А С 1 A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O O Z I E N S I S F O L I A L I T T E R A R I A 29, 1 9 90 J e r z y J u r n i e w i c z R I T U A L S A N D T H E I R M E A N I N G IN L A R K I N ’S P 0 E 1 R Y L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m d e a l i n g w i t h L a r k i n ’s p o e t r y will in mo s t c a s e s a r r i v e at s u c h k e y - w o r d s as ’i l l u s i o n a n d d i s i l l u s i o n -m e n t ’ , ’p e s s i m i s m ’ , ’s a d n e s s ’ , ’f a t a l i s m ’ . Critics w o u l d q u o -te L a r k i n ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t ’d e p r i v a t i o n is f o r m e w h a t daffodils w e r e for W o r d s w o r t h ’ 1 , a n d n o t e th a t L a r k i n ’s f a v o u r i t e s u b j e c t s a r e f a i l u r e a n d w e a k n e s s . T h e y w o u l d p o i n t to t h e n o s t a l g i c , o r e v e n m e l a n c h o l i c , m o o d of m o a t of L a r k i n ’s v e r s e , n o t i c e 2 th e a b u n d a n c e of n e g a t i v e s , a n d f i n a l l y p r e s e n t L a r k i n a s a p o e t of d i s e n c h a n t m e n t , as a s t o i c a l a g n o s t i c " 5 , w h o f i r m l y , if h e r o i c a l l y , r e f u s e s to be ’t a k e n i n ’ b y arty i d e a s , b e l i e f s or p e r s p e c t i v e s that o f f e r c o n s o l a t i o n . L a r k i n ’s p o e t i c s t a n c e is e x a c t l y to r e j e c t a l l c o n s o l a t o r y s y s t e m s as i l l u s i o n s a n d to f a c e the h u m a n c o n d i t i o n as it r e a l l y is: m i s e r a b l e , d i s s a t i s f y -ing, f u t i l e , s i n c e - in h i s o w n w o r d s - ' l i fe l o o k s i n s i g n i f i c a n t b e s i d e d e a t h ’ . In t h i s c o n t e x t , L a r k i n , o n e o f th e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y m i n d e d p o e t s , m a y l o o k l i k e a n i h i l i s t5 o b s e s s i -v e l y d i s c r e d i t i n g a l m o s t al l a c c e p t e d v a l u e s . L o v e b e c o m e s in h i s p o e t r y a s o u r c e of d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s , a n d w h e n i t s s e x u a l 1 Ph. L a r k i n , R e q u i r e d W r i t i n g , L o n d o n 1 9 83 , p. 47. Ch. R i c k s , Th e W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s , " P h o e n i x " 19 7 3 , No. 1 1 - 1 2 , p. 8-9. ^ A . T h w a i t e , The P o e t r y of P h i l i p L a r k i n , " P h o e n i x " , p. 9. 4 R i c k s , p p . c i t . , p. 9. 5 S e e A. R. J о n e s, A N o t e o n T r a n s a t l a n t i c C u l t u r e , " P h o e n i x “ , p. 143.
7 2 _ _ _ _ J
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Karniewie* _ __ _____ e l e m e n t e n t e r s , it m a y e v e n b e c o m e r e p u l s i v e (as in " D r y P o -i n t " ) . F r i e n d s h i p is a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h at l i f e i m p o s e s o n us, a m a t t e r of c o i n c i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n ou r d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e . C h i l d h o o d , w h e n l o o k e d at m o r e c l p s e l y , is b u t b o r e d o m ( “C o m -in g" , "1 R e m e m b e r , I R e m e m b e r " ) ; p r o c r e a t i o n is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n ’h a n d i n g m i s e r y to m a n ’ ( "Th is b e the V e r s e " ) . A r t m a y be m e r e d e l u s i o n ( " R e a s o n s fo r A t t e h d a n c e " ) . F r e e w i l l d o e s no t e x i s t ( " D o c k e r y an d S o n " ) . T r u t h is o n l y a m a t t e r of the degree to w h i c h w e a r e d e l u d e d , th e s e a r c h f o r a p a t t e r n of t r u t h in l i f e is to no a v a i l ( " I g n o r a n c e " ) . E v e r y t h i n g w e d o is r e n d e r -e d m -e a n i n g l -e s s b y th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of d e a t h6 ( " N e x t , P l e a s e " , " N o t h i n g to Be S a i d " ) . It b e c o m e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , t h e n , why R a y -m o n d G a r d i n e r w r o t e th at L a r k i n ’s p o e t r y l a c k s th e h u m a n i t y of c o m f o r t 7 . T h i s is L a r k i n ’s c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n : a c c e p t i n g c o m -f o rt w o u l d m e a n f a l l i n g p r e y to a n o t h e r i l l u s i p n . Hu ma ni t y s e e m s to i n v o l v e e x a c t l y t he o p p o s i t e a t t i t u d e : the s o b e r a w a r e n e s s of t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d m a n ’s c o u r a g e in f a c i n g th e m e a n i n g l e s s -n e s s of h i s c o n d i t i o n . H u m a n i t y m e a n s r e f u s i n g to b e ’t a k e n i n ’ , d e l u d e d , e v e n t h o u g h b e i n g d e c e i v e d m a y p r o v i d e m a n w i t h s o m e c o m f o r t . L a r k i n r e c o g n i z e s m a n ’s n e e d of c o m f o r t a n d c o n -s o l a t i o n , a n d t h o u g h h i s p o e t r y t e s t i f i e s to t h e i n a c c e s s i b i -l i t y of i d e a -l s , to th e r e l a t i v i t y of t r u t h n o t a n c h o r e d in an y o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y , h e w i l l a d m i t t h a t ’the c o n f l i c t w i t h r e a -l i t y n e c e s s i t a t e s -l i e s o f o n e k i n d o r a n o t h e r as a m e a n s of u p s y c h o l o g i c a l S u r v i v a l ' . I d e a l s , h o w e v e r u n r e a l t h e y m a y be, b r i n g c o m f o r t , a n d a r e n e e d e d b y p e o p l e ; so, e v e n t u a l l y , b e i n g d e l u d e d a n d r e f u s i n g to be t a k e n in a m o u n t to t h e s a m e t h i n g: ’a s t y l e o u r l i v e s b r i n g w i t h th e m : a h a b i t f o r a w h i l e ’ w h i c h 9 s u d d e n l y h a r d n e s ’i n t o a l l w e ’ve g o t ’ . 6 Ph. G a r d n e r , Th e W i n t r y D r u m , " P h o e n i x " , p. 30. ? J o h n H a f t e n d e n , ’A C o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h P h i l i p L a r k i n ’, " L o n -d o n M a g a z i n e " 19 0 0, A p r i l , p. B6. 0 L. К u b y, A n U n c o m m o n P o e t F o r T h e C o m m o n M a n , The H a -g u e 1 9 7 4 , p , 89 . 9 " D o c k e r y a n d S o n " in Ph. L a r k i n , The W h i t s u n W e d d -in gs , L o n d o n 1 9 64 , p. 37. A l l q u o t a t i o n s of L a r k i n ’s p o e m s c o m e f r o m the f o l l o w i n g c o l l e c t i o n s : " T he L e s s D e c e i v e d " , L o n d o n 1956; " T h e W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " , L o n d o n 1964 ; " H i g h W i n d o w s " , L o n d o n 19 74 .In c o n s e q u e n c e , L a r k i n , the d e - m y3t i f i e r a l m o s t to th e p o -in t of s a do - n t e s o c hi s m , in s o m e of h i s p o e m s s e e m s to l o n g for m y s t i f i c a t i o n ; h a v i n g d e s t r o y e d i l l u s i o n s , h e s t a r t s y e a r n i n g f o r th em . Y e t h e r e h e w o u l d n o t a p p l y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a , a n d w o u l d n o t e n t e r th e d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t h o w r e a l i d e a l s an d b e l i e f s ar e, h o w w e l l t h e y a r e g r o u n d e d in o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y , or h o w w e l l t he y s u r v i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l s c r u t i n y . If L a r k i n e v e n -t u a l l y e x p r e s s e s h i s l o n g i n g for d e a d i d e a l s a n d c o n v i c t i o n s , he d o e s so o n l y as a p r a g m a t i c i s t c o n s i d e r i n g n o t t h e i r t r u t h - - v a l u e s , b u t p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n s : e m o t i o n a l ( s e c u r i n g ’p s y -c h o l o g i -c a l s u r v i v a l ’) a n d s o c i a l ( i n t e g r a t i n g s o c i e t y ) . C o m i n g b a c k t o L a r k i n ’s p e s s i m i s m a n d to h i s n i h i l i s t i c w o r l d - w i t h m - a - p u e m , on e is s u r p r i s e d to s e e h o w m u c h it r e -s e m b l e -s the w o r l d i m a g e p r e s e n t e d in t h e w o r k s of A r t h u r S c h o -p e n h a u e r . Ih e -p a r a l l e l s a r e so s t r o n g th a t I v e n t u r e to s a y th a t in f a c t L a r k i n ’s W e l t a n s c h a u u n g is e s s e n t i a l l y S c h o p e n - h a u e r i a n . I a m a w a r e th at p u t t i n g the n a m e s of L a r k i n a n d S c h o p e n -h a u e r t o g e t -h e r m a y s o u n d an e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m . O n e is r e m i n d e d or L a r k i n ’s s n e e r i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t t h i n g s n o n - E n g l i s h ; m u c h q u o t e d is h i s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t h e d o e s n o t r e a d f o r e i g n poetry, that the n a m e of B o r g e s d u e s n o t c o n v e y a n y t h i n g to h i m , a n d t h a t h e is p r o u d of n o t h a v i n g t r a v e l l e d o u t s i d e B r i t a i n 111. Lar-k i n a n d S c h o p e n h a u e r m a y be a s u r p r i s i n g p a i r if o n e r e m e m b e r s the p o e t ’s p r o g r a m m a t i c d i s t r u s t of a n y p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m s a n d i d e o l o g i e s , n o t to s p e a k of f o r e i g n p h i l o s o p h i e s . A n y ye t it s e e m s t h a t t he 1 9 t h c e n t u r y G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r f o u n d a d i -s c i p l e in the m o d e r n B r i t i -s h p o e t , t h a t h i s i d e a s a r e e c h o e d in the w o r k s of L a r k i n a n d m a y s e r v e as a k e y n o t e fo r their r e a d -ing. I d o n o t c l a i m t h a t L a r k i n e v e r r e a d S c h o p e n h a u e r ; it is, h o w e v e r , w e l l k n o w n t h a t T h o m a s H a r d y d i d 1 1 . Ihe i n f l u e n c e m i g h t h a v e t h u s b e e n n o t a d i r e c t o n e , b u t m e d i a t e d by th e w o r k s of H a r d y , w h i c h L a r k i n m u c h r e a d a n d a d m i r e d . 10 S e e t h e i n t e r v i e w s in: L a r k i n , R e q u i r e d W r i t i n g . 11 S e e for e x a m p l e : H. G a r w o o d , T h o m a s H a r d y - An . I l l u s t r a t i o n of th e P h i l o s o p h y of S c h o p e n h a u e r , P h i l a d e l p h i a 19-11; M. N o r m a n, H a r d y a n d S c h o p e n h a u e r , T o r o n t o 19 40 .
F o r my f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s I wi ll try to r e c o n s t r u c t b r i e f l y the L a r k i n i a n w o r l d a l o n g the l i n e s of S c h o p e n h a u e r ’s p h i l o s o -ph y. S u c h a m o v e w i l t , I h o pe , e l u c i d a t e m a n y of the p u e m s a n d wi ll p r o v i d e me w i t h a c o n v e n i e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t f ur la t e r di sc ussion*). ’S u f f e r i n g is e s s e n t i a l to all li f e, a n d is i n c r e a s e d by 12 e v e r y i n c r e a s e of k n o w l e d g e ’ . T ha t is a S c h o p e n h a u e r i a n v i e w v e r y m u c h s h a r e d by L a r k i n . E x i s t e n c e as 3u c h is c o r r u p t , n e -c e s s a r i l y e v il , i n f l i c t i n g p a i n , s u f f e r i n g , a n d p r o d u c i n g d i -s i l l u -s i o n m e n t , d i -s -s a t i -s f a c t i o n , i n s a t i a b i l i t y . The c o n c r e t e w o r l d is a w o r l d w i t h o u t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , e n c a p s u l a t e d a n d f r o z -en, l i k e the p a s t w h i c h , h a v i n g o c c u r r e d , w i l l n e v e r c h a n g e . It is a w u r l d w i t h o u t f r e e d o m , a n d as s u c h c a n b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h th e u n r e a l w o r l d of i d ea l s , l o n g i n g s , a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . Ev i l a n d p a i n a r e b o r n in th e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of the. f u t u r e , in th e v e r y m o m e n t ou r i d e a l s a r e r e a l i z e d , a c q u i r e form , s h a p e a n d - l o s e f r e e d o m . S c h o p e n h a u e r b e l i e v e s th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f s u f f e r i n g to be c a u s e d by the p r i n c i p l e of i n d i v i d u a t i o n * J . T he w i l l , a t h m g - - i n - i t s e l f , s e a r c h i n g for s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , b e c o m e s i n d i v i -d u a l i z e -d , t h u s y i e l -d i n g to n e c e s s i t y , l o s i n g i t s f r e e d o m , F u r -t h e r m o r e , i n d i v i d u a t i o n is n o t o n l y s e e n as t h e fa ll i n t o the w o r l d of n e c e s s i t i e s f r o m the r e a l m of f r e e d o m , b u t it a l s o g i v e s r i s e to the s t r u g g l e a n d c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n d i s t i n c t i n -d i v i -d u a l i z e -d w i l l s . I n d i v i d u a t i o n is t h u s the s o u r c e of e v i l ; a n d e x i s t e n c e , s i n c e it is th e e x i s t e n c e of i n d i v i d u a l be ings , b e c o m e s the s y n o n y m fo r s u f f e r i n g . The e x t i n c t i o n o f th e i n -d i v i -d u a l w i l l is t h e n the o n l y wa y to e l i m i n a t e t he s u f f e r -ing. W e c a n o b s e r v e t h e s a m e l i n e of t h o u g h t in L a r k i n ’s p o e m s . A ll t h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t h at l i f e o f f e r s u s r e s u l t s f r o m the f a c t t h a t w e e x i s t as i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g s a n d as s u c h we t e n d to i n f l i c t p a i n on o n e a n o t h e r ; we ar e s u b j e c t e d to t he w o r l d of n e c e s s i t i e s a n d u l t i m a t e l y , to d e a t h . A s i n d i v i d u a l beiisgs 12 B. R u s s e l l , H i s t o r y of W e s t e r n P h i l o s o p h y , L o n d o n 19 79 , p. 724. 15 R u s s e 1 1, op . p i t .
w e e x p e r i e n c e l o n e l i n e s s ; b e i n g d i f f e r e n t w e b e c o m e i s o l a t e d a n d u n a b l e to c o m m u n i c a t e . S c h o p e n h a u e r b e l i e v e d t h at ’i n s t i n c t u r g e s m a n to p r o c r e a t i o n , w h i c h b r i n g s i n t o e x i s t e n c e a n e w 1 ^ o c c a s i o n for s u f f e r i n g an d d e a t h ’ ', a n d we s h a l l n o t b e s u r -p r i s e d to f i n d t h at t h e v e r y s a m e v i e w is e x p r e s s e d in w h a t is c o m m o n l y r e g a r d e d as on e of L a r k i n ’s ’l i g h t ’ p o e m s , " T h i s B e t he V e r s e " : M a n h a n d s o n m i s e r y to ma n. It d e e p e n s l i ke a c o a s t a l sh e l f . G e t o u t as e a r l y as y o u ca n, A n d d o n ’t h a v e a n y k i d s y o u r s e l f . B e i n g b o r n is i t s e l f a r e p e t i t i o n of the F a l l p a r a d i g m : in g i v i n g b i r t h , th e f a u l t s of th e p a r e n t s , l i ke t h e o r i g i n a l si n , a r e p a s s e d on to t h e i r c h i l d r e n . ’G e t t i n g o u t a s e a r l y as yo u c a n ’ r e m a i n s the o n l y , if a b s u r d , s o l u t i o n , c o m i n g v e r y c l o s e to th e i d e a of n o n - e x i s t e n c e (t h e b e s t e x p r e s s i o n of w h i c h c a n be f o u n d in L a r k i n ’s " W a n t s " : ’B e n e a t h it a ll , d e s i r e of o b l i -v i o n r u n s ’), wh'ich m a y b e s e e n as the c o n s e q u e n c e of S c h o p e n -h a u e r ’s ’e x t i n c t i o n ’ , th e s h e d d i n g of i d e n t i t y . In a n o t h e r p o e m , "A t G r a s s " , L a r k i n w r i t e s a b o u t t w o f a m o u s r a c e h o r s e s , n o w n o l o n g e r r e m e m b e r e d , l i v i n g t h e i r l i v e s of n o h i s t o r y , n o m e m o r y , no n a m e s . Y e t it is e x a c t l y by b e c o m i n g a n o n y m o u s , by l o s i n g t h e i r i d e n t i t y , that, t h e y g a i n p e a c e a nd h a p p i n e s s . T h e i r w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t he r a c e - c o u r s e is t h u s n o t s i m p l y a s h i f t f r o m c l a m o r o u s f a m e to p e a c e f u l o b l i v i o n , b u t f r o m i d e n t i t y e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e n a m e s o f t h e h o r s e s , to it s lOSS ; T h e r e a r e o t h e r a f f i n i t i e s w i th ' S c h o p e n h a u e r ’s p h i l o s o p h y w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L a r k i n ’s s t a n d p o i n t , l i k e th e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e a l a n d t h e i de a l . Y e t t h i s p e s s i -m i s t i c , e s s e n t i a l l y S c h o p e n h a u e r i a n a t t i t u d e is c o u n t e r b a l a n -c e d in a n u m b e r of L a r k i n ’s p o e m s b y a d i f f e r e n t s t a n c e . C l e a r -ly a f f i r m a t i v e t o n e s c a n be f o u n d in s u c h p o e m s as " T o t h e S e a " or " S h o w S a t u r d a y " , p o e m s p r e s e n t i n g v a l u e s w h i c h L a r k i n w o u l d c h e r i s h in s p i t e of h i s a l l - e m b r a c i n g s c e p t i c i s m . ^ I b i d e m .
It is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h at al l t h e s e p o e m s d e a l w i t h c o m -m u n a l l i t« a n d i t s e x p r e s s i o n in s t r i c t l y p a t t e r n e d f o r m s of b e h a v i o u r - r i t u a l s . The r i t u a l , as in T. S. E l i o t , a p p e a r s to be th e w a y in w h i c h c o m m u n i t i e s o r g a n i z e t h e i r l i v e s a n d g i v e s e n s e to the r e a l i t y t h a t s u r r o u n d s th e m, h o w e v e r c h a o t i c it m i g h t se e m . Th e m e a n i n g of s u c h r i t u a l s r e s i d e s p r e c i s e l y in t h e i r s o c i a l f u n c t i o n . Th ey ar e the m e a n s b y w h i c h the s o c i e t y c a n s a t i s f y the n e e d of l i v i n g w i t h i n an o r d e r e d , s t r u c t u r e d w o r l d ; the n e e d for t r a n s c e n d i n g time a n d fo r a l l e v i a t i n g s o r -r o w a n d a n x i e t y c a u s e d by the r e a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n m o r t a l i t y . The r i t u a l e n a b l e s the c o m m u n i t i e s to s t a n d o u t s i d e t i me , o u t -s i d e h i -s t o r y , a n d t h u s to e s t a b l i s h a h i e r a r c h y of v a l u e s which 15 w o u l d n o t a p p e a r to b e c o n t i n g e n t , h i s t o r i c a l , or r e l a t i v e . It i n t e g r a t e s c o m m u n i t i e s a n d h e l p s i n d i v i d u a l s to a c h i e v e i d e n -t i f i c a -t i o n w i t h t h e g o a l s a n d v a l u e s of the s o c i e t y . 6y m a k i n g s u c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p o s s i b l e it c a n a c t u a l l y c a r r y o u t S c h o -p e n h a u e r ’s p o s t u l a t e of the e x t i n c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l w i l l as the s o u r c e of e v i l a n d s u f f e r i n g a l t h o u g h in ÿft e n t i r e l y differ-e n t w a y : n o t by differ-e n g a g i n g in the s t a t e s o f n i r v a n a a n d m e d i -t a -t i o n , n o r by d e a -t h , b u t by s e e i n g o n e s e l f as a p a r t of the w h o l e t h at is the c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h o n e l iv e s. It c a n b e s a i d t h a t w h i l e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n is e s -s e n t i a l l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t a l , th e E n g l i s h o n e is c o m m u n a l . W h e r e a s th e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h at al l w o r l d l i t e -r a t u -r e h a s as it s u n d e r l y i n g t h e m e t h e c o n f l i c t of th e i n d i -v i d u a l ’s n e e d s a n d th e p r e s s u r e s o f s o c i e t y m a y b e a c c e p t e d, w i t h o u t m a n y r e s e r v a t i o n s , it is a l s o t r u e t h at o n e of th e e n -d e m i c f e a t u r e s of B r i t i s h w r i t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y in c e r t a i n p e -r i o d s of its h i s t o -r y , e. g. in the A u g u s t a n Ag e, w a s th e u r g e to r e c o n c i l e the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h th e c o m m u n a l , to p r e s e n t the i n d i v i d u a l as a m e m b e r of t h e c o m m u n i t y in a m u t u a l l y r e w a r d -i n g r e l a t -i o n s h -i p . L -i f e -in a n d for th e c o m m u n i t y w a s the a n s w e r of m a n y E n g l i s h w r i t e r s to th e f e e l i n g of m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s , d i a g n o s e d as t he m a l a d y of th e 20t h c e n t u r y m a n * 6 . Cf. M. E l i a d e , S a c r u m - mi t - h i s t o r i a , W a r s z a w a 19 7Q . 1 f> Cf. М. С г е е . ц B r i t i s h M a r x i s t s a n d A m e r i c a n F r e u d i a n s , £in:] I n n o v a t i o n s , ęd. R. B e r g o n z i , L o n d o n I9 6 0, p. 165.
The s e n s e of c o n t i n u i t y a s m a n i f e s t e d in r e p e a t e d c o m m u n a l r i t u a l s e n a b l e s m a n to t r a n s c e n d t i m e , t h u s p r o v i d i n g h i m w i t h a s e n s e of l i f e w h i c h is a b s o l u t e a n d a - h i s t o r i c a l . It s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d h e r e t h at in L a r k i n ’s p o e m s w h e r e c e r t a i n e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s , u s u a l l y i n v o l v i n g w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s , b e c o m e p r e -s e n t - d a y r i t u a l -s , w e f i n d n o s i g n s of d e a t h , n o d e a t h - a n x i e t y s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of L a r k i n . T h e s e c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s , th e r i t u a l s , e n a b l e m a n to o v e r c o m e the a n x i e t y c a u s e d b y t he a- w a r e n e s s o f h i s l i m i t a t i o n s as an i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g . If, as I d e -m o n s t r a t e d e a r l i e r , i n d i v i d u a t i o n is to L a r k i n a s o u r c e of ' m o -ral e v i l * a n d s u f f e r i n g , t h e n t h e r i t u a l by t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e I n d i v i d u a l i n t o a m e m b e r of th e c o m m u n i t y , b y m a k i n g h i m a n p - n y m o u s , a l s o s a v e s h i m f r o m al l th e p r e d i c a m e n t s t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e f a l l h i m p r e c i s e l y for b e i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l : th e f e a r of d e a t h in the s h a d o w of w h i c h l i f e is r e n d e r e d m e a n i n g -l e s s , t h e s e n s e of i s o l a t i o n a n d l o n e l i n e s s , t he c h a o s a n d c o n t i n g e n c y of the w o r l d ( " T h e m a t i c a l l y , th e d e s i r e f o r c o m m u -n i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y is p l a y e d h a r d a g a i n s t t h e i s o l a t i o n a n d l o n e l i n e s s t h a t a r e f e lt by L a r k i n to b e p a r t of th e c o n d i - 17 t i o n of m o d e r n m a n " ). L a r k i n ' s b e l i e f in t h e r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d its s i m p l e r i t u a l s h a s a v e r y p r a g m a t i c f u n c t i o n . It is f i r s t of a l l u s e f u l , j u s t a s t he C h u r c h a n d r e l i g i o n m a y be u s e f u l . S t i l l , L a r k i n , a n a v o w e d a g n o s t i c , w o u l d p r e f e r c o m -m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s to the a c c e p t a n c e of a n y r e l i g i o u s c r e d o , s i n -c e the f o r m e r d o n o t c l a i m a c c e s s to t r u t h , t h e y a r e p u r e forma, w a y s in w h i c h l i f e is o r g a n i z e d . G o i n g to t he s e a s i d e e v e r y y e a r , o r t a k i n Q p a r t in a f u n f a i r , .are a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d o n o t i n v o l v e a c c e p t i n g a n y b e l i e f s o r i l l u s i o n s . T h e y a r e f o r m s of g o i n g t h r o u g h l i f e w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y of t he a g e s a n d t he p a s t g e n e r a t i o n s . By i n t r o d u c i n g b e n e f i c i a l o r d e r i n t o t h e c h a o s of t h e ' w o r l d , by p a t t e r n i n g h u m a n l i v e s , t h e y d o n o t i n c l u d e a ny t r u t h - c l a i m s , w h i c h L a r k i n ' s e s s e n t i a l l y r a t i o n a l , r e f l e c t i v e , u n c o m p r o m i s i n g s c r u t i n y w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y d i s c o v e r a n d r e f u t e . L a r k i n ’r e a d i n e s s to a c c e p t th e v a l u e s r e p r e s e n t e d by c o m -17 S. P e t с h, The A r t of P h i l i p L a r k i n , S y d n e y 19 8 0, p. 107.
m u n a l li f e , w h i c h c a n be b e s t s e e n in h i s l a t e s t c o l l e c t i o n " H i g h W i n d o w s " , g r o w s n a t u r a l l y f r o m h i s e a r l y a s s u m p t i o n that b e i n g a w a r e of i l l u s i o n s a n d y i e l d i n g to t h e m in o n e ’s i g n o r -a n c e d o n o t d i f f e r m u c h in the p e r s p e c t i v e of th e u l t i m a t e . s u b s p e c i e m o r t i s . B e i n g Ч е з з d e c e i v e d ’ d o e s n o t a l l e v i a t e the p a i n s of life. O n the c o n t r a r y , t h i s a w a r e n e s s m a y b e c o m e a s o u r c e of a s t i l l g r e a t e r a n x i e t y a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . If t h e n k n o w i n g th e t r u t h (or, by t h a t m a t t e r , k n o w i n g th a t t r u t h is u n a t t a i n a b l e ) a n d r e m a i n i n g i g n o r a n t a r e j u s t t w o ’s t y l e s ’ of life , e q u a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e , t h e n w h a t m a t t e r s is t h e p r a g m a t i c d i m e n s i o n , t h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of a d o p t i n g o n e or th e o t h e r . A n d t h u s in " T o a d s R e v i s i t e d " , L a r k i n a b a n d o n e d his e a r -l i e r v i e w on t h e l i m i t i n g n a t u r e of w o r k , a n d a c c e p t e d it for i t s p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n . He w a s no t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e c o n o m i -c a l n e -c e s s i t y of w o r k , b u t p e r c e i v e d it s p l a c e in th e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n , as a h e l p in m a n ’s s t r u g g l e t h r o u g h li fe : W h a t e l s e c a n I a n s w e r , W h e n t h e l i g h t s c o m e o n at f o u r At th e e n d of a n o t h e r y e a r ? G i v e me y o u r arm, o l d to ad ; H e l p me d o w n C e m e t r y Ko a d . " S e l f ’s th e M a n ” c a n b e r e a d as a v a r i a n t of " R e a s o n s for A t t e n d a n c e " , in w h i c h th e s p e a k e r , a c k n o w l e d g i n g th e r i g h t of b o t h h i m s e l f a n d t h e o t h e r s to l i v e l i v e s th a t t h e y h a v e c h o s -en, p o i n t s to the f a c t t h a t t h e c h o i c e w a s a p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n d e p e n d i n g o n o n é ’s d i f f e r e n t i d e a s a b o u t l i fe . P u r e r e a s o n will n o t b e h e l p f u l in c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s o f l i f e : t he t r u t h - v a l u e of t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o n w h i c h t h e d e c i s i o n m a y b e g r o u n d e d Is i r r e l e v a n t h a r e , w h a t m a t t e r s is t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c h o i c e s s a t i s f y o n e ' s n e e d fo r an o r d e r e d a n d m e a n -i n g f u l l-i f e . T h e s p e a k e r of t h e p o e m s d o e s n o t p r e s e n t an a u t h o r i t a t i v e or p a t r o n i z i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e o t h e r m o d e of l i f e . H e d o e s n o t a t t e m p t to j u s t i f y h i s d e c i s i o n , n o r to q u e s t i o n o t h e r s . T he i r o n i c c o m m e n t s at t h e e n d of b o t h p o e m s u n d e r m i n e a n y c e r t a i n t y in t h i s r e s p e c t . The s p e a k e r is n o t s u r e a b o u t th e r i g h t n e s s of h i s d e c i s i o n to d e v o t e h i m s e l f to a r t a n d g i v e up e a r t h l y p l e a s u r e s ( " R e a s o n s for A t t e n d a n c e " ) :
T h e r e f o r e I s t a y o u t s i d e ,
B e l i e v i n g this ; a n d tney m a u l to a n d fro, B e l i e v i n g t.hat; a n d b o t h a r e s a t i s f i e d , If n o o n e h a s m i s j u d g e d h i m s e l f . Q r li ed . S i m i l a r u n c e r t a i n t y , w h i c h in f a c t is a r e c o g n i t i o n of equal v a l u e of b o t h ’s t y l e s ’ of li f e , c a n b e o b s e r v e d in " S e l f ’s The M a n " a n d in " D o c k e r y a n d S u n " , w h e r e it c o n c e r n s th e choi-ce of r e m a i n i n g u n m a r r i e d a n d c h i l d l e s s , Ihe s p e a k e r m a y be d e s c r i b e d as a n a g n o s t i c , w h o - as s u c h - c a n n o t r e j e c t th e o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y . T h i s s t a n d p o i n t , t h e h a l l m a r k of w h i c h is the r e c o g n i t i o n of th e r e l a t i v e c h a r a c t e r of t he c h o i c e s c o n -c e r n i n g o n e ’s li f e , m a y c r e a t e an i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e s p e a k -e r ’s of L a r k i n ’s p o -e m s , w h e n th ey f u n c t i o n a s h i s p o r t e - p a r o - les, m a y r e f u s e to s u p p o r t a n y a i d e , a n d r e f r a i n f r o m m a k i n g an y p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s b u t th e a g n o s t i c ’I d o n o t k n o w ’ . I n L a r k i n ’s l a t e r p o e m s o n e f i n d s m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e t o n e s a n d h i s i r o n i c s c e p t i c i s m g i v e s p l a c e to a f f i r m a t i v e s t a t e -m e n t s . " T u t h e S e a " a n d " S h o w S a t u r d a y " a r e th e p o e m s in w h i c h the s p e a k e r e n v i e s th e l i fe h e o b s e r v e s a n d d o e s n o t t r y to d i s c r e d i t it w i t h e i t h e r i r o n y or s c e p t i c i s m . In b o t h p o e m s , a n d e s o e c i a l l y in " S h o w S a t u r d a y " , t n e s p e a k e r is n o l o n g e r e m o t i o n a l l y d e t a c h e d f r o m the w o r l d h e d e s c r i b e s ; h e is n o t a d i s t a n t o b s e r v e r w h u f r o m h i s i s o l a t e d p o s i t i o n c o m m e n t s o n th e l i f e of o t h e r s10 ( " R e a s o n s for A t t e n d a n c e " , " C h u r c h G o i n g " , " T h e W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " , " F a i t h H e a l i n g " ) . T h e s c e n e s of c o m -m o n p l a c e r i t u a l s e n g a g e h i -m, a n d s e e m to b e c o m e th e l o n g - - s e a r c h e d - f o r a n s w e r , t h e ’c e n t r e t h a t w o u l d h o l d ’ , as if the s p e a k e r c o u l d f i n d i n t h e m w h a t L l i o t d i d in C h r i s t i a n i t y : the p i v o t , t he c e n t r a l p o i n t a r o u n d w h i c h to b u i l d . E n g a g i n g in s u c h a c t i v i t i e s as g o i n g to t he s e a s i d e or to a S a t u r d a y s h o w , a r e n o t e x a m p l e s of i l l u s i o n s s h a r e d b y p e o p l e , but t u r n o u t tu b e a c u r e a g a i n s t f r a g m e n t a t i o n , s e p a r a t e n e s s , c h a o s , a n d m i s e r y c a u s e d by i n d i v i d u a t i o n , a n d a w a y of o v e r c o m i n g the d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r s of ’o u r e l e m e n t - T i m e ’ . T h e y a r e L a r k i n ’s ' c e n t r a l p o i n t s ’ . i Я Cf. 0. H о 3 b г о о к, L o s t ü e a r i n g s in E n g l i s h Poet ry , L o n d o n 19 77 , p. 1 7 4 - 1 8 1 .
T h e S a t u r d a y s h o w t a k e s p l a c e in s u m m e r ; it Is n o t s p r i n g - t h e r e n e w a l of li fe , b u t it is t he y e a r at it s p e a k , w i t h g i f t s of n a t u r e , ’th e e x t r u s i o n s of e a r t h ’ , c a r e f u l l y d i s p l a y e d o n w o o d ta b l e s . Th e r e l i g i o u s o v e r t o n e s of f e r t i l i t y r i t e s a n d h a r v e s t o f f e r i n g s a r e m a d e c l e a r w h e n we n o t i c e ’b l a n c h l e e k s l i k e c h u r c h c a n d l e s ’ . Ihe p a r t i c i p a n t s at th e s h o w a r e t a k e n o ut of t h e i r d a i l y c o n t e x t , m o v e d i n t o a se r a i-s ac re d d i m e n s i o n t h at b r i n g s t h e m jo y a n d v i t a l i t y , th a t u n i t e s a n d i n t e g r a t e s th em . W h e n a f t e r the s h o w t he y h a v e to g o b a c k to t h e i r d a i l y r o u t i n e s , to t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s , t h e y wi l l a g a i n b e -c o m e o n l y f r a g m e n t s of the w h o l e t h e y о п с б w e r e , G o i n g b a c k h o m e f r o m th e s h o w m e a n s l e a v i n g th e l i f e of a c o m m u n i t y an d r e t u r n i n g to i n d i v i d u a l n a m e s , to l i v e s in i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e s w i t h p r i v a t e a d d r e s s e s , s i t u a t e d in s o m e o b s c u r e , i s o l a t e d , f a r - a w a y s e t t l e m e n t s . T h e y ’re l o a d i n g j u m p s ori a t r u ck . B a c k n o w to p r i v a t e a d d r e s s e s , g a t e s a n d l a m p s In h i g h s t o n e o n e - s t r e e t v i l l a g e s , empty, at du s k , A n d s i d e r o a d s of s m a l l t own s. It is a l s o g o i n g b a c k t o a u t u m n , a n d u l t i m a t e l y to w i n t e r . The s u n n y S a t u r d a y a f t e r n o o n , the c o m m u n i t y ’s r e u n i o n , w h e n it e n d s , l e a d s p e o p l e to w h a t t e r r i f i e d L a r k i n in al l e a r l i e r poems: i n e v i t a b l e d e a t h , t h e p a s s a g e o f ti m e . I d o e s n o t c o m e t h e n as a s u r p r i s e t h a t th e p o e m e n d s w i t h an e m o t i o n a l a p -p e a l : ’L e t it a l w a y s b e t h e r e ’ , a * l s h to s a v e t he e v e n t f r o m t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of ti me . T he s h o w , in fa ct , m a y b e c o m e p e r -e n n i a l , it h a s e x i s t e d for c e n t u r i e s a n d h a s the p o w e r to r e -g e n e r a t e e a c h year.-L e t it s t a y h i d d e n t h e r e l i k e s t r e n g t h , b e l o w S a l e - b i l l s a n d s w i n d l i n g ; s o m e t h i n g p e o p l e do, N o t n o t i c i n g h o w t i m e ’s r o i l i n g s m i t h y - s m o k e S h a d o w s m u c h g r e a t e r g e s t u r e s ; s o m e t h i n g t h e y s h a r e Th at b r e a k s a n c e s t r a l l y e a c h y e a r i n t o R e g e n e r a t e u n i o n . L e t it a l w a y s be t h e r e . The p o e m r e a d s l i k e a l e n g t h y c a t a l o g u e , a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of s c e n e s , c o n n e c t e d o n l y by t h e p l a c e in w h i c h t h e y h a p p e n . It is a c a t a l o g u e of t h i n g s , y e t m u c h d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e ,
s h o r t e r o n e s , w e c a n s e e in " T h e L a r g e C o o l S t o r e " o r " E s s e n -tial B e a u t y " . W h e r e a s in t he l a t t e r p o e m s , a s e r i e s of u n c o n -n e c t e d i m a g e s , a m e r e l i s t i -n g of t h i n g s , s e r v e d to e v o k e tne a t m o s p h e r e of a d i s c o n n e c t e d , f r a g m e n t a r y , a n d h e n c e m e a n i n g -l es s , w o r -l d , in " S h o w S a t u r d a y " the l i t e r a l f l o o d of i m a g e s w h i c h g o e s o n f o r o v e r f i f t y l i n e s c r e a t e s an a t m o s p h e r e of p r o -l u s i o n a n d v i t a l i t y . It is l i f e in its a b u n d a n c e : f a s c i n a t i n g a n d a t t r a c t i v e . It s e e m s t h at t h e p o e t w a s c a r r i e d a w a y b y th e v a r i e t y a n d r i c h n e s s of the e v e n t s h e w a s d e s c r i b i n g . S c e n e s , o b j e c t s a n d c h a r a c t e r s f o l l o w on e a n o t h e r , t h e p o e t ' s e y e w a n d -e r s a b o u t l i k -e a f i l m c a m e r a : the f l o w of i m a g e s s e e m s to h a v e n o end. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of t h i s c a -t a l o g u e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s th e b u l k o f the p u e m . The o b s e r v e r d e l i g h t s in the s c e n e s , e n j o y s th e v a r i e t y o f c o l o u r s , s h a p e s , a n d e v e n t s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i m a g e s w i t h i n a p o e m a r e all p i c t u r e s of t h i n g s as t h e y ar e , t h e y a r e n o t m e a n t to s t a n d for a n y t h i n g e x c e p t t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y d o n o t r e f e r u s to a n y o t n e r r e a l i t y b u t t h e i r o w n - c o n t r a r y to w h a t h a p p e n s in a l -m o s t al l o t h e r L a r k i n ' s p o e -m s . H e r e , t h e o b s e r v e r , L a r k i n h i m -s e l f , b e c o m e -s -s a t i -s f i e d w i t h the m e r e p e r c e p t i o n , w i t h sensu al, m o s t l y v i s u a l , p l e a s u r e s . No m a t t e r h o w d e t a i l e d t h e i m a g e of a h o s p i t a l In " T h e B u i l d i n g " is, « o n e f e e l s t h a t i t s p r e s e n t a -t i o n is o r g a n i z e d by sofce g e n e r a l p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a t h a t it is m e a n t to c o n v e y . T h e 'p h y si c al p r o p e r t i e s of th e b u i l d i n g all t u r n i n t o m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l s ; as d o m o s t of th e s e e m i n g l y im-19 p res s io r i is t d e t a i l s : w a s h e d - t o - r a g s w a r d c l o t h e s , a l o c k e d c h u r c h , t r a f f i c p a s t t h e g a t e , t he b e c k o n i n g of t h e n u r s e , C...3 p a s t t h e s e d o o r s a r e r o o m s , a n d r o o m s p a s t t h o s e , A n d m o r e r o o m s ye t , e a c h o n e f u r t h e r o f f A n d h a r d e r to r e t u r n from. 19 F o r t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n l a t e r in m y a r t i c l e , 1 d i s a g r e e w i t h A n t h o n y T h w a i t e u s i n g th e t e r m ' i m p r e s s i o n i s t d e t a i l ’ w i t h r e g a r d to L a r k i n ’s p o e t r y (cf. T h w a i t e , op. c i t . » p. 59). L a r k i n is e s s e n t i a l l y a Syrcboli st p o e t , a n d m o s t of the d e t a i l s in h i s p u e t r y a c q u i r e s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s . T h i s a s p e c t of L a r k i n ’s w o r k h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d by : A. M 0 t i 0 n, P h i -l i p L a r k i n , L o n d o n 1962 .
In t h i s p o e m , as in m o s t of h t s p o e t r y , L a r k i n m a k e s u s e of r e a l i s t i c detail**11, w h i c h m a y s c u m l i k e m e r e i m p a r t i a l r e -p o r t i n g , in c r e a t i n g s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s . In " T h e B u i l d i n g " he is n o t so m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in t h e a c t u a l h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g , as in w h a t it s t a n d s for: the i n e v i t a b i l i t y of d e a t h . " S h o w S a t u r -d a y ” is on e of t he v e r y fe w p o e m s in w h i c h L a r k i n ’s s y m b o l - - m a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o t f o r e g r o u n d e d , a n d in its d e s c r i p -t i v e p a r -t , they ar e a l m o s t s u p p r e s s e d ( t h e y w i l l r e - e m e r g e t o w a r d s the e n d of th e po em , w h e n t h e s h o w e n d s ) . In it s l o n g e r p a r t , the p o e m is a c a m e r a - l i k e r e n d e r i n g of w h a t is g o i n g on at the s h o w , w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t at h i e r a r c h i z i n g t he s c e n e s or i m p o s i n g on t h e m s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S o m e t i m e s th e p i c -tu r e s of m i n u t e d e t a i l s v e r g e o n i r r e l e v a n c y w h e n t h e y a p p e a r in the p o e m p u r e l y a r b i t r a r i l y a n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y ' 1 : T h e r e is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n i m a l s : B e a d - s t a l l s , b a l l o o n - m e n , a B a n k ; a b e e r - m a r q u e e t h at H a l f - s c r e e n s a c a n v a s G e n t s ; a t e n t s e l l i n g t w e e d , A n d a n o t n e r , j a c k e t s . ihe p r e s e n t t e n s e a n d s h o r t p h r a s e s e m p h a s i z e t h e g e n e r a l t o n e of i m m e d i a c y , of the t h i n g s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g , a s if the e y e b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in th e s p e c t a c l e a n d c o u l d n o t ye t d e c i d e w h e r e to re s t , d i s t r a c t e d by the m u l t i t u d e of t h i n g s . W h a t the e y e p e r c e i v e s f i r s t of a l l is t h i n g s , t h e p o e m a b o u n d s w i t h n o u n s , w h i c h - o f t e n u n m o d i f i e d - f o l l o w o n e a n o t h e r as in the q u o t a t i o n a b o v e . Ihe d e t a i l s , w h i c h in th e b e g i n n i n g of the poera ar e s o m e t i m e s b r a c k e t e d to i n d i c a t e t h e i r m a r g i n a l i m -p o r t a n c e , t a k e u v e r in l a t e r p a r t s : b r a c k e t i n g is a b a n d o n e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a n d t h e i s s u e of h o w i m p o r t a n t g i v e n d e t a i l s ar e d i s a p p e a r s . T h e w h o l e d e s c r i p t i v e p a r t b e c o m e s h o m o g e n i z e d . The p i c t u r e is th u s u n t y p i c a l of L a r k i n , s i n c e t h e w o r l d r e -p r e s e n t e d in the -p o e m is•not. m e d i a t e d by th e p o e t ’s i n t e l l e c t . T h e i m a g e s a p p e a r at r a n d o m , t h e p o e t ’s p r e s e n c e d o e s n o t in -2 0 " 0. I о d g e w r i t e s a b o u t L a r k i n ’s ’m e t o n y m i c a n d s y -n e c d o c h i c d e t a i l s ’ i-n 0. L о d g e, M o d e s uf M o d e r n W r i t i n g , L o n d o n 197 7 , p. 217. 21 •••■ L о d g e n o t e s t h e ’n e a r r e d u n d a n t s p e c i f i c i t y * in L a r k i n ’s v e r s e , (op. c i t . , p. 217) .
t e r v e n e lu r e c r e a t i n g t he s c e n e . In t h i s c o n t e x t It Is n o t p r o p e r tu t a l k of i m p r e s s i o n s as t h e p o e m is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i n g s in t h e m s e l v e s , r a t h e r t h a n in h o w t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d by us. O n e c o u l d r i s k s a y i n g t h a t t h e p o e m is p e r h a p s t he m o s t ’m e t a p h y s i c a l * o n e , b e i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e w o r l d a s it is, i n d e p e n d e n t o f an y i n t e r p r e t i n g o r c o g n i t i v e m i n d . In many o t h e r p o e m s L a r k i n w o u l d b u i l d i m a g e s w i t h s c e p t i c i s m , w i t h t he u n -c e r t a i n t y o f h o w t h i n g s r e a l l y ar e , e x p l o i t i n g the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t he w a y t h i n g s a p p e a r to us, t h e w a y we t h i n k of t h e m a n d the ’u n a t t a i n a b l e t r u t h ’ a b o u t them . " S h o w S a t u r d a y " d o e s n o t p r e s e n t a n y of t h e s e c o n c e r n s . S i m i l a r l y a f f i r m a t i v e t one s, e l e v a t i n g o r d i n a r y c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s to th e s t a t u s of r i t u a l s , c a n b e f o u n d in To th e S e a , a p o e m w h i c h o p e n s L a r k i n ’s l a st c o l l e c t i o n . In f o u r s t a n z a s , the p o e t , u s i n g h i s f a v o u r i t e t e c h n i q u e of a c l o s e - u p , p r e s e n t s t h e s c e n e at a s e a s i d e w i t h p e o p l e , y o u n g a n d ol d, s u n b a t h i n g , s w i m m i n g , e n j o y i n g t h e m s e l v e s . W h a t is s t r i k i n g in the p o e m is th e w a y in w h i c h p e o p l e m e l t I n t o the l a n d s c a p e . Ihe s c e n e r y , t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y c r o w d e d w i t h h u m a n b e i n g s , o v e r - s n a d o w s th em . In t h e f i r s t s t a n z a , t h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t m e n -t i o n of -the p e o p l e , th e o n l y i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e i r p r e s e n c e a r e t o w e l s a n d r e d b a t h i n g c a p s w h i c h , h o w e v e r , a r e m e n t i o n e d in the s a m e l i n e as s t e e p b e a c h a n d b l u e w a t e r , a s if t h e y w e r e o b j e c t s of the s a m e o r d e r . O v e r th e w h o l e s c e n e L a r k i n d r a w s the l i n e . o f t he h o r i / o n w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s arid g i v e s u n i t y to e v e r y t h i n g t h a t c a n b e f o u n d o n t h e b e a c h ; in t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d n o n - h u m a n b e c o m e n e g l i g -ible. W h e n the p o e t w r i t e s ’e v e r y t h i n g c r o w d s u n d e r t h e lo w h o r i z o n ’ h e m e a n s b o t h the p e o p l e , '* the m a n - m a d e o b j e c t s , a n d n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , c o e x i s t i n g i n p e r f e c t h a r m o n y . Ih e h a r m o n y , w h i c h m a y s e e m r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g in L a r k i n , is n o t t h r e a t e n e d by the p r e s e n c e of t r a n s i s t o r r a d i o s , c h o c o l a t e w r a p p e r s a n d s o u p tins . T h e y . a l s o b e l o n g to th e s c e n e r y a n d t h e i r p r e s e n c e t h e r e is r e d e e m e d by th e h a r m o n y . T h e y h a v e l o s t a l l the a s -s o c i a t i o n -s t h ey s t o o d fo r in o t h e r of L a r k i n ’s p o e m s , f or i n -s t a n c e " G o i n g G o i n g " ; t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r s e e n in t h e c o n t e x t of an e c o l o g i c a l t h r e a t , m a n ’s d e s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o n a t u r e , t e c h n o l o g y l i t t e r i n g th e l a n d s c a p e , e t c . In t he s e c o n d h a l f of
th e fi r s t s t a n / a the p o e t i n t r o d u c e s c o l o u r s : b l u e , re d, y e l -low - w h i c h a re , of c o u r s e , p r i m a r y c o l o u r s f r o m w h i c h a l l o t h e r s d e r i v e - a n d w h i t e as t h e i r p e r f e c t u n i o n . T h e y a r e the f u n d a m e n t a l s , th e b a s e - o t h e r c o l o u r s w o u l d a l r e a d y b e the p r o d u c t s of the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o c e s s e s w h i c h , a s I h a v e t r i e d to s h ow , s t a n d fo r th e s o u r c e of c o r r u p t i o n a n d m i s e r y . The m e n t i o n of th e p r i m a r y c o l o u r s in the d e p i c t i o n o f th e s e a -s i d e -s c e n e i n t r o d u c e -s a s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s c e n e , w h i c h b e c o m e s an e m b l e m of p u r i t y a n d of e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is b a s i c . On e s h o u l d b e a w a r e th at t h e a p p e a r a n c e of d e t a i l s in "To th e S e a " , as in m o s t of L a r k i n ’s p o e m s , h a s h a r d l y a n y t h i n g to d o w i t h th e a c t u a l p e r c e p t i o n of t h i n g s . L a r k i n is n o t an im-22 p r e s s i o n i s t w h o w o u l d d e l i g h t in c o l o u r s , f o r m s , o b j e c t s fo r t h e i r o w n a e s t h e t i c , s e n s u a l v a l u e . If a d e t a i l , a s u d d e n c l o s e - u p a p p e a r s i n t he p o e m , it is n o t g o v e r n e d b y th e l o g i c o f p e r c e p t i o n , b u t by the a r g u m e n t of t h e p o e m . All the d e t a i l s a r e t h u s m e a n i n g f u l d e t a i l s , s i g n i f i c a n t d a t a f r o m w h i c h L a r -k i n c a n s t a r t t o p r o d u c e a m o r e u n i v e r s a l s t a t e m e n t . In t h i s c o n t e x t , c o l o u r s w h i c h a p p e a r in "T o the S e a " , a r e n o t j u s t c o l o u r s , p h y s i c a l q u a l i t i e s of t he p e r c e i v e d w o r l d , b u t th e y b e c o m e i n d i c a t i v e of s o m e o t h e r - s y m b o l i c - m e a n i n g s . If t h e n b l u e , r e d arid y e l l o w a r e p r i m a r y c o l o u r s , a n d c o n -s t i t u t e t h e c r o w d t h a t c a n b e s e e n u n d e r t he h o r i z o n , it is o n th e h o r i z o n t h a t a s h i p a p p e a r s , t h e c o l o u r of w h i c h is w h i t e - w h i t e b e i n g the S y n t h e s i s of al l c o l o u r s , the p e r f e c t u n i o n a n d th e principle of h o m o g e n e i t y . Th e s t e a m e r , n a t u r a l as it m a y b e in the p i c t u r e of th e b e a c h a n d th e s e a s i d e , b e c o m e s s y m b o -l i c in a wa y t h a t is so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of L a r k i n . It is s t u c k t h e r e , m o t i o n l e s s , a n d it w i l l o n l y m o v e t o w a r d s the e n d of the p o e m , or r a t h e r it w i l l d i s a p p e a r s u d d e n l y . It s c o l o u r is o n c e a g a i n e m p h a s i z e d ; * Th e w h i t e s t e a m e r h a s g o n e ’ , as if t h e p o e t w a s a f r a i d t h a t its s i g n i f i c a n c e m i g h t h a v e e s c a p e d the r e a d e r s . fhe m o t i o n l e s s s h i p , t a k e n ou t o f ti me, as if -in a m o m e n t o f the p o e t ’s i n s i g h t o r in a m o m e n t of c o m m u n i o n that the c r o w d s o n ' t h e b e a c h e x p e r i e n c e ~ e n c a p s u l a t e s the w h o l e s c e n e ,
b e i n g of t h e h e r e a n d n o w , a n d y e t t r a n s c e n d i n g t i m e . T h e s h i p d i s a p p e a r s w h e n t h e r i t u a l c o m e s to a n end. T h e s c e n e w h i c h is t h a t of t h e u n i o n b e t w e e n m a n a n d n a t u -re, b e t w e e n a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y , b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d th e p r e s e n t , r e v e a l s i t s e l f to t h e s p e a k e r w h e n h e s t e p s ’o v e r t he l o w w a l l t h a t d i v i d e s ’ . D i v i d i n g , is, of c o u r s e , th e o p p o s i t e of u n i t i n g , a n d g o i n g b e y o n d t h e w a l l is l i k e g o i n g b e y o n d t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n w h i c h S c h o p e n h a u e r b e l i e v e d to b e r e s -p o n s i b l e f o r the m i s e r y of h u m a n c o n d i t i o n . It is t h u s a s t e p f r o m t h e w o r l d of s e p a r a t e , d i v i d e d , i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s , i n t o t h e w o r l d t h a t is u n i f i e d , s t r u c t u r e d , o r d e r e d , p a t t e r n e d , a n d h e n c e - r e n d e r e d m e a n i n g f u l . It is a s t e p t o w a r d s t h e w h i t e c o -l o u r o f th e m o t i o n -l e s s s h i p o n t h e h o r i z o n . G o i n g to t he s e a is in th e p c e t ’s o w n w o r d s 'h al f a n a n n u a l p l e a s u r e h a l f a r i t e ' , t h e s e n s e of w h i c h l i e s in it s r e a p -p e a r a n c e e a c h y e ar . C o n s t i t u t i n g p o s i t i v e l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t , it i n t e g r a t e s n o t o n l y t h e l i f e of a s o -c i e t y , b u t a l s o g i v e s u n i t y a n d m e a n i n g to t h e l i f e of an i n -d i v i -d u a l , the l i f e w h i c h in t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s m a -n a g e s to go b e y o -n d t i m e a n d r e m a i n s t i l l , l i k e th e s t e a m e r o n the h o r i z o n ; the S a m e a n d u n c h a n g i n g . T h e s t i l l n e s s , h o w e v e r , is n o t t h a t of a r o c k , or a d n a d b o d y ; it p o s s e s s e s s o m e o r g a -n i c q u a l i t y : it h a s it s ui»n l i f e , l i f e w h i c h is a l r e a d y r e -d e e m e -d a n -d f r e e f r o m t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r s of ti me . T h e r e -p e t i t i o n i m -p l i e s m o v e m e n t a n d r e n e w a l , h e n c e : The s m a l l h u s h e d w a v e s ’ r e p e a t e d f r e s h c o l l a p s e U p th e w a r m y e l l o w s a n d It is t h u s b o t h ’r e p e a t e d * a n d ’f r e s h ’ ; a n d a l t h o u g h w e l e a r n t h a t th e s t e a m e r is ’s t u c k ’ in t h e a f t e r n o o n , the l i n e is i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d by a n e n t h u s i a s t i c e x c l a m a t i o n ; ’S t i l l g o i n g on, al l of it, s t i l l g o i n g o n ! ’ . P u n n i n g o n t h e w o r d ’s t i l l ’ e m p h a s i z e s th e p a r a d o x i c a l s t a t e in w h i c h t h e r e is b o t h s t i l l n e s s a n d life . T h u s the s c e n e d o e s n o t r e s e m b l e t h e c o l d , f r o z e n i m a g e t h a t K e a t 3 s a w o n t h e u r n , n o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l b i r d o f Y e a t s ’ " S a i l i n g to B y z a n t i u m " , b u t is a s c e n e r e d e e m e d f r o m t i m e a n d f u ll o f l i f e as w e l l . W h a t is m o r e , th e s c e n e at th e
s e a s i d e , w h e n t a k e n s y m b o l i c a l l y , b e c o m e s l i f e in m i n i a t u r e : p e o p l e t h e r e p e r f o r m t h e i r e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s , l i k e r e s t i n g , e a t i n g , s l e e p i n g . T he y ’l e a d the u n c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n ’ w h o in the c o u r s e of the p o e m c h a n g e i n t o ’t ne r i g i d o l d ’ . T h e r e is a s e n s e of g r a d u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of o n e g e n e r a t i o n i n t o another, h i n t e d at by th e us a of t wo v e r b 3 r e l a t e d in m e a n i n g : ’to l e a d ’ a nd ’to w h e e l ’ . W h a t w e w i t n e s s at t h e s e a s i d e is th u s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e at a g i v e n t im e e a c h y e ar , b u t l i f e in it s f u l l n e s s . T h e p o e m g o e s b e y o n d the l i m i t a t i o n s ol its c o n c r e t e s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l s e t t i n g , a nd t u r n s in t o a p i c t u r e of the h u m a n w o r l d w h i c h h a s b e c o m e o r -d e r e -d , m e a n i n g f u l , a n -d s a t i s f y i n g . The s e t t i n g of t he r i t u a l in " To the S e a " is t h e s e a s h o r e d u r i n g the s u m m e r h o l i d a y s , t he t i m e is t h u s th e s a m e as in " S h o w S a t u r d a y " : th e p e a k of th e ye ar . A l t h o u g h the s u n ie no t m e n t i o n e d in the poeir, its p r e s e n c e d o m i n a t e s t he s c e n e . T o g e -t h e r w i -t h -the w a -t e r ( t h e s e a) , it is an e s s e n t i a l l i f e - g i v i n g fo r c e , a l m o s t a c o n d i t i o n of th e r e g e n e r a t i o n of th e e v e n t . I n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e j o u r n e y to th e se a t u r n s i n t o a p i l g r i m -ag e , a n d t he a n n u al r i t e b e c o m e s a q u a s i - r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n y of 2 3 s u n - w o r s h i p p i n g a n d t he l i t u r g y of w a t e r ( a l l u s i o n s to r i -t u a l i s -t i c a b l u -t i o n s , b a p t i s m , etc;.). In a s i m i l a r wa y , t h o u g h o n a m u c h l e s s e r s c a l e , r e l i g i o u s o v e r t o n e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d in " S h o w S a t u r d a y " ( o b l a t i o n s of v e g e t a b l e s ) . In b o t h c a s e s o n e c a n s p e a k of n a t u r a l r i t u a l s , or rictural r e l i g i o s i t y . The r e l i g i o u s , or q u a s i - r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r t h a t L a r k i n c l e a r l y g i v e s to th e s c e n e in " To th e S e a " is l a t e r f o r e g r o u n d -e d by t h-e m o r a l a s p e c t o f t h e s e a - g o i n g r i t u a l . T h e l i g h t of the s u n b r i n g s i l l u m i n a t i o n to the s p e a k e r , c a u s i n g h i m to d i s c o v e r the t r u e m e a n i n g of th e p e o p l e ’s s i m p l e a c t i v i t i e s . B ut it a l s o p r o v i d e s h i m w i t h th e m o r a l i l l u m i n a t i o n w h i c h c l o s -es t h e p o em : [ . . J t e a c h i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n by a s o r t Of c l o w n i n g ; h e l p i n g th e old., too, as th ey o u g h t . ^ Cf. ü. f i m m s, P h i l i p L a r k i n , E d i n b u r g h 19 73 , p.
the m o r a l d u t y to o t h e r s is n o t o n l y e n a c t e d at the s e a -s i d e , b u t a c t u a l l y o r i g i n a t e -s in s c e n e s l i k e t h es e . The last p h r a s e of t he p o e m p r e s e n t s t he c o n v i c t i o n s of t h e p e o p l e at ) th e s e a s i d e , a n d is n o t a j u d g e m e n t of th e s p e a k e r , w h i c h e x -e m p t s th-e p o -e m f r o m t he charge, of b e i n g p a t r o n i z i n g . ’To do w h a t o u g h t to b e d o ne * is a r i t u a l , w h o s e s u b s t a n c e is a m o r a l o b l i -g a t i o n w h i c h the p e o p l e on the b e a c h take for g r a n t e d . B a s i c e t h i c a l c o d e s s e e m th us to h a v e t h e i r r o o t s in s u c h s i m p l e 9ft r i t u a l s . L a r k i n , O r w e l l ’s d i s c i p l e in h i s d i s t r u s t of g r e a t i d e o l o g i e s or b e l i e f - s y s t e m s , a c k n o w l e d g e s h e r e th e ’n a t u r a l * s y s t e m of v a l u e s , by w h i c h he w o u l d m e a n v a l u e s s a n c t i o n e d by c o m m o n , h i s t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e a n d s u p p o s e d l y o r i g i n a t i n g in s o m e i n n e r e t h i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y . T h i s w il l e x p l a i n w h y L a r k i n , w h o d e n i e s an y c o m m i t m e n t to p o l i t i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l , o r r e l i g i o u s c r e d o s , w o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s d e c l a r e h i s s t r o n g a t t a c h m e n t to a c l e a r l y c o n s e r v a t i v e se t uf v a l u e s : ’ th r i f t , h a r d w o r k , r e v e r -?5 e n c è , d e s i r e to p r e s e r v e ’ ' . S u c h e t h i c s is of c o u r s e an un - w r i t t e n c o d e , w h i c h by a n a l o g y to c o m m o n l a w m a y b e c a l l e d ’ccinmon e t h i c s ’ . It p a s s e s t h r o u g h g e n e r a t i o n s a s a h a b i t , a w ay of l i f e , w h i c h the y o u n g i n h e r i t f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r s b y i m i -t a -t i n g -th ei r b e h a v i o u r , an d as s u c h it d o e s n o t b e c o m e s u b j e c t to c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n , q u e s t i o n i n g , or t h e o r e t i c a l s p e c u l a -tion. Ihe r i t u a l , in it s b r o a d m e a n i n g , is a m e a n s of p e r p e -t u a -t i n g a n d t r a n s m i t t i n g th e s e n s e of the m o r a l v a l u e s w h i c h a g i v e n s o c i e t y c h e r i s h e s , a n d m a k e s f or the c o n t i n u i t y of its wa y of life . In my d i s c u s s i o n of the m e a n i n g of r i t u a l s in the p o e t r y of P h i l i p L a r k i n , I h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d on t he tw o p o e m s f r o m L a r k i n ’s l a s t c o l l e c t i o n , " H i g h W i n d o w s " , s i n c e t h ey e x e m p l i f y b e s t h i s t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m p e s s i m i s m a n d th e s e n s e o f d e s p a i r w h i c h the p o e t m i g h t h a v e i n h e r i t e d f r c m S c h o p e n h a u e r v i a the w o r k s of ihoma.“: Ha r d y. Ihe two p o e m s , as n o o t h e r t i t l e s in L a r k i n ’s p o e t i c o u t p u t , t e s t i f y to h i s s e a r c h fo r p o s i t i v e va
-O r w e l l ’s i n f l u e n c e o n L a r k i n a n d Ih e M o v e m e n t P o e t s is d i s c u s s e d in B. M o r r i s a n, Ihe M o v e m e n t , L o n d o n 19 80 , p. 9 3- 95 .
l u e s t h at m i g h t b e a c k n o w l e d g e d by the w o r l d w h i c h f i r s t d e -c l a r e d t he d e a t h of G o d a n d th e n a n n o u n c e d t h e 'e nd of i d e o l o -g y ’ . B o t h of t h em i n c l u d e p e r h a p s the m o s t a f f i r m a t i v e t o n e s th a t e v e r a p p e a r e d in L a r k i n ’s w r i t i n g s . O t h e r p o e m s in w h i c h on e c a n f i n d L a r k i n ’s i n t e r e s t in th e r i t u a l as a m e a n s of s a -t i s f y i n g m a n ’s s o c i a l a n d e m o t i o n a l n e e d s , ( m o s t n o t a b l y " Ch ur ch G o i n g " a n d " T h e W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " ) do n o t p r e s e n t s u c h a s t r o n g , a s s e r t i v e a t t i t u d e . "T o the S e a " a n d " S h o w S a t u r d a y " , c o n t r a r y to th e o t h e r tw o p c e m s j u s t m e n t i o n e d , a re c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o m p l e t e l y ’s e c u l a r ’ a c t i v i t i e s a n d e v e n t s n o t c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n y f o r m a l r e l i g i o n . The o o t i o n of r i t u a l h a s t h us b e e n b r o a d e n e d to i n c l u d e a c t i v i t i e s of e v e r y d a y l i fe w h i c h , t h o u g h u n a u t h o r i z e d by t he C h u r c h , d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s a m e p o w e r an d p e r -f o r m s i m i l a r -f u n c t i o n s . I n s t i t u t e of E n g l i s h S t u d i e s U n i v e r s i t y of Ł ó d ź J e r z y J a r n i e w i c z R Y T U A Ł Y 1 IC H Z N A C Z E N I E W P U E Z J I L A R K I N A Ś w i a t o p o g l ą d p o e t y c k i P h i l i p s L a r k i n a w y k a z u j e w i e l e z b i e ż -n o ś c i z f i l o z o f i ą S c h o p e -n h a u e r a , i to n i e t y l k o w s w o j e j o g ó l -n i e p e s y m i s t y c z -n e j w y m o w i e , a l e i w s z c z e g ó ł a c h . L a r k i n , p o d o b -n i e jak S c h o p e -n h a u e r , u z n a j « s a m o i s t n i e n i e za s y n o n i m c i e r p i e -ni a , a ź r ó d ł o z ł a w i dz i w p r o c e s a c h z r ó ż n i c o w a n i a , u j e u n c s t k c - w i e n i a - P o d o b n i e j ak n i e m i e c k i f i l o z o f , d o s t r z e g a o n l u d z k ą s k ł o n n o ś ć d o a u t o m i s t y f i k a c . j i , k t ó r a p r z e j a w i a s i ę np. w t w o r z e -n i u s y s t e m ó w r e l i g i j -n y c h i t ł u m a c z y ją p o t r z e b ą u s e n s o w i e n i a ś w i a t a , s z u k a n i a o p a r c i a w a r b i t r a l n i e p r z y j m o w a n y c h p r a w d a c h a b s o l u t n y c h . C i e r p i e n i e , b ę d ą c e i m m a n e n t n y m s k ł a d n i k i e m ż y c i a , p r z e z w y c i ę ż y ć m o ż n a w d r o d z e " w y g a s z e n i a " w ł a s n e j t o ż s a m o ś c i : d l a S c h o p e n h s u e r a o z n a c z a ł o to o d m o w ę u c z e s t n i c t w a w ś w i e c i e 1 o d d a n i e s i ę m e d y t a c j i . D l a L a r k i n a , r e a l i z u j e s i ę to p r z e d e w s z y s t k i m w ż y c i u we w s p ó l n o c i e . W o p i n i i k r y t y k ó w , p o e z j a L e r k i n a p r z e n i k n i ę t a j e s t p e s y m i z -m e -m, z b l i ż a s i ę n a w e t do p o s t a w n i h i l i ś t y c z n y c h , g d y k w e s t i o n u -je p o w s z e c h n i e p r z y j ę t e p r a w d y i w a r t o ś c i . W o b e c f a k t u i s t n i e -n i a ś m i e r c i , ż y c i e trac i s w ó j s e -n s , a j a k a k o l w i e k w i a r a , przy-: n o s z ą c a p o c i e c h ę , o k a z u j e s i ę t y l k o i l u z j ą . Ta p e s y m i s t y c z n a w i z j a z o s t a j e w y r a ź n i e p r z e z w y c i ę ż o n a w d w u u t w o r a c h z o s t a t -n i e g o z b i o r u w i e r s z y L a r k i -n a . " S h o w S a t u r d a y " i " T o th e Se a "
o p i s u j ą ś w i e c k i e r y t u a ł y : s o b o t n i e f e s t y n y i l e t n i e w y c i e c z k i nar! m u r z e , R y t u a ł y te ś w i a d c z ą o k o n t y n u a c j i t r a d y c j i , за d l a larkiria z w y c i ę s t w e m n a d c z a s e m i ś m i e r c i ą , w y j ę c i e m o o z u h i s t o -rię, a t a k ż e przc-z tu, Ze z a p e w n i a j ą u c z e s t n i k o m i d e n t y f i k a c j ę ip. w s p ó l n o t y , s p e ł n i a j ą p o s t u l a t " w y g a s z e n i a " i n d y w i d u a l n e j toż-s a m o ś c i . W p r z e c i w i e ń s t w i e d o r y t u a ł ó w r e l i g i j n y c h , n i « w y m a g a -ją o n e p r z y j ę c i a Ż a d n e g o s y s t e m u p r z e k o n a ń , n i e są w y r a z e m w i a -ry w i s t n i e n i e p r a w d a b s o l u t n y c h , l e cz s t a n o w i ą s p o s ó b o r g a -n i z a c j i Ż y c i a , są c z y s t y m i f o r m a m i , o k t ó r y c h p o t r z e b i e ś w i a d -c z ą i -c h k o n s e k w e n -c j e p r a k t y -c z n e .
