Problem of stress in sport psychology. Research review

(1)

Paweł Izdebski1

Instytut Psychologii, Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego

Kamila Litwic-Kaminska2

Studia D oktoranckie na Wydziale Pedagogiki i Psychologii UKW

XI

PROBLEM OF STRESS

IN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

RESEARCH REVIEW

PROBLEM STRESU W PSYCH OLO G II SPO R TU

PRZEGLĄD B A D A Ń

ABSTRACT

The m ain aim o f this work is to illustrate the notion o f stress in sport as well as to explain how and why stress m echanisms come into being in sport situations. The hitherto report contains both theoretical and empirical issues. The theoretical part is devoted to the explanation o f stress and its relation to sport psychology. The practical one comprises of the review o f works concerning the sources of stress and the m oderators influencing its perception along with coping styles am ong various sportsm en. Attention has been drawn to the fact that sportspeople are exposed not only to stress connected with trainings and com petitions but additionally to the natural stress connected with their lives. In this respect the researchers dealing with the causes that bring about stressful situations have im posed not only measures regarding training loads or trials but also school requirem ents, interpersonal relations, financial concerns etc. The pleaded research present a num ber of factors which influence the efficiency o f the actions taken up in response to stress. Apart from the demographical variables (age, gender, race, nationality), factors like the im pact of the advancem ent o f contestants, their practice and their psychic functioning scheme (e.g. the way o f attention directing, the type o f the applied causal attribution) are also examined. Generally speaking, the analyzed works indicate the significance of individual 1 Paweł Izdebski, Institute o f Psychology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz,

85-868 Bydgoszcz, ul. L. Staffa 1, Poland, e-mail: pawel@ukw.edu.pl.

2 Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, doctoral student, Institute o f Psychology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, 85-868 Bydgoszcz, ul. L. Staffa 1, Poland.

(2)

Paweł Izdebski, Kamila Litwic-Kaminska

and cultural differences to the perception of certain situations as stressful and to the undertaken preventive measures.

Key words: stress, sport psychology, research review. STRESZCZENIE

Zasadniczym celem tej pracy jest przybliżenie problematyki stresu w sporcie oraz wyjaśnie nie, jak i dlaczego w sytuacjach sportowych mogą oddziaływać mechanizmy stresu. Prezen towane opracowanie zawiera treści teoretyczne oraz empiryczne. W części teoretycznej om ó wiono pojęcie stresu oraz odniesiono się do tego zagadnienia w psychologii sportu. W części analitycznej przedstawiono prace dotyczące źródeł stresu oraz moderatorów wpływających na przeżywanie stresu i radzenie sobie z nim przez sportowców różnych dyscyplin. Zwróco no uwagę na to, że sportowcy narażeni są nie tylko na stres związany z treningami i zawo dami, ale dodatkowo na ten życiowy, który dotyka każdego człowieka. W związku z tym ba dacze zajmujący się przyczynami sytuacji stresowych podejmowali pom iary dotyczące nie tylko obciążeń treningowych lub sytuacji startowych, ale także wymagań szkolnych, rela cji interpersonalnych, kwestii finansowych itp. Przytoczone prace badawcze pokazują wie le czynników, które wpływają na efektywność aktywności podejmowanych w odpowiedzi na stres. Poza zmiennymi demograficznymi (wiek, płeć, rasa, narodowość), sprawdza się także wpływ poziomu sportowego zawodników, ich stażu czy sposób funkcjonowania psy chicznego (np. sposób kierowania uwagi, rodzaj stosowanej atrybucji przyczyn). Uogólnia jąc, przeanalizowane prace wskazują na istotne znaczenie różnic indywidualnych i kultu rowych na postrzeganie określonych sytuacji jako stresujących oraz na podejmowane rzez nich działań zaradczych.

Słowa kluczowe: stres, psychologia sportu, przegląd badań.

INTRODUCTION

One of the m ost im portant questions raised by scientists dealing with stress concerns the individual differences related to the reactions against stress. Directly speaking, why the behaviour of certain people relatively easily undergoes disorganization under the influence o f stressors in contrast to those presenting greater resistance and being able to work efficiently in stressful situations.

The experienced stressors vary according to the daily activity o f an individual. People involved in sport struggle with a lot of em otional difficulties regarding rivalry, training, tim e pressure or the life beyond sport which considerably influence the m anner o f perception and coping with stressful situations.

Physical activity is perceived as one o f the m ost im portant aspects of lifestyle that has a positive effect on both physical and psychical wellbeing of a person. Indeed, an average person reaps benefits from regular yet m oderate sport activity. However, professionals train in order to achieve a high level of m astery and not necessarily to rem ain in optim al health. A lot o f top sportsm en overstep the m arks of physical and psychical safety revealing the symptom s of

(3)

Problem o f stress in sport psychology

chronic tiredness, suffering from injuries and illnesses just to reach their goals. In this respect it proves extremely im portant for com petitors to learn how to successfully cope with the num ber expectations built up against them . W hat they need is psychic discipline to focus on the realization of training aims and achievements as well as physical strength to deal with inevitable complications. Coping with stress is, therefore, an im portant skill which enables the increase in sport advancem ent. Hence the extending interest of researchers about factors that affect better scheme of dealing with everyday and sport expectations among various sportspeople (M artin, 1998).

DEFINITIO N OF STRESS

Just like m any other psychological terms, the notion of stress is highly ambiguous. Since 1940s it has gained widespread popularity yet the conception still lacks one com m only accepted definition. The colloquial use caused the attribution o f m ostly negative associations w ith the term . People often use it to complain about the difficulties of everyday life, describe experiences or explain certain behaviour.

The author of the concept o f stress is a Canadian physiologist Hans Selye (1960). He treated stress as a state o f hum an body. His studies on rats have led him to the conclusion that pathological changes in internal organs appearing as a response to physiological and psychological harm ful stim uli (stressors) constitute a kind of non-specific defence reaction of the body. He called the identified phenom enon as stress. According to Selye, the indication o f stress is the so called General A daptation Syndrome (GAS). The syndrom e consists of three phases: alarm - during which the defence forces are mobilised, resistance i.e. adaptation to work un d er stressful conditions as well as exhaustion by the long-lasting presence in a extreme situation.

In psychological conceptions stress was understood as an unpleasant em otional reaction mostly o f panic character. Such depiction exists in com m on interpretation o f stress as a state o f tension, feeling o f danger or anxiety. The m ajority of authors consider it unilateral and insufficient (Heszen-Niejodek, 2000; Borkowski, 2001; Terelak, 2001).

The initial stress theories defined it also as a stimulus, situation or external event of specified properties (Janis, 1958; Holmes, Rahe, 1967). This approach, however, faced critique concerning the negligence o f the individual differences am ong people. In reply to those allegations, stress started to be defined as a hum an internal reaction.

(4)

Further evolution of the concept associated with taking both external and internal factors into account and, in the course of time, addition of a m ediative factor which is the individual perception o f a situation. Scientists began to describe stress as a result o f the evaluation of interaction between the environm ent (its requirem ents im posed on a unit) and unit (its coping abilities). Such approach was considered as appropriate by i.a. Lazarus and Folkman and in Polish psychology - Reykowski (Reykowski, 1969; Lazarus, Folkman, 1984).

In Lazarus m odel there is a dynam ic relationship betw een hum an and environm ent in w hich both sides m utually influence each other. W henever a relation with the environm ent in prim ary appraisal is regarded as stressful it can be perceived in three ways: harm /loss (depreciation of values), danger (connected w ith the anticipated damages) o r challenge (anticipated situations that may bring both damages and profits). The secondary appraisal is connected w ith the estim ation of capabilities of taking up certain actions in o rder to remove the cause of stress or at least some m ethods of soothing its ravages or, in case of challenge, leading to the achievem ent of available profits. Both cognitive processes - prim ary and secondary appraisal - ru n sim ultaneously and are associated.

Hobfoll described stress in slightly different categories (1989). His idea is based on the concept o f personal resources of a unit i.e. all that is significant to the survival o f m an or serves to achieve additional resources. Am ong them he m entions objects, hum an properties, conditions (e.g. social status) or energies (i.a. tim e and money). Basing on the presum ption that people tend to preserve and m ultiply their resources the author defines stress as a hum an reaction to the actual or percept losing or simply n o t obtaining of resources.

THE EFFECTS OF STRESS

C hronic high stress com bined with insufficient coping styles m ay contribute to the emergence o f m uch m ore serious somatic consequences. First o f all they are psychosom atic illnesses such as the ulceration of stomach, duodenum and colon, coronary heart disease or hypertension. Moreover, stress considerably increases the risk of contracting diabetes, asthm a, rheum atoid arthritis or various allergic ailments. The research results indicate that excessive stress may decrease the im m unity against miscellaneous infections, degenerative o r even cancerous diseases (Oniszczenko, 1998). Stress has also a negative im pact on sexual functions of m en and w om en (e.g. loss of sex drive), m ay bring about neuralgia, vertigoes, num erous neurotic ailments or m ental diseases.

(5)

Problem of stress in sport psychology

Generally speaking, negative influence o f stress m anifests itself in the form o f disorders o f functioning of body organs and systems as well as damages to their biological structure. A part from the salubrious effects, stress also causes aftereffects in family and professional spheres. Aside from the individual and social consequences for a unit and its surrounding one m ay not om it the fact of high expenditure on dealing with the afterm aths o f civilization stress of life including sport.

In this connection, it is of utm ost im portance to take up the notion of stress both empirically and practically. C onducting research regarding particular areas o f life will allow to find its proper causes and answer the question which the successful coping m ethods are.

STRESS IN SPORTS

The dem ands o f contem porary life make stress inseparable part of hum an functioning since the earliest years. Specialization in sport is earlier and earlier and rivalry takes the form o f organised sport since the earliest steps of young sportspeoples “careers” (Nowicki, 2005). Growing technical progress of the contestants causes such high density of results that the place or win is very often determ ined by a subtle and accidental mistake. The ground of these mistakes is tracked in the spheres o f sportspeoples psyche, the distortions of their psychical regulation processes, concentration or stress resistance (Pałka, Rogoziński, 1987).

Nowadays, competitors obtain results o f extreme character owing to which every sport achievement is tantam ount to the experience of stress. Sportspeople are exposed not only to the everyday life stress but, additionally, to the one connected with trainings and competitions (Martin, 1998). They go through similar tensions as ordinary people do everyday such like financial, professional or interpersonal problems yet multiplied by the requirem ents imposed on them by sport. Training takes a lot o f contestants time which effects in the lack of energy and time that can be devoted to work, social activity or taking some rest. Frequent departures to training camps or competitions taking place away from the accom m odation of a person may bring about financial problems and hinder the possibility of perm anent and steady employment. A lot of sportspeople devote so m uch time to sport that they neglect their own professional development and do not achieve education which is adequate to their abilities. There also happen individuals who work very hard to simultaneously build up their sport and professional careers. However, through overloading themselves with num erous, ill-scheduled additional tasks falsely believed able to be managed, they cause intense tensions.

(6)

Top professional sportsmen and w om en posses financial support from sponsors. Yet, it is related to increased pressure to obtain high results aiming at effective prom otion and successful representing of their benefactors.

D uring training sessions stress appears as a result of high physical and physiological load continued regularly despite feeling tired. Also in psychical sphere training provides subsequent burdens i.a. through constant overcoming ones pain, tiredness or fear of injury or illness that could prevent from achieving training and competitive aims. It often happens that a com petitor is forced to resign from com petition for which he has been preparing for the whole season because of health problems.

Stress connected with competitions manifests itself in the behaviour of the sportsmen who very often react emotionally before im portant events. They are irritated and nervous. There are those who must always have an argument with somebody (it can be an arbiter or trainer etc.) before their contest. Some people claim that they have a feeling of thoughts whirling in their heads with regards to the incoming competition. The most stressful concern the prediction of achieving or not achieving the desired result. For some contestants they can be aid to mobilization of physical and psychical strengths. Among others, they may cause destructive stress and even fear of the contest which can significantly lower the real abilities of a unit.

Owing to training consisting o f providing the sportsm en with gradual loads, their resistance to both weak and strong stressors is being created. They start to w ork out the best way o f functioning un d er extreme conditions that m ay are obviously carried by professional sport. By the preparation of a com petitor it is m eant that his resistance to discipline-specific stressors is build up. Moreover, it encompasses the developm ent of techniques allowing control over one’s behaviour in the face o f stress i.e. learning effective coping styles. Successful training should lead to a situation in which burdens that am ong ordinary people signify exhaustion for sportsm en still rem ain in the stage of im m unity (Selye, 1960). It generally leads to weakening the natural defence m echanism s against extreme overloads. In sport jargon such activity is described as “activating organism s reserves” (Doliński, Szmajke, 1991). A well-known cyclist A rm strong (2003) has once w ritten that there is one thing that only sportsm en can do. The thing is to restate the limits o f a man.

SOURCES OF STRESS IN SPORT

Factors that induce stress are called stressors. They can be characterised according to their strength and range o f influence (concerning either single or

(7)

a group o f people), tim e dim ension (single, periodic, cyclic or chronic stressful events) and manageability i.e. the degree to w hich the appearance, course and effects o f stressors depend on the purpose of engaged people (Heszen-Niejodek, 2000). W ithin the first type stressors can be divided into:

- dram atic events of the size o f catastrophes such as wars, elemental disasters that concern whole groups of people;

- serious challenges and threats that concern units or several people like the life events described by Holmes and Rahe (1967);

- m inute, everyday nuisances also described as everyday life difficulties (Kanner et al. 1981, Łosiak, 2007) regarded as the weakest stressors but often harm ful through their frequency and com m onness (Lazarus, Folkman, 1984).

The first type are recognized as universal for causing extreme, traum atic stress regardless of hum an beings. The research conducted on sportspeople usually refer to the later groups o f stressful factors. However, due to the fact that professional sportspeople very often go beyond the bounds o f safety putting their own (and som etim es their contestants’) health or life at risk with the aim o f achieving championship, it is often stated that with regards to sport, stress is on extreme level.

The tim e of doing sport very often falls on the tim e o f beginning tertiary education am ong young competitors. In this respect a sportsperson has to face new challenges resulting from sport, educational and social requirem ents. Passing from secondary to tertiary school is obviously stressful for average students. People engaged in sport experience even greater levels o f stress as their requirem ents are m ultiplied. W ilson and Pritchard (2005) have noticed that despite the fact th at some researchers point to the function o f engaging in sport as defence against stress (H udd et a l, 2000, Kimball and Freysinger, 2003; Kudlacek, 1997; Shirka, 1997; W ilson, Pritchard, 2005), other research papers indicate that sport activity m ay b e an additional stressful stimulus which is not experienced by students not engaged in sport (Kimball and Freysinger, 2003; W ilson and Pritchard, 2005; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). Training students are exposed to unique stress stim uli connected with their sport role i.e. the loss of “star” status, which m any have come through in high school, injuries, the possibility o f being rem oved from the pitch, conflicts with trainers etc. (Papanikolaou et al., 2003). W ilson and Pritchard (2005) decided to identify the sport-students specific sources o f stress that vary from those experienced by students not norm ally dealing with sport activity. The obtained results proved some considerable differences in a range o f aspects. For example, sport students raised m ore complaints in the areas like conflicts with their partn er’s (boyfriend/ girlfriend) family or having too m any duties w hich im plied less tim e for sleep. O n

(8)

the other hand, non-sport students inform ed about greater influence of factors such as financial dem ands, m aking im portant decisions that concern education, being deceived by someone (e.g. paying too m uch for services), falling in social conflicts regarding sm oking cigarettes with room m ate or friend, problem s with transport, social isolation or dissatisfaction with their appearance.

The results obtained by Wilson and Pritchard (2005) only partially agree with other research concerning the analyzed topic. The earlier research proved that sportsm en reveal higher level of academic stress caused by missed classes and stronger tension connected with financial strain (H um phrey et al., 2000, at: Wilson, Pritchard, 2005; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). W ilson and Pritchard (2005) adm it that the fact that their m easurements were conducted in an independent school, where m ost attended thanks to sport subsidies, training students could worry about the financial matters to a smaller degree. In their conclusions the researchers state that a lot of first-year students engaged in sport are unprepared to effectively deal with all the stressful stimuli regarding their double role. That is why the knowledge of particular factors that bring about the increased level of stress is part and parcel of planning effective interventive and preventive programmes.

Anshel and his associates (Anshel, Sutarso, 2007; Anshel et al„ 2009; Gan, Anshel, 2009; Gan et al., 2009) during long-lasting studies have been examining various aspects of the experience of stress among young sportspeople. Gan and Anshel (2009) checked what are the sources of intense stress struggled with by young contestants in professional sport. They have also been analyzing to what extent these sources depend on the abilities and gender of competitors. The studies embraced the experiences of Chinese sportspeople who continued education at college. Five general categories of stress sources have been enumerated that can be faced during competition (listed according to the intensity of their influence) i.e. oral abomination from others, misbehaviour of the referee (e.g. unfair treatment), trainers dissatisfaction, environmental sources (such as weather) and the opponent.

Earlier research conducted on A m erican sportsm en (Gould et al., 1983; Junge, 2000; Anshel, 2001) proved as well that violence connected with sport com bined with unpleasant com m entaries from the spectators which are the sources com prised by the first m entioned group are the ground of strong stress. Taking the last category of sources into consideration, Anshel and Kaissidis (1997) dem onstrated through earlier analysis that A m erican sportsm en also found this factor stressful and were afraid o f it m ore than Australians.

Gan and Anshel (2009) have n o t found any differences between the answers o f m en and w om en concerning the observed sources o f stress. The results, however, indicated a significant difference in observed increase in the level of stress am ong com petitors of different advancem ent level. Elite sportspeople showed lower intensity o f stress in com parison to their less qualified peers. The

(9)

result agreed with previous studies o f Neil et al. (2004), in which highly qualified sportspeople revealed lower intensity of stressors than the weaker ones. Gan and Anshel (2009) explain this diversity as being associated with higher self- confidence and better ability to interpret the symptoms of anxiety.

Anshel et al. (2009) have analyzed race and gender alterations regarding sport- related sources of strong stress that appears during rivalry and is perceived by the competitors as intensive. The research group included Afro-Americans, W hite race and Latino sportspeople o f both genders training in secondary and tertiary schools. M ultidimensional analysis of the variations proved that white people experienced stress with higher intensity more often than in Afro-Americans. This concerned both personal and situational factors. Latinos were indifferent in comparison to the rem aining group in non of the analyzed categories. W omen used to describe as more intensive the sources of stress connected with their trainer.

In the aforem entioned works attention has been draw n to the factors unrelated with sport that, through im position on sport requirem ents, provide com petitors with unique challenges. Scientists dealing with the sources of stress take m easurem ents connected with training and competitive loads as well as school dem ands, interpersonal relations o r even financial matters. The m ajority o f studies involve com petitors still attending to schools. It may derive from the accessibility o f such people but also from the fact that sportsm en are generally m ostly young people who are on the course of receiving education on different levels. The listed works ambiguously point out the influence o f individual variables such as sex, the level o f advancem ent or environm ental e.g. culture, on the classification o f certain situations as m ore or less stressful.

COPING W ITH STRESS

C ontem porary psychological conceptions treat the notions of stress and coping styles inseparably. Since 1970s a growing interest is being observed in activity taken up by a u n it and not in the factors causing stress. