The Cultural Background of Folk Tales

Julian Krzyżanowski

The Cultural Background of Folk

Tales

Literary Studies in Poland 8, 15-28

J u lia n K rz y ż a n o w sk i

The Cultural Background

o f F olk Tales

T h e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l stu d ies o n th e fo lk tale, a tte m p ts a t o u tlin in g its h isto ry o r a t least e x p la in in g its specific fe a tu re s, have a tta c h e d g reat significance to th o se elem e n ts w hich p ro d u c e im p ressio n s o f the o ld o r even very o ld tim es. E arly stu d e n ts o f th e tale fro m a b o u t th e m id -1 9 th c e n tu ry trie d to u n c o v e r in it relics o f p rim ev al beliefs as well as elem en ts o f m y th o lo g y , a n d w h a t is m o re, they even c o n sid e re d the tale to be p ro d u c t o f o ld m y th s w hich survived in e n v iro n m e n ts o f d ifferen t c u ltu re s. A n th ro p o lo g is ts ex p lain ed som e c o m p o n e n ts o f it by refe rrin g to beliefs a n d c u sto m s o f the p rin ji- tive p eo p les a n d th a t is w hy c e rta in stu d ie s o n the tale used such term s as to te m , ta b o o , ex o g am y etc. A rc h a e o lo g ists, o n the o th e r h a n d , lin k ed glass m o u n ta in s w ith the existence o f o ld fo rtified settle­ m en ts a n d ra m p a r ts ; stu d e n ts o f a n c ie n t legal system s a c c e n tu ate d such m a tte rs as k in d s o f p u n is h m e n t m eted o u t to the crim in a l c h a ra c te rs : in fairy -tale s they w ere c o n d e m n e d t" the stak e, m u tila tio n by h a rro w s o r te a rin g a p a rt by ho rses. By m eans o f a n th ro p o lo g ic , arc h a e o lo g ic a n d e th n o g ra p h ic d a ta o n e tried to a n sw er such in tri­ gu in g q u e stio n s as w here a n d w hen th e tale (k n o w n to d a y as the folk tale) w as b o rn , ho w o ld it is a n d w h at its o rig in s w ere. T hese q u e stio n s will be d ea lt w ith in th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r b u t if we wi^h to ta k e a possibly ob jec tiv e sta n d in resp ect o f a n u m b e r o f div erg en t a tte m p ts a t ex p la in in g them it is n ecessary to have a clo ser lo o k at the re la tio n sh ip b etw een th e fo lk tale a n d its c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d as well as a t the fu n c tio n o f th o se e lem en ts o f th e tale w hich are d istin c tly d ifferen t fro m th a t b a c k g ro u n d as so m e th in g d iv erg en t a n d u n d o u b te d ly o ld er.

16 Julian K rzy ża n o w sk i

T h e fo lk tale, alive in a m ilieu in w hich it h a s a fu n c tio n a n a lo g ic a l to th a t o f w ritte n lite ra tu re in o th e r social s tr a ta re c re a ­ tes by its very n a tu re in a c e rta in w ay elem e n ts o f sp iritu a l, social a n d m a te ria l c u ltu re s o f its e n v iro n m e n t. T h u s, in re g io n s w ith rich tra d itio n s o f c h u rc h life we co m e a c ro ss n u m e ro u s relig io u s legends a n d ta le s; it c a n be o b se rv e d in th e m a te ria ls co llected by O s k a r K o lb e rg a n d his successors in th e C ra c o w reg io n . In P o m e ra n ia the especially rich in this resp ect a re a is th e reg io n o f C h m ie ln o , a n d in Silesia —P iek ary . In m o u n ta in a re a s w here b rig a n d s plied th e ir tra d e fo r ce n tu rie s —in P o d h a le , P o d k a rp a c ie , Silesian B eskid o r in th e Ś w ięto k rzy sk ie M ts —th e w o rld o f b rig a n d ish a d v e n tu re s c ro p s o u t in diverse fo rm s w hile in the m in in g reg io n s, o ld a n d new o n e s, o n e is o fte n stru c k by specific cycles o f tales re la te d to th e d o m in a n t fo rm o f m a k in g a living there.

In th e K a s h u b ia n a re a , w here u n til recently b la c k a rm s o f a w indm ill p lac ed o n a high f o u n d a tio n w ere a fixed item o f th e la n d s c a p e —we co m e a c ro ss in n u m e ra b le tales a b o u t m illin g ; in o th e r p a rts o f the la n d th e devil is c a u g h t in a vise b u t h e re h e is p laced o n a m illsto n e a n d su b jected to m illing. In te re stin g are the v a ria tio n s o f the K a s h u b ia n “ B e lfa g o r,” in w hich th e c u rin g o f a p o s ­ sessed w o m a n w as re p la c e d w ith the fixing o f a b ro k e n d o w n m ill. U n d o u b te d ly , the tre m e n d o u s p o p u la rity o f the “T h re e S p in n e rs ” tale (A T 501*) in the C a s h u b ia n a re a , w hich in o th e r p a rts o f P o la n d o c ­ cu rs very rarely , c a n be a c c o u n te d fo r by th e local c o n d itio n , m a n u ­ fa c tu rin g o f linen, y a rn a n d c lo th in th a t region.

N o t all o f these elem en ts are eq u ally lastin g , as ev id en ced clearly by social p h e n o m e n a h a ra ssin g th e ru ra l life in th e p a st a n d no w p u sh ed in to o b liv io n . In tales re c o rd e d ca. 1870 in Silesia by L u cja n M alin o w sk i a n d in th e P o d k a rp a c ie tales som e tw en ty years o ld e r we co m e ac ro ss n u m e ro u s referen ces to th e lo n g -te rm m ilita ry service. H e a te r o f h e ll’s k e ttle (A T 475) especially a d d s fuel to fire the c a u ld ro n in w hich his officers a re frie d ; in the Sp irit in B lue L ig h t (A T 562), in a v a ria n t fro m B o ch n ia, the h e ro o rd e rs a g e n iu s to flog h ig h e r ra n k s, a n d in th e tale a b o u t the re su rre c tio n o f the “T re a c h e ro u s W ife” (A T 612) a v ersio n o f a so ld ier to a severe n o n -c o m m issio n e d officer o r an officer b eco m es an im p o rta n t fa c to r. T h ese elem e n ts d is a p p e a r en tirely fro m v a ria n ts to ld by y o u n g e r

* A ll ab b rev ia tio n s refer to the A rne —T h o m p so n sy stem a tics o f folk ta les. See also K r z y ż a n o w s k ie e x p la n a tio n to be fo u n d o n pp. 1 4 4 — 148 o f this v o lu m e .

