person, a culture, and a society are formed.

Critics p o in t to the one-sidedness of M arxist theory, as it associates w ith the reduction of all form s o f h u m a n culture to the need to satisfy the basic m ateri al needs. W ith o u t disputing the im portance of the p h e n o m e n o n o f w o rk in re gards to the form ation o f culture, Lewis M u m ford (M um ford 1967), for exam ple, indicates a high intellectual activity being in h eren t in m an. In this regard, he argues th at h u m a n k in d is the source o f n o t only som e constructive discov eries, b u t dangerous and destructive ones, as well. In the initial stages o f devel opm ent, the w orld was perceived by the p erson at the same tim e as a m aterial and supernatural place. In such circum stances, w ith the predom inance of u n i versalizing and syncretic consciousness, prehistoric m an’s basic goal was not the creation o f m aterial culture and learning about the environm ent, b u t rath er the search for effective m eth o d s o f developm ent o f his ow n consciousness. The p u r

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pose o f which, was to get rid of irrational m om ents, and to achieve ‘victory over chimeras.’

M u m fo rd ’s concept represents the second theoretical approach to develop ing o u r u n d erstan d in g o f the genesis of culture, w ith an em phasis on intellectu al activity of prehistoric m an. Their sociality was the result o f the harm onization o f the relationship betw een natures. This relationship, su rro u n d in g the future H om o sapiens, was at the same tim e the essence o f th e ir own physicality, ratio nality and spirituality o f m an. In interpreting this intention as one of the deter m ining factors of the genesis of culture, design can be seen as a k in d of specific activity aim ed at the creation o f a m aterial culture. In this sense, it can be co n cluded th at the design is an implicit com ponent in a person’s being. As original ly described by M um ford, the artifacts o f various kinds are providing sufficient, in o u r view, research material. These allow us to discuss order in the pre-epistem-

ic era, and thus solve b o th the theoretical and em pirical aspects o f the m e th o d 

ological problems. M um ford explains:

The irrational factors that have sometimes constructively prompted, yet too often distorted, m an’s fu rth e r development became plain at the m o  m en t w hen the form ative elements in Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures united in the great cultural implosion that took place around Fourth M il lenium B.C.: w hat is usually called ‘the rise o f civilization.’ The remarkable fa c t his transformation technically is that it was a result, not o f m echan

ical inventions, but o f radically new type o f social organization: a prod uct o f m yth, magic religion, and the nascent science o f astronomy (M u m 

ford 1967: 11).

The specificity o f the designer’s thinking, w hich in this case acts as a special o rder o f discourse th at determ ines the cultural form ation and n am ed by anal ogy w ith pre-epistem ic era pre-design, represents, in its versatility, the need for h arm o n izatio n im plem ented in myth, magic religion, and the nascent science o f astronomy.

3.2. Renaissance Episteme: Design as the Im ita tio n o f N atu re

Foucauldian archeology describes the Renaissance as a tim e o f the d o m i nance o f discourse, w h en the category o f sim ilarity was the d o m in an t one, and the source o f inspiration for im itation was the nature in w hich the w orld has b een already encrypted and coded. The m ain task o f m a n at this tim e - a man, w ho was already cultural, b u t n o t yet alienated from the nature - was the reading and the disclosure of this transcendental code. This category o f sim ilarity up to the 18th century, was largely d eterm in ed by the approach to the developm ent of reality. Foucault notes th at the principle of sim ilarity manifests itself in the p rin

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ciples of competiveness, analogy, dichotomy, liking and disliking o f elem ents in the m an -m ad e environm ent. Thus, w ater mills can be seen as a continuation of the flow o f rivers, and w ould be an ideal example of m atching the m an -m ad e ar tifact to its environm ent. Thus, nature completely shapes the technological form itself, b u t at the same tim e the technological design harnesses the pow er o f n a ture into an energy source for humanity.

The Renaissance episteme form s the field o f the organic un ity o f all aspects of h u m a n life w ith nature, com bining it w ith anthropocentrism . This is the p rin ci ple w hich explains w h en a p erson becom es a central elem ent o f w hat is h ap p en ing, the creator/ designer o f the w orld w hich they inhabit. Design in this period, therefore, is characterized, on the one hand, by its ability to create objects similar in th eir perfection to the natural world; and, on the o th e r hand, in the realization o f the idea of the greatness of hu m an k in d , w ho is now capable o f creating a ‘sec o n d nature’. The un ity o f these objects m ade by h u m a n hands, and the reflection, relative to nature, as well as the search for principles and laws for the fu rth er or dering o f society and nature, are m anifested in m any w ell-know n discoveries of the Renaissance. The m ost significant discoveries w hich can be defined as being representative o f the m aterial em b o d im en t o f the entire Renaissance era are the great geographical discoveries. These also include the fundam ental discoveries in physics, mechanics, m athem atics, natural science, the invention o f the p rin t ing press, the advances in astronom y (heliocentric system of C opernicus), and the great w orks o f a rt by the m asters w ho founded the basic principles o f E uro p ean a rt we know today.

3.3. Design in the Classical Episteme

W h e n describing the Classical episteme, Foucault explains th at the specif ics o f classical rationality emerge from w ithin the fram ew ork o f the classical episteme. In fact this type o f rationality w ould later becom e perceived as the o n ly foundation for a reasonable developm ent p ath of practical life in the world. The basis of it, in term s of the design approach to society, represents a break w ith nature. The latter ceases to be regarded as an absolute value and begins to be th o u g h t o f in m ore abstract term s. This specifically involves a form o f scien tific thinking, b u t is associated w ith a particular subject in the cognitive process. By the 16th century there was a whole w orld o f artificial n o rm s and m aterial cul ture at people’s disposal, b u t there were also no concrete ideas about how to eval uate its quality, or efficiency. This was essential due to the im plications for one’s ability to anticipate future developments. The form ation of this p articu lar ability m arks the first appearance of design in the tru ly m o d e rn sense, because it adds to its interpretation an essential aspect. Specifically, being able to predict how ef

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fective a project will be before starting it, is essential to u n d erstan d in g the p rac tical aspects o f rationality.

P rocedural rationality and its relationship to the achievem ents form ed rela tively in d ep en d en t from the forces o f nature, in particular, w ith regards to the ‘new ’ integrated environm ent, and the h u m a n being as the m ost ‘fitting’ elem ent in this system. Im plem entation of this new way o f th in k in g is reflected, for ex ample, in the developm ents of engineer John Sm eaton w ho designed the water- wheel (Sm eaton 1759). The essence o f his approach lay in the idea o f achieving m ax im u m effectiveness of the m echanism , w hich later w ould becom e a typical solution for all such design projects. Sm eaton considered the w aterw heel ab stractly; his n u m erous experim ents and trials from the b eginning were focused on a pred eterm in ed result. R ationalism and the association o f it, w ith the de signer’s style of th in k in g m ade the interaction betw een the environm ent and the accum ulation o f new knowledge, a determ inistic one in this case. Clear objec tives were form ed at the initial stages of the projects, anticipating the appearance o f the product, taking into account all its features and lim itations, before a sin gle step h ad b een taken in its construction. A n o th e r example, w hich illustrates the nature of the design at this stage o f developm ent, can be found w ith the tex tile factory founded by Richard Arkwright. He integrated the spinning ring m a chine and the w ater wheel to form n o t just a factory, b u t an entire living space for workers. In this example the p ro d u ctio n process was, for the first time, in his to ry carried out in continuous shifts. Thereby, he had helped to destroy the n a t ural cycle of day and night th at previous generations h ad always k now n and the natural o rder o f things (Fitton 1989). A rkw right’s project required new form s of organization for the life o f the workers. The factory becam e n o t only a place of p ro d uction, b u t also a place o f life, the first m o d e rn industrial city. Rationalism and the cognitive ability to project the objects, and anticipate the results, along w ith the grow ing em ancipation from the natural conditioning, becam e the b a sic com ponents o f design, u n d ersto o d here as a new type o f practice directed to w ards the integrated m anagem ent o f the en v ironm ent and h u m a n beings.

3.4. Design in the M od ern Episteme

As we have m entioned, the Classical episteme form ed in the intellectual and ideological field, and becam e the basis o f rapid change, affecting all aspects o f society. The essential principles o f rationalization eventually p enetrated all branches o f knowledge to form a ‘new ’ and ‘b e tter’ world. It transform ed not o n ly the m aterial world, b u t also the practices o f anticipating p en etratio n into m an himself, w ith the stru ctu rin g and shaping o f typical patterns o f h u m a n behav ior and perception. A n integrated approach to the organization of these new and

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highly com plex processes begins to separate into an area o f special knowledge, and social practices design. The first specialized educational institutions were opened, w hich train ed specialists o f a new type because the institutionalization o f design becam e a reality. Historically, this later perio d refers to the tim e o f the highest developm ent o f the M o d ern episteme, w hich also created the preco n d i tions for its ow n internal crisis and subsequent transform ation.

The apotheosis o f this rationalization in Europe m anifested itself du rin g the 20th century, w ith the creation o f supersystems, represented by the totalitarian regimes o f Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union. Control, was erected at a total level, never before seen. In this regard totalitarian regimes used design as a ra tional th in k in g and integrative m odel for pen etratio n into, and control over all spheres o f h u m a n life. In this sense, design becam e a m echanism o f coercion and propaganda. The m ost striking examples here are ideologically dom inating images o f the ‘Soviet person’ and ‘tru e A ryan’. At the same tim e design practices becom e w idespread in the dem ocracies o f the w estern world, including the US, although the evolution there developed differently. The focus centered on co m plex conviction and latent suggestion, or the form ation o f ideas about the proper w ay of life (the form ation o f public o pinion on various aspects o f social and in d i vidual life) th ro u g h advertising. The entire process o f using goods, from creating a dem and, and the structural and co n su m er qualities of the pro d u ct to its utiliza tio n and repetition of this cycle, was the p ro d u ct o f the design industry.

In the US, w here the rise of a society specifically based on consum erism and m ass consum ption was form ed and becam e widely spread, the rise of a k ind of m onopoly o f design practice was established. This k in d o f social organization affects n ot only the interests o f business, b u t also creates an econom ic o p p o rtu nity for the total control of society. The labor m arket, wages, social insurance, trade unions, infrastructure, developm ent o f territories, education and science, all of these are controlled, n ot only the resources, p ro d u ctio n and prices. A rgu ably, the A m erican approach to the design o f new pro d u cts has forever changed the very nature of the p ro d u ctio n process and the principles o f a functioning so ciety. T hroughout the 20th cen tu ry the concept o f design was based on the o p ti m ization o f p ro d u ctio n costs and stim ulating consum er dem an d th ro u g h adver tising. Now, however, control penetrates even deeper into the essence o f things affecting th eir basic qualities. The in tro d u ctio n o f the principles o f planned ob

solescence (A dam son, G o rd o n 2003) has resulted in the m ost radical way o f de

signing, subordinating the ‘nature’ o f things to m an’s will and thus m arking the final b reak w ith the d eterm in ism o f the natural world. D esign does n o t create a ‘second nature, or culture, now it will becom e the ‘first’ and only one. In fact, one could say th a t design replaces it.

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O n the one hand, the practical success o f the im plem entation o f the p rin ci ples o f design has becom e the key to its expansion, a symbol for a new k in d of thinking. Design, acting as a synonym for rationality, becom es its only visible symbol. Following this, real w orld design actually penetrates the person, dissect ing the p erson into functional elements, and his ability to live gets closely inte grated into things, or the m aterial world. It is doing it b y organizing and teach ing a person to desire the m arketer’s prom ise of a ‘new , or ‘b e tte r’ way of life. O n the oth er hand, design organizes the social w orld according to the principles of m ass consum ption society, and creates a ‘m ass’ th at is m ade up o f ‘o n e-d im en sional’, identical people.

Thus, by the m id-tw entieth century, the era o f ‘high m odernism , the rela tionship betw een society and nature acquired the character o f alienation (for ex ample, H erb ert M arcuse, M ax H orkheim er, Theodor W. A dorno (M arcuse 2013; A dorno, H o rk h eim er 2002)), and, rationality, w hich in the classical episteme d eterm in ed the progressive developm ent o f hum anity, show ed its negative as pects. This created a culture, becom ing at this stage m ore like a total design, gets rid o f nature as its reference p oint and source. Pragm atic efficiency is no longer im p o rtan t because the m eaning o f the pro d u cts and artefacts is actual ly now being generated by themselves. A ccording to Foucault, this organizing principle m arks the tran sitio n tow ards the m o d e rn episteme. In the fram ew ork o f this new episteme, design ultim ately acquires som e universal features by set ting principles for integrating, perception and interaction o f m ass society w ith a m aterial environm ent.

3.5. Designed in Postm odernity

Foucault does n ot om it the p o stm o d e rn episteme, b u t he only outlines it in general, speaking of its difference from the m odern. Postulating on the ‘death o f the subject, Foucault describes the disappearance o f m o d ern ity and the end o f the rationality o f the classical type. This was built on the opposition betw een subject and object, the source and object o f knowledge (Foucault 2014). The transform ation o f the principles o f classical science, which were designed on the basis o f rationality, changes the image o f the w orld, and the foundations o f social organization. Here we can talk about the appearance o f p ostm odern.

It is the very specificity o f p o stm o d e rn th a t represents the final ru p tu re b e tw een the natural and social. Its self-description (for example, in the w orks of Jean Baudrillard (Baudrillard 1983) and Gilles Deleuze and F. G uattari (Deleuze, G uattari 2010)) is conducted th ro u g h the concept o f the sim ulacrum . This con cept explains th at the sim ulacrum is w hat perform s the replacem ent of reality, w ith o u t a reference or the need for one. Baudrillard notes: ‘The sim ulacrum is

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never th a t w hich conceals the tru th - it is the tru th w hich conceals th at there is none. The sim ulacrum is tru e ’ (Baudrillard 1983: 3), referring to the absolute nature o f the sim ulacrum and its independence and self-sufficiency. This classi cal type of rationality, w hich determ ines m any of the problem s of social organi zation, exists in the m ode of interaction, often conflicting w ith nature, gets re placed by paradoxical thinking. Baudrillard represents this p h e n o m e n o n in the form of a M obius strip (Baudrillard 2000), Foucault refers to the fam ous library o f Borges, w hilst U m berto Eco is looking for a ‘new rationality’. This is built on paradoxes and can take into account the u n certain ty o f reality w hich science tries to study: the natural and social (Eco 1989).

Simulative and paradoxical principles em bedded in the foundation o f the so cial organization, allow us to define it in term s of design, as reflected on by La tour. O n the one hand, p o stm o d ern ity exists in the conditions defined by a fi nal b reak w ith the order of nature. This ‘end o f nature’ was proclaim ed together with, and related to, the ‘end o f the social’ (Baudrillard 1978). O n the oth er hand, today the individual is faced w ith extrem e complexities o f self-identity and co m m unication, outlined as the ‘liquid m o d ern ity ’ of B aum an (B aum an 2001) and the ‘society o f individuals’ by N. Elias (Elias 2010). As a result the co m m u n ica tive function o f design activates and its significance increases again. D esign itself uses universal and easily readable signs, form ing a simplified m odel of co m m u nication. D esign products are the m ost hom ogenous and well furnished, and as such, they becom e p a rt o f the public discourse. Design becom es the language of the masses, and by natural extension, the language of the consum er society.

In this context, design’s interpretation as a universal m ode o f interaction b e tw een the individual and the w orld aro u n d h im becom es understandable. D e sign is total and pervasive, as it is predicated on the form ation o f com plex sys tem s to generate artifacts. It defines n ot only the physical, form al qualities o f the products, b u t also social representations and patterns of interaction w ith the products. Playing originally the purely functional role for the developm ent of the environm ent, design gradually takes the d o m in an t position over the in d i vidual, functioning in a closed circle. That is a cycle of design in a mass society, w hich retu rn s in a circle to even m ore design.

Ultimately, design itself becom es m ore and m ore indifferent to objective standards o f living. Design creates sim ulacra th a t are comfortable, elegant and impeccable, in term s o f taste and style. They are so attractive and easy to use, th at the real question o f the usefulness and necessity o f these artifacts does not even arise. The rationality of the artifacts is taken o ut o f th eir brackets, and the result is the red uction o f the things themselves. They have m eaning in and of themselves.

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4. Conclusions

The solution to the problem concerning the interpretation of design in m o d ern society poses a n u m b e r o f difficulties. The m ost significant o f these is the em ergence o f ideas related to design’s universality: its interpretation, on the one hand, as a concept, in the light o f w hich it is possible to study various social p h e nom ena, and on the other, as a p h e n o m e n o n th a t determ ines the various aspects o f society itself. This universality m akes it problem atic. Latour’s original idea has a n u m b e r o f advantages in this regard. There is a valid explanation of the term and the ubiquitous presence w ith the ‘footprints’ o f design in various spheres of public life.

However, adopting Latour’s concept also has som e com plex consequences too, as it leads to the need to develop a n o n -stan d ard methodology, w hich would be b e a r a sim ilar universal character, w ith reflection reaching a fairly high lev el of abstraction, b u t at the same tim e taking into account the specific m anifes tations o f design artifacts. W ith o u t which, theoretical research ultim ately loses its m eaning. As a solution, we w ould suggest th at the m ethodological approach p roposed by M ichel Foucault be adopted. The presented study proves its h eu ris tic value for the study o f design. That is the first conclusion we can draw from the study, the results o f w hich are show n here.

F u rth e r findings w ould be related to a specific analysis o f the design, im plem ented on these p roposed m ethodological grounds. The process o f u niver salization w hich was noted by Latour, appears to be a result o f multiple tra n s form ation o f the designer’s thinking. Specifically, a special type o f relationship betw een m an and the things he created, u n iq u e to each aspect o f the episteme p roposed by Foucault. The tim e o f ‘pre-epistem e’ interactions, th a t is during the p erio d o f existence of m ankind, w hich is called ‘prehistoric, is a place o f h a rm o ny in the relationship o f nature and society. The ru d im en ts o f design thinking can be seen in the creation of myth, m agic religion, and nascent astronomy.

In the Renaissance episteme the interaction betw een m a n a nd the outside w orld were form ed on the basis o f sim ilarity and analogy w hich perm eated the designer’s thinking. This integrated a holistic overall w orld view, supplem ent ed w ith anthropocentrism . The Classical episteme was constructed on the b a sis o f classical rationality, w hich is based on the requirem ent of adequate and accurate reflection o f w hat is available in the natural world, w ith identification o f patterns and determ ination. Rationality is em bodied in the designer’s th in k ing, w hich makes it possible n o t only to predict the integrative effect o f creat ing new artifacts, b u t also brings into the design pragm atism as a criterion for its effectiveness. The resulting M o d ern p erio d carried the basis o f the M odern

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DESIGN AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON; 'EPISTEMIC ANALYSIS

episteme. This pro d u ced the ‘one-dim ensional’ m a n of m ass society and co ntrib u ted to hum anities alienation from nature. In this, design becom es total, involv ing a b re ak away from nature; procedural rationality is closed in on itself and loses its external points of reference. This process culm inates in postm odernity, w here design takes on the properties o f the sim ulacrum .

The evolution o f design, taken th ro u g h the p rism o f the th e o ry o f the episteme, as explained by Foucault, leads to im p o rtan t conclusions about the at tributive nature o f design thinking. As design appeared in the earliest stages of h u m a n developm ent, the latter condition can be noted as reason for the subse qu en t universalization o f design. This sim ultaneously allows us to predict its fur th e r m anifestation in different spheres o f society, and how it becom es one o f the m ost im p o rtan t of o u r social determ inants.

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DASEIN A N D DESIGN. LIFE AS A PROJECT A N D FURNISHING

A HOUSE WITH USING POLISH DESIGN

Jacek M ia n o w s k i

In s titu te o f Philosophy, S ociology and Journalism , Faculty o f Social Sciences

U niversity o f Gdansk, Poland

That which exists m ay be transformed W hat is non-existent has boundless uses

LAO-TSE

A bstract: The article concerns the application o f dem ocratic m ethods o f the design (user

centered design, participatory design and metadesign) in the context o f cooperation between

two enterprises (design - research com pany and one operating on the building materials and hom e furnishings market). The case study shows results of th e ir collaboration. Problems as sociated w ith the issue o f the use o f dem ocratic m ethods of the design are presented from the perspective of phenom enological philosophy and sociology. The analysis o f democratizing creative practices in the design takes into account its social consequences and w hat social actors th in k o f it. The example o f two enterprises cooperation shows th a t the use o f design m ethodologies focused on the user, interactive design and the use dem ocratic practices of improvisation, modification and evolution allowed to create furniture custom ized to the end - users.

Key w ords: Heidegger, Dasein, design, creative practices o f design

1. Introduction

A ccording to John Dewey th in k in g and th o u g h t we can consider in some typical ways in w hich th ey are employed. First, in the b ro ad er context, th in k ing signifies everything th at is in our head. Second, th in k in g refers to m atters w hich we can not see, smell, hear or touch. Third, th o u g h t is a kind o f belief that is resting on some basis, that is, real or supposed knowledge going beyond what

is directly present (1910: 4). Forth and in th eir best sense, th o u g h t and thinking

Drafts From Sociology of Design. Introduction to Discussion

DRAFTS

FROM

SOCIOLOGY

OF

DESIGN.

INTRODUCTION

T o

DISCuSSION

d r a f t s

f r o m

s o c i o l o g y

OF

d e s i g n

.

i n t r o d u c t i o n

TO

d i s c u s s i o n

Editors

-

,

KRAKOw, POLAND 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD

DESIGN AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON:

'EPISTEMIC' ANALYSIS

L iu b o v B ro n z in o , Elena K u rm e le v a

1. The universalization o f the concept o f design:

establishing the problem

2. Design as a m ethodological problem:

the heuristic value o f 'archeology o f know ledge' by Foucault

3. Design: Epistemological Analysis

4. Conclusions

DASEIN A N D DESIGN. LIFE AS A PROJECT A N D FURNISHING

A HOUSE WITH USING POLISH DESIGN

Jacek M ia n o w s k i

1. Introduction