The B ack grou n d of h oik Tides 17

sto ry -te lle rs, w ho h ad never been in service fo r such long perio d s. T h e sam e is tru e w ith referen ce to serfd o m , very m uch alive in th o se te rrito rie s w h ere th a t in s titu tio n existed. In a tale a b o u t “ G ifts o f the N o r th W in d " (A T 563), o r ra th e r in its v a ria n ts, the re c ip ie n t o f gifts loses m agic o b je c ts a n d reco v ers them later, b u t the o ld e r v ersio n s e n d w ith the h ero sp e n d in g his gold to buy him self o u t o f serfd o m . In a tale a b o u t “A H u s b a n d P ersecu ted becau se o f his B eau tifu l W ife” (A T 465A ) in th e o ld e st P olish v a ria n ts the p e rs e c u to r a p p e a rs in the p e rso n o f th e la n d lo rd h elp ed by a villai- n eo u s stew ard . F ro m new er v a ria n ts the se rfd o m b a c k g ro u n d has c o m p le te ly d isa p p e a re d . Sim ilarly, in A . G lin s k i’s text o r in the Bielo- ru ssia n v a ria n ts o f D ivision o f a P rize (A T 1610) the scene is set at a m a n o r w here the m a ste r c o m m a n d s h a id u ks a n d h as the rig h t to o rd e r flogging b u t in its new er fo rm s th e settin g is the ro y al c o u rt b ec au se serfd o m h as a lre a d y been fo rg o tte n . P a rtic u la rly in terestin g fro m th is p o in t o f view is an alleg o ric al tale a b o u t a “ B ridge to the O th e r W o rld ” (A T 471). T h e h ero jo u rn e y in g a c ro ss the b ey o n d m eets w ith a series o f stra n g e d e v e lo p m e n ts a n d he can g rasp th eir sense o n ly w hen in heav en o r a fte r his re tu rn to the e a rth . T he alleg o rical im ages p re se n t diverse k in d s o f ru ra l sin n ers, we have a c areless p rie st o r a la n d lo rd w ho c h e a ts the p e a sa n ts a t the d is tri­ b u tio n o f th e la n d . T h e c h a ra c te ristic th in g , how ever, is the absence o f a n y m a rk e d social a c c e n ts; in a re la te d p lo t o f “T h re e H airs from D ev il's B e a rd ” (A T 461) a p p e a rs o n ly o n ce an evil ste w ard c o n d e m ­ ned to to rtu re s in hell. C o n se q u e n tly , re v e rb e ra tio n s o f social re la ­ tio n s a re so p o o r in o u r folk tales th a t they a re h a rd ly d iscer­ nible, h isto ry in its im p e rso n a l b u t gen erally felt fo rm has n o t been reflected here.

A p a rtia l e x p la n a tio n o f this p h e n o m e n o n co m es fro m stu d y in g the q u a n tita tiv e ly rich c a te g o ry o f tales b a sed o n beliefs re g a rd e d to be a specially sig n ifican t d o m a in since they fo rm an o b v io u s a n d c le a r link b etw een the folk tale a n d the system o f beliefs a n d view s in h e re n t to the ru ra l m ilieu. In these tales we e n c o u n te r p le n ty o f d e m o n s b o th fa v o u ra b le a n d h o stile to m an , hags an d w itches, lam ias o f b o th sexes, n ig h tm a re s, w ild w o m en , dw arfs, w a te r-a n d -c lo u d sp irits. T h ey e n te r in to p e rm a n e n t c o n ta c t w ith m an , m a k e his life easie r o r m o re difficult, d e p e n d in g o n his ab ility to a d o p t an a p p r o p r ia te a ttitu d e to w a rd s them .

T h e d istin c tiv e fe a tu re o f the e n tire p a n d e m o n iu m o f folk tales is

18 Julian K r zy ż a n o w s k i

th a t th e sam e p ro p e rtie s a re a scrib ed to d ifferen t c re a tu re s in d ifferen t regions. It is p o ssib le to see, a lth o u g h n o t w ith o u t d if­ ficulties, th a t a tale a b o u t “T h e P rin ce s in th e S h r o u d ” (A T 307), lib e ra te d fro m the spell by a so ld ier h id in g in th e c h o ir stalls, the a lta r o r the p u lp it, h as sim ilar v a ria n ts a b o u t g h o stly m a so n s, w ho clim b a pile o f coffins to re a c h th e d a rin g m a n w a tc h in g th e ir ex p lo its (P o lish T 307*), o r the c h a ra c te ristic C ra c o w v ersio n s in w h ich h a g s try to flush a b o y fro m a b ig b o w l u n d e r th e c h u rc h ceilin g becau se, a fte r all, th e sets o f im ages o f lam ias, sp ecters a n d b lo o d su ck in g w itches are so close to o n e a n o th e r th a t th ey m ay get co n fu sed . B u t th e sto ry is d ifferen t w h en we h av e ta le s a b o u t c h a n ­ gelings. In th o se a re a s th a t a re fa m ilia r w ith th e n o tio n o f evil dw arflings (krasni^ta) — K a sh u b ia , P o m e ra n ia , S ilesia a n d G re a t P o ­ l a n d —a n d w here the d w a rtn n g s a re re la te d to m a n y div erse ev en ts, we co m e a c ro ss a very c o m m o n tale a b o u t a c h an g elin g , w hich c a n be reco g n ized by c e rta in specific fe a tu re s. W h e n a m o th e r w a n ts to get h e r o w n ch ild b a c k she b e a ts th e fo u n d lin g a n d th e n the dw arflings ta k e th e c h a n g e lin g aw ay a n d re tu rn th e h u m a n b a b y . B ut th e re a re v ast a re as o f P o la n d w h ere th e c o n c e p t o f d w arflin g s d o es n o t exist a n d th e ir fu n c tio n is fulfilled th ere by o th e r d e m o n s, especially w ild w o m en to w h o m o n e a ttr ib u te s lo t o f o th e r fe a tu re s as well.

T h e m o tifs discu ssed so fa r a p p e a r as beliefs o r as tales b a se d o n th e m ; a c o m m o n ly k n o w n tale a b o u t “ D e v il’s M id w ife ” (P o lish T 504) b e a rs o n ly a sto ry -lik e c h a ra c te r. A t a n in v ita tio n fro m a to a d a p o o r girl goes to th e u n d e rw o rld as a m idw ife o f a d e m o n ic c re a tu re . B efore re tu rn in g she is given a prize, a h a n d fu l o f ru b b ish , w hich she b rin g s to th e w o rld in all o r in p a r t o n ly to see th a t th e seem ing ru b b ish is go ld . A t tim es a ta le h a s a sig n ifican t ep ilo g u e, p a rtic u la rly o fte n in th e K a s h u b ia n are a . A girl w h o in sp ite o f p ro h ib itio n s o r by a c c id e n t ru b b e d h e r eye w ith a b a b y ’s b a th w a te r perceived w ith th is eye a d e m o n ic c re a tu re a t a m a rk e t. W h e n a sk ed w hich eye it is, she p o in ts to it a n d im m e d ia te ly th e eye is go n e. In th e K a s h u b ia n a re a th is d e m o n ic c re a tu re is a n evil d w arflin g

(krasnie); in o th e r places it is a m isch iev o u s sp irit (clo u d m an ), else­

w h e re —ju s t a devil. O n ce a g a in , in th e fra m e w o rk o f a n id en tical n a rra tiv e schem e, in th e id e n tic a l verbal c o m p o sitio n d ifferen t c o n ­ te n ts a p p e a r d e p e n d in g o n th e c h a ra c te r o f beliefs fa m ilia r in th e a re a a given v ersio n co m es fro m .

The B a c k g ro u n d o f Folk T ales 19 T h e sam e c a n b e said a b o u t a n a n e c d o te a b o u t a “ W a te r s p irit” (P o lish T 4060). A p e a sa n t is lying in a m b u s h to c a tc h a tre sp asser in a m e a d o w a n d su d d en ly h e sees a kelpie ( w odnik) bu sy w ith m a k in g in a m o o n lig h t a p a ir o f shoes fo r him self. H e w allops th e sp irit w ith a stick. T h e stu p id d e m o n th in k s th a t th e b e a tin g com es fro m th e m o o n a n d w ith a s h o u t “ Y o u sh o u ld ra th e r shine th a n b e a t! ” he th ro w s h im se lf in to th e w a te r. T h e kelpie, h o w ever, is n o t a fixed item h e re ; in m o st o f o th e r fa m ilia r v a ria n ts th e fu n c tio n is ta k e n o v e r by o th e r w a te r-a n d -c lo u d spirits, o r a t tim es, ju s t by a devil.

In h u m o ro u s sto rie s a b o u t a silly m o n ste r a n d a s m a rt m a n —such like the flushing o u t o f the m ill devil by a G y p sy the B ear C a tc h e r (P o lish T 957, cf. A T 957), th e squ eezin g o f th e devil in a vise (A T 650 a n d A T 1159), the c h a sin g aw ay o f a devil c a u g h t by an o ld h ag in a b a s t lo o p etc. —th e re a re n o t o n ly d e m o n ic figures, the w a te r sp irit o r the devil, b u t also , as in th e la st tw o p lo ts, ju s t a b ear, o n e th a t h a s th e gift o f speech, a c o m m o n p ro p e rty o f a n im a ls in fables. O n ce ag a in we o b serv e h e re the p h e n o m e n o n m e n tio n e d above. W h e n th e s tru c tu ra l p a tte r n o f a given p lo t is n o t c h a n g e d a t all o r p a rtia lly o n ly , the b e lie f s tra tu m is ch a n g e a b le, th e d em o n ic p a rtn e r o f m a n b e a rs all k in d s o f n am es, th e c o n s ta n t elem en t is o n ly his fu n c tio n in the p lo t a n d its p a rtic ip a tio n in th e a c tio n . T h a t case deserves even m o re a tte n tio n b eca u se the b e lie f s tra tu m m ay d isa p p e a r a n d very o fte n it d o es so in th e life o f a social g ro u p , b u t in g en eral it is alw ays so m e th in g m o re d u ra b le th a n social system p h e n o ­ m e n a a n d h isto ric a l in s titu tio n s. A g ra n d s o n a t th e e n d o f the 19th c e n tu ry w as a to ta l stra n g e r to th e ex p erien ce o f his g ra n d fa th e r, w ho w as a se rf a n d served in th e a rm y fo r seven o r tw elve y ears, b u t th e system o f beliefs in existence o f w a te r-a n d -c lo u d sp irits, kelpies o r h ellh ag s w as still c o m m o n to b o th o f th em .

T his is n o t an exclusive fe a tu re o f o u r fo lk lo re . M e n tio n s have b ee n m a d e ea rlie r a b o u t th e legend in w hich G o d (Jesus C h rist, St. P eter) re w a rd s a h o sp ita b le p o o r w o m a n w hile p u n ish in g h er greedy n e ig h b o u r. T h e tale is k n o w n fro m C h in a , w here the sam e ev en t, i.e. m u ltip lic a tio n o f lin en in th e h a n d s o f th e h o sp ita b le w o m a n a n d w a te r c a rry in g by th e u n h o s p ita b le o n e a re a sc rib e d to g o d F o (i.e. B u d d h a ); in a re la te d fab le by P h e d ra , g o in g b a c k to th e early years o f o u r era, th e g o d b e a rs th e n a m e o f M e rc u riu s

20 Julian K rzy ża n o w sk i

cast a special light o n the n a tu re o f the tale m o tifs a n d th e ir fu n ctio n in plots. C o n se q u e n tly , the m a tte r calls fo r a m o re d e ta ile d d isc u s­ sio n ..

In the fa b u la r m o tif we ca n see clearly tw o a sp e c ts: reific a n d verbal, c o n te n tu a l a n d fo rm al. T h e c o n te n t o f a m o tif is an event kno w n to the n a r ra to r, a situ a tio n th a t h a p p e n e d o r h a p p e n s, a cu sto m co m p re h e n sib le to him a n d his listeners, som e belief, a view fa m ilia r to all. a social a rra n g e m e n t. M isc h ief w ro u g h t by a village tric k ste r, c le rk 's fra u d s, a ju s t verdict by a ru ler, in te rv e n tio n o f a s u p e rn a tu ra l being, the w ro n g fo llow ing fro m the system o f slavery o r serfd o m , etc. etc.. b u ild the c o n te n t asp ects o f the m o tifs. T h e c o n te n t ac q u ire s a ce rta in fo rm a l asp ect a n d its ex p ressio n is a v erb al a rra n g e m e n t, easy to re m e m b e r an d to re p e a t, a sym bol c o m p o se d o f im ages a n d w ords. R e la tio n sh ip betw een these tw o asp ects is q u ite u n u su a l, nam ely, the fo rm a l o n e is m o re la stin g th a n the reific; an event passes by. a social system v anishes, a b elief dies o u t o r is u p ro o te d by o th e rs while the im ag e-w o rd sym bol, p a rtic u la rly w hen given an in v a riab le fo rm u la , a verse fo rm , lasts a n d survives o v e r a m u ch lo n g er p erio d o f tim e.

A p p ly in g the fo rm u la o f the m o tif s tru c tu re M = [a + b), in w hich the c o n s ta n t fa c to r is the first m em b er c o n ta in in g th e s to ry ’s m o tiv atio n w hile the o th e r is m u ltifo rm e d a n d decisive fo r th e life o f the p lo t, we can say th a t in the fu rth e r d ev e lo p m e n t o f the p lo t this in v aria b le elem ent ia) m ay u n d e rg o tra n s fo rm a tio n s , re d u c tio n o r m ay even v anish a n d yet the m o tif c o n tin u e s to exist fo r so m e tim e. A significant illu stra tio n o f this pro cess is the h isto ry o f a tale a b o u t a “T re a su re U n ra v elled by D o g s” (P olish T 691), k n o w n in v a ria n ts te rrito ria lly q u ite d ista n t from o n e a n o th e r, a n d re c o rd e d in Slovinia (W est K a sh u b ia ) a n d n e a r W adow ice. In b o th v a ria n ts a m an w itnesses the b u ry in g o f a tre a su re , he o v e rh e a rs th e m agic fo rm u la w hich says th a t the m on ey c a n o n ly be co llected by so m eo n e w ho will use a p lo u g h pu lled by fo u r b la c k co ck s (a m o n g Slo- vinians) o r by six black d o g s (W adow ice), the w itness c a rrie s o u t the a p p ro p ria te o p e ra tio n a n d ta k e s aw ay the tre a su re tro v e. N o n e o f the q u o te d v a ria n ts ex p lain s w hy the m agic fo rm u la so u n d s stra n g e, w hy the p lo u g h m ust be p ulled by b ird s o r d o g s, b lack ones, to b o o t. A n e x p la n a tio n can be fo u n d in the classical d o m a in o f tales a b o u t e n c h a n te d tre a s u re s —in the b rig a n d fo lk lo re o f the

The B ackgrou n d of f o lk Tides 21

T a tr a M ts. A lth o u g h an a u th e n tic v a ria n t o f T 691 from th at region is n o t av ailab le we k n o w its p o etic re p ro d u c tio n in a Z a k o p a n e tale to ld in verse fo rm by M aciej S zukiew icz. T h ere, the co n d itio n fo r u n c o v e rin g the tre a su re is to “p lo u g h it o u t w ith seven co lts from o n e m a re b o rn o n the sam e d a y a n d h av in g the sam e c o lo u r and size.” A so lu tio n is fo u n d by a y o u n g sh e p h e rd w ho m ak es a m in ia ­ tu re p lo u g h fro m th e d w a rf m o u n ta in pine, a tta c h e s seven chickens to it a n d th u s collects the m o n ey . In all lik e lih o o d it is the initial v ersio n d isto rte d in later versions o f the p lo t. T h e p rim e m otif, a p u zzle difficult to solve, p assed in to o b liv io n b u t the p lo t survived b ecau se the puzzle w as rep lac ed w ith an idea, illegitim ate, to be sure, b u t a ttra c tiv e in its u n iq u en ess, a n idea b ro u g h t in fro m the second p a rt o f the m o tif, fro m the very so lu tio n . A n d finally, in place o f in g en u ity th ere is a fa c to r c o m m o n to all fa iry -ta le s —g ood luck, a c c id e n tal o v e rh e a rin g o f a m agic fo rm u la .

O n e sh o u ld a d d th a t the p e rm u ta tio n o f the m o tif is not excep tio n a l a m o n g lan g u ag e cre a tio n s. In th a t d o m a in the fo rm al aspect m a n y a tim e lasts o u t the c o n te n t, also in the field o f tra d itio n a l p h e n o m e n a . T h is is p ro v ed by som e p ro v e rb s, w hich at least are n o th in g b u t im ag e-w o rd sy m b o ls o f c e rta in ev en ts an d c ircu late till th e p resen t a lth o u g h the e v en t has been lo n g fo rg o tte n . So we say “T h e so a p deal o f Z a b ło c k i” a lth o u g h we do n o t know w ho Z a b ło c k i w as a n d w h a t w as his b u sin ess c o n c e rn in g so ap . A n d in cases such as “ H e ju m p e d o u t like a ffilip' fro m a p a tc h o f h e m p ” o n ly a c o m p a ra tiv e exegesis e x p lain s th a t ffilip' m ean s a h are. O r still a n o th e r o n e “T h e w o rd h as been u tte re d a n d the m are is at the fe n c e .” O nly the discovery o f a b ro k e n link betw een the p ro v e rb a n d a fo rg o tte n a n e c d o te can a c c o u n t fo r the reific sense o f the given sym bol. T h e sam e goes fo r v a rio u s sw ear-w o rd s. T h e fo rm u las u sed n o w a d a y s m e a n t so m eth in g in the p ast b u t w ith the passing o f tim e th eir initial sense to ta lly e v a p o ra te d w hile a set o f w o rd s has su rv iv ed useful as a m ean s o f ex p ressin g stro n g b u t vague e m o tio n s, as a sign o f a sto n ish m e n t as well as d isc o n te n t, p ain o r jo y . R a th e r m ild expletives such as “ B urn him six tim e s !” ' “ Pal go sześć” ) o r “ G iv e him to the h a n g m a n ” i " D a j go k a tu ” ) m ay serve as exam ples o f th is c ateg o ry . B orn in to r tu r e c h a m b e rs they are alive to d ay , a lth o u g h in stitu tio n s th a t gave them b irth b elo n g to the past. We c o u ld c o n tin u e a lo n g th a t line a n d using the m a te ria l from the

22 Julian K r zy ża n o w s k i

h isto ry o f w o rd s p ro v e h o w m a n y live ex p ressio n s a re th e re in every la n g u ag e even th o u g h th e ir literal values hav e fa d e d aw ay b ecau se th e ir reific asp ect is b u rie d d eep in the past.

F ro m these re m a rk s o n the n a tu re o f m o tif im p o r ta n t co n se q u e n c e s follow as re g a rd s the u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e essence o f the p lo t. If we call a set o f m o tifs a p lo t th en th e fo rm e r d e sc rip tio n m u st be m ad e p recise: the p lo t is a set o f m o tifs in w hich the fo rm a l asp ect d o m in a te s th e c o n te n t to such a n e x te n t th a t a t tim es it fully m ask s the d isa p p e a ra n c e o f the la tte r, so m u c h so th a t the p lo t c a n n o t be p o ssib ly a sc rib ed to a n y given lo c a tio n , lin k ed w ith an y specific c u ltu ra l a re a since real fe a tu re s o f th a t a re a h av e been to ta lly o b lite ra te d .

B efore d ra w in g final co n c lu sio n s fro m such a sta te m e n t o n e m u st p ose a q u e stio n : w h a t help s p lo ts a n d m o tifs to survive a n d w h e th e r in d eed th e ir links to specific c u ltu ra l m ilieux h av e b een ra d ic a lly b ro k e n ? E ven a p rio ri o n e c a n give a n egative a n sw er since ev ery d ay experience in d ic ate s th a t c e rta in ev en ts are re p e a te d , th a t th is o r th a t s itu a tio n is to be fo u n d to d a y as it c o u ld be fo u n d y ears b e fo re in the life o f an in d iv id u a l; th a t these situ a tio n s w ere also k n o w n to o th e r in d iv id u a ls c e n tu rie s ago as all k in d s o f h isto ric a l d o c u m e n ts p ro v e. A classical ex am p le h ere is the a lre a d y d iscu ssed E g y p tia n a n e c d o te re la te d by W ężyk, w hich re c reates the p lo t o f “ A c h ik a r.” [...]

[The a u th o r recalls here a n a rra tiv e by a P olish tra v e lle r W ład y sław W ężyk, w ho re c o rd e d in 1839 in E gypt the A T 922A tale as a real ev en t. T h en he q u o te s fro m c o n te m p o ra ry p ress re p o rts som e o th e r n a rra tiv e s, e.g. A T 939 a n d A T 1275.]

O n e co u ld q u o te a d o zen o r so o f sim ilar ex am p les, o r even several scores o f th em , a n d yet all o f them w o u ld b elo n g to the sam e c a te g o ry o f c rim in al, terrify in g o r co m ical rep etitiv e ev en ts. E very law yer c o n d u c tin g an in v e stig atio n k n o w s to w h a t an e x te n t ce rta in s itu a tio n a l ste re o ty p es a c c o m p a n y c e rta in c rim e s; every re a d e r o f police re p o rts in p ress will n o tic e h o w c e rta in s ta n d a rd trick s w o rk w hen city slicks c o n n aiv e ru ra l v isito rs a n d h o w these “ d e a ls ” p ro d u c e the sam e effects all the tim e, be it the selling o f “ T s a r ’s d ia m o n d s ” o r p re te n d in g to be an im p o rta n t p e rso n , a “c o n s u l,” o r o th e r sim ilar tricks. D o es it h a p p e n so b ecau se every case d ev elo p s here sp o n ta n e o u sly a n d in d e p e n d e n tly o r d o es im ita tio n p lay a c o n s i­

The B a ck g ro u n d o f Folk Tales 23 d e ra b le role here, reg ard less w h e th e r in d u ced by listen in g to stories, re a d in g a b o u t it o r w h at have y o u ? It is im p o ssib le to tell. It is sufficient to n o tice th a t c e rta in , highly ch a rg e d w ith d y n am ism life situ a tio n s re p e a t them selves o v e r c e n tu rie s in diverse social g ro u p s a n d th a t they m ak e a fa c tu a l e q u iv a le n t o f tale m otifs, w hich give such s itu a tio n s ti-'' r j n o f a n im a g e-w o rd sym bol. T h e sam e goes fo r n u m e ro u s b elie f tales, in c lu d in g relig io u s ones. R ead in g c a ta lo g u e s o f m iracles o r series o f sto ries a b o u t te m p ta tio n s e x p e rie n ­ ced by m o n k s a n d n u n s, be it in T e b a id a o r a m o n g resid en ts o f the 14th- a n d 15 th -cen tu ry m o n a ste rie s, we c a n see som e m o n o to n y , an o v e rh e lm in g p a rt o f th e m iracles are p e rfo rm e d precisely ac c o rd in g to o n e a n d th e sam e p a t t e r n : te m p te rs a p p e a r a lw ay s a t th e sam e tim e, in th e sam e fo rm a n d w ith sim ilar p ro p o sa ls.

A n d w h at co n c lu sio n s can be d ra w n fro m these c o n s id e ra tio n s? S o m e tim e ago, so m ew h ere a s itu a tio n o c c u rre d finding its reflection in a tale m o tif a n d every n o w a n d th e n it c o u ld re p e a t itself a n d even re c u rr p erio d ic ally . S o m eo n e w as a victim o f a trick o r a tric k s te r: a so ld ier o r an im m ig ra n t d ied fro m th e h a n d s o f th e ir close relativ es o r m e t su ch re lativ es in a dive w here they h a d n o t ex p ected to be a t a ll; so m ew h ere a “ m ira c le ” o c c u rre d , a p a ra ly tic w as m a d e h e a lth y a g a in , o r a p e rso n c o n sid e re d d ead w as b ro u g h t to life; so m ew h ere a n d so m etim e an in d iv id u a l w ith a specific p sy ch o lo g ical stru c tu re w as su b je cte d to te m p ta tio n s, h ad c o n ta c ts w ith the devil, p a id fo r this v o lu n ta ry to rtu re s o r w as accu sed o f c astin g spells, w as c o n d e m n e d to th e stak e. O w in g to such a n d sim ilar situ a tio n s tale m o tifs d e v elo p ed a n d grew p o p u la r th u s le ad in g to th e fo rm a tio n o f o rig in s o f tale p lo ts.

B u t d o es it e m b ra c e all o f th e m ? C e rta in ly n o t. A m o n g the g ro u p s in to w hich th e e n tire m a te ria l o f fo lk tales c a n be d ivided th e re are tw o, w hich c a n n o t be a c c o u n te d fo r by life situ a tio n s: the a n im a l fables a n d , a b o v e all, the fairy -tales. T h e o re tic ally this difficulty ca n be o v erco m e, even w ith ease. L et us su p p o se th a t the tale a b o u t “ U rv a s i,” a w inged wife ru n n in g aw ay fro m h er h u sb a n d , a p p e a rs in a m ilieu w here th e m o tif o f p o ssessin g w ings is as c o m m o n as to d a y ’s m o tif o f flying by p la n e , o r th e fab le a b o u t a sn ak e o r a fox tu rn s u p in a g ro u p o f h u m a n s in w hich a ta lk in g a n im a l is as n a tu ra l a n d c o m p re h e n sib le as the ta lk in g b o x k n o w n by us as th e ra d io set. T h is su p p o sitio n stem s d ire ctly fro m th e c h a ra c te r

24 Julian K rzy ża n o w sk i

o f the folk tale, basis o f w hich is c o m m o n n e ss, a b ility o f m ig ra tio n a n d life in h u m a n e n v iro n m e n ts a t tim es very d is ta n t in tim e a n d place.

T h e tale a b o u t the “ M o n ste r B rid e g ro o m ” (A T 4 2 5 A ) in o u r P olish c irc u m sta n c es strik es u s w ith e x o tism fo llo w in g b o th fro m the very situ a tio n a n d fro m lack o f m o tiv a tio n fo r fo rces d ecid in g a b o u t th e co u rse o f ev en ts. B ut if we ta k e a lo o k a t its o ld e st v a ria n t, the fa m o u s A p u le iu s fa b u la o f th e 2 n d c e n tu ry A .D ., th e exotic elem en ts d isa p p e a r. T h e h u sb a n d -m o n s te r is A m o r w h o se d i­ vine p o w e r en ab les a n d fac ilitates the p e re g rin a tio n s a n d search in g s o r q u ests o f his w ife; the source o f difficulties P sy ch e m eets o n h er w ay is the an g e r o f a n o th e r d eity —o ffen d ed J u n o . T h e p rin cess in ta k e n in h e r q u e st to H ad es, w hich to th e re a d e r o f the “ G o ld e n A ss” w as m o re vivid a n d k n o w n m o re precisely th a n H ell is fo r to d a y ’s re a d in g p u b lic. P syche, a fte r h a v in g fo u n d h e r lo st h u s b a n d , settles in th e resid en ce o f go d s w inning e te rn a l y o u th a n d im m o rta l­ ity by d rin k in g th e p o tio n given h er by H ebe. A lto g e th e r, a c h a rm in g tale reveals itself to us to d a y as a set o f fo rm a l m o tifs, se p a ra te d fro m life, d ev o id o f reific co n te n ts. W h en tra n s fe rre d in to a m ilieu w here we find it fo r the first tim e, th e tale ch a n g e s, its m o tifs swell w ith ju ices o f re a lity a n d the fa iry la n d w o n d e rfu ln e ss so fa n ­ tastic a n d c o n v e n tio n a l a p p e a rs as real, d eriv in g fro m a n e n tire system o f beliefs fo reig n to us now b u t a t th a t tim e q u ite n o rm a l a n d c o m m o n if n o t ju s t p la in . In th is w ay we a rriv e a t a h o m e la n d o f a given p lo t, a t a m ilieu in w hich it seem s to be a perfectly n o rm a l p ro d u c t, a t least n o rm a l to the sam e deg ree to w h ich this ca n be o b se rv e d in sim ilar w o rk s fro m th e tim es o f L a fo n ta in e , reflecting th e classical c u ltu re o f th e L o u is X IV th p e rio d . W e k n o w A p u le iu s ’ tale n o t o n ly fro m his lite ra r y ’ v ersion b u t also fro m fo lk tra d itio n o f d ifferen t c o u n trie s a n d th u s we a ssu m e th e ex isten ce o f th a t tra d itio n also in th e h o m e la n d o f a gifted A fric a n w riter. C a n we c o n sid e r o n this g ro u n d N o r th A frica th e b irth p la c e o f th e tale a b o u t A m o r a n d P syche, o r w as th a t re g io n o n ly a m o re fa v o u ra b le p lace th a n o u rs fo r d e v e lo p m e n t a n d a c c lim a tiz a tio n ?

Even if we go b a c k fifteen h u n d re d years b e fo re A p u le iu s, we shall face th e sam e q u e stio n s a n d d o u b ts . T h ey a re p ro v id e d by the fa m o u s tale a b o u t “T w o B ro th e rs ” fo u n d in a n E g y p tia n p a p y ru s o f th e m id -1 3 th c e n tu ry B .C . [...]

The B ackgrou n d o f t a l k T alcs 25 T h e E g y p tia n tale is w oven fro m m o tifs alive even to d a y ; we h ave th e re an a c c u sa tio n o f an in n o c e n t y o u n g m a n by a lech ero u s w o m a n c h a rg in g w ith a n a tte m p t a t h e r v irtu e —a n d th is re m in d s us o f the b iblical J o s e p h ; th a n a cow gives a w a rn in g to th e accused — as in th e tale a b o u t “T h e S te p d a u g h te r a n d a B u llo c k ” (Polish T 511 = A T ); a signal a b o u t b r o th e r ’s d e a th ; the ruffled liquid (A T 300), a n d finally, th e a d v e n tu re s o f th e h u sb a n d re b o rn as an an im a l a n d a tree to ta k e revenge o n th e tre a c h e ro u s wife 'A T 590A = P o lish T 568) —all th ese b eing b o th c u ltu ra l a n d m agic m otifs. W ere th e la tte r m o tifs an in teg ral c o m p o n e n t o f relig io u s beliefs o f E g y p tia n s th ree a n d a h a lf th o u s a n d y ears a g o ? E g y p to lo g y c a n n o t p ro v id e a sure an sw er yet th e re is no d o u b t th a t in th o se tim es they w ere m u ch m o re n a tu ra l th a n they a re fo r us to d a y , the m o re so th a t th e e ld e r b ro th e r, A n u p , b e a rs th e n a m e o f a w ell-k n o w n deity.

S u m m in g u p , we c a n d e te rm in e several issues very significant in te rm s o f the c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d o f the tale b u t c o n sid e ra b ly differe n t fro m th e c o m m o n views in th is resp ect. It tu rn e d o u t th a t th e o n ly lastin g elem en t o f the tale is the p lo t a n d a seq u ep ce o f ev e n ts a n d n o t beliefs o r o th e r fa c to rs ju stify in g such a sequence. A d v e n tu re s o f A p u le iu s’ Psyche o r o f A n u p fro m th e E g y p tian tale re p e a t them selves, c o n tin u e to last till the p re se n t tim e as a d v e n tu re s o f an a n o n y m o u s p rin cess o r an a n o n y m o u s y o u th so it is im p o s­ sible to figure o u t th a t the fo rm e r in “G o ld e n A ss” w as u n d e r care o f h er d iv in e h u s b a n d w hile the la tte r, ju d g in g by his o w n n am e, w as div in e by n a tu re o f his o rig in s. T h e b e lie f a n d re lig io n e lem en ts have d isa p p e a re d co m p letely a n d th eir d isa p p e a re n c e ex p lain s the p re ­ viously stressed fact th a t in the tale o f to d a y fa n ta sy co m es w ith o u t a n y ju stific a tio n . It also b eco m es c le a r in m a n y in sta n ces the belief fa c to rs a re a v ariab le d e p e n d in g o n a n e n v iro n m e n t fro m w hich the given ta le o rig in a te s. T h e b elief fa c to rs a re n o t as la stin g as they seem . E q u a lly fragile a re the c u ltu ra l a n d so cial fa c to rs ; a q u ick look on serfd o m o r lo n g -term m ilita ry service p ro v e d th a t w ith in the sp an o f o n e o r tw o g e n e ra tio n s th e m e m o ry o f o u td a te d in stitu tio n s fades aw ay.

C a n it, th erefo re, be su rm ised th a t in the fo lk tale survived at least resid u es o f a n c ie n t in stitu tio n s, c u sto m s a n d beliefs th a t we reco v e r to d a y in life o f p rim itiv e p e o p le s? A p a p e r o n this issue by a H u n g a ria n sc h o la r A . S olym ossy raises som e serio u s d o u b ts. Its

26 Julian K r zy ża n o w s k i

title is The P re-logical Thought a n d M ira cu lo u s E lem en ts in F olk Tales a n d it m a in ta in s th a t till n o w the ta le show s a sizab le a d m ix tu re o f p rim o rd ia l th in k in g —the. p re-lo g ical a n d p re -m y th o lo g ic a l, th a t is. H e re b e lo n g such m o tifs as th e fo llo w in g : 1) th e b le e d in g o f a k n ife o r o f a b o d y o f w a te r sig n allin g a m isfo rtu n e (d e a th ) o f a p e rs o n far aw ay, w hich is to reflect a view a b o u t th e m ag ic re la tio n s h ip b etw een a n o b je c t a n d its o w n e r; 2) m agic m e a n in g o f a n a m e the k n o w led g e o f w hich b rin g s its o w n e r in to p o sse ssio n o f o th e rs ; 3) u n u s u a l lo o k s o f th e h e ro in A m o r a n d P sy c h e o r r a th e r in th o se v ersio n s o f it in w hich a m y ste rio u s p e rso n a p p e a rs a s a n a n i­ m a l; 4) lim ita tio n s o n m agic p o w e r w hich re su lts, e.g. in s to p p in g a ch ase o r p u rs u it in a specific m a rk e d s p o t; 5) re in c a rn a tio n o f m a n in d ifferen t fo rm s b a se d o n a b elief th a t “e te rn a l life lin k e d w ith c o n tin u o u s tra n s fo rm a tio n o f fo rm is th e d e stin y a n d fa te o f m a n .”

T h e re is no d o u b t th a t th ese beliefs a re a rc h a ic in d e e d b u t o n e can d o u b t w h e th e r age o f th ese beliefs is a solid b a sis fo r c o n c lu sio n s a b o u t th e o rig in s a n d age o f fo lk tales in w h ich we co m e acro ss th e m even to d a y . It seem s to m e th a t it is n o t so. I b a se m y d o u b ts o n o b s e rv a tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e specific fe a tu re s o f tales A n th ro p o lo g is ts a n d e th n o lo g ists, w ho d o n o t a lw a y s k n o w exactly these featu res, are easily p ro n e to tw o in te rre la te d e rro rs . T h e first o n e is b a sed o n a view th a t th e tale fixed in its s tru c tu re , c o n s o lid a te d a n d pre se rv e d in resid u es c u ltu ra l p h e n o m e n a w hich u se d to be a n o rm ' w herever th e tale w as b o rn a n d to d a y e ith e r d o n o t a p p e a r a t all o r o n ly in th e e n v iro n m e n t in w hich th e ta le is still alive. S tefan Szulc, th e a u th o r o f a n in te re stin g stu d y o n P rze ­

ż y t k i w baśniach ( R elics in Tales) w hile d iscu ssin g The Escape

(A T 313A ), a tale in w hich a y o u n g m a n re tu rn s h o m e w ith a d a u g h ­ te r o f a so rcere r, m a in ta in s th a t “ if we rem o v e th e fa n ta s tic e lem en t we will o b ta in a tru e p ic tu re o f w ife-sn a tch in g a m o n g the p rim itiv e s” ; elsew here we find tra c e s o f p o ly g a m y o r incest. H o w e v e r, h o w can o n e be so sure th a t th e fo lk tale reflected n o rm a l a n d n o t u n iq u e p h e n o m e n a , especially since th e la tte r o n e s a p p e a l w ith th e ir u n iq u e n e ss to th e im a g in a tio n o f th e a u th o r a n d his a u d ie n c e ? A fte r all the p rin cess in M ic e F urcoat (A T 51 OB) w as a n d is in te re stin g b e c au se she is a n o rm a lly v irtu o u s d a u g h te r o f a n a b n o rm a lly v icious fa th e r. A n d secondly, we c a n n o t hav e th e c e rta in ty th a t th e m o tif, w ith its

The B a c k g ro u n d o f Folk Tales 27 eq u iv a le n ts in beliefs a n d c u sto m s o f p rim itiv e p eo p les, is a n in­ teg ral c o m p o n e n t o f a tale a n d th u s th e tale is to b e re g a rd e d as a p ro d u c t o f som e p rim itiv e c u ltu re .

A classical ex am p le h ere is R obber M a d ey (A T 756B), in w hich the m o st effective m o tifs in clu d e th e o v e rn ig h t stay o f a trav eller in a c h alet o w n e d by a m a n -e a te r b a n d it. It ’w o u ld be a b s u rd to su rm ise th a t such a tale o rig in a te d a m o n g c a n n ib a ls, b ecau se, in the first p lace, we k n o w th a t it o rig in a te d in 15th c e n tu ry in F ra n c e , th a t m e a n s in a c o u n try in w hich c a n n ib a lism w as n o n -e x iste n t; a t least at th a t tim e, secondly, we k n o w also th a t th e given m o tif, ty p ical in som e a reas to d a y , d id n o t e n te r th e o rig in a l c o m p o sitio n . T h u s we co m e acro ss th e seco n d e rro r in th in k in g a b o u t c u ltu ra l relics in th e tale. It is b ased o n m issing th e fact th a t o v e r the cen tu ries- -lo n g life th e tale u n d e rw e n t div erse tr a n s f o r m a tio n s a n d a c q u ire d v a rio u s elem en ts w hich w ere to p ic a l in resp ectiv e e n v iro n m e n ts it w en t th ro u g h d u rin g its w ay. T h e stu d e n t o f The E sca p e, h e a rin g in it voices o f d is ta n t ce n tu rie s, fo rg e ts th a t raptus puellae w as in d eed a n u n u su a l ev en t yet q u ite c o m m o n o v e r th e w h o le o f E u ro p e u n til th e 18th c e n tu ry a n d th a t th e given tale c o u ld h av e tra c e s o f som e ev e n ts n o t fro m the times, o f R o m u lu s a n d R e m u s b u t fro m m u ch la te r p erio d s.

T h is view c a n be s u p p o rte d n o t o n ly by th e o re tic b u t p ra c tic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s. T he first o f these c o n sid e ra tio n s is th e u n c o n v in cin g v agueness o f studies such as th o se q u o te d ab o v e, a n d h ere we ca n a d d as well a n o ld e r stu d y F olklore as an H istorical Science (1908), a sizable b o o k by a n o te d E n g lish e th n o lo g ist G . L. G o m m e ; the seco n d is p ro v id e d by an aly ses ju stify in g sk ep ticism . A s an exam ple, let m e in d icate a m e tic u lo u s p a p e r by a P olish sc h o la r S tan islaw C iszew ski o n The Tale about M id a s ’ Ears (1899).

T h is p lo t, p o p u la riz e d by O v id , is k n o w n in P o la n d o n ly fro m a lite ra ry v ersion by L u c ja n S iem ienski. It d eals w ith a k in g w ith d o n k e y ’s e ars w ho w as a sh a m e d o f his h a n d ic a p a n d killed all the b a rb e rs k n o w in g his secret. O nly o n e y o u n g m a n escapes d e a th by sw earin g h e w o u ld keep it to him self. U n a b le to h o ld the secret, he w h isp ers it in to a ho le in th e g ro u n d a n d a b u sh b lo o m s u p w a rd s a n d th e n a pipe fro m the b u s h ’s b ra n c h d eclares th e ro y al secret to all a n d su n d ry . T h e k in g seeing the m iracle gives u p his in te n tio n to kill th e b a rb e r. W e find th is sto ry in th e R o m a n p o e t a n d in m an y

28 Julian K rzy ż a n o w sk i

p re se n t-d a y v a ria n ts fro m E ast a n d W est. But th ere is also a n o th e r version, c o m m o n like the o th e r o n e, a m o n g the B alcan p e o p les a n d it is fa m iliar to M o n g o lia n trib e s: they link the k in g a n d th e b a rb e r w ith a special b lo o d re la tio n sh ip b ecau se th e y o u th offers th e cruel ru le r a pie w ith a n a d m ix tu re o f his m o th e r ’s m ilk a n d th u s h a s the ch a n c e to escap e the p lm ish m e n t. T o C iszew ski th is m o tif seem s to be o rig in a l p rim itiv e o n e, o ld e r th a n th a t o f g en ero sity o f M id a s in O v id ’s p o em . W h y ? “T h e p sy ch o lo g ical value a n d its in d isp e n sa b ility in the o rig in a l stru c tu ra l d e sig n ” is a subjective a n d a rb itra r y idea o f th e s c h o la r; he h im self stresses th a t the v a ria n ts o n th e b lo o d re la tio n sh ip are fo u n d o n ly in the a re a o f M o slem c u ltu re w here fo ster fam ily ties are an o ld a n d resp e c te d in s titu tio n . O bjectively fro m facts g a th e re d by C iszew ski, it is p o ssib le to d ra w th e c o n c lu sio n th a t the tale b eing alive in the M o slem c u ltu ra l a re a a b s o rb e d as its n a tu ra l ju stific a tio n the expressive im age o f c u sto m s a n d th u s they en rich ed it w ith its o w n o rig in a l s tru c tu re . T h a t new elem en t a p p e a le d b e tte r to feelings th a n the ru le r’s g en ero sity , ev id en tly alien to sim ­ plistic m ilieux:

In co n seq u en ce , the c o m m o n view s o n the sense o f c u ltu ra l relics in tales are n o t so . m u ch scientific h y p o th e se s b u t a rb itra ry su p p o sitio n s. It w o u ld be po ssib le to d ra w fro m th em c o rre c t c o n ­ c lu sio n s if we co m e to k n o w the h isto ry o f every p lo t th a t c o n ­ tain s alleged o r g en u in e relics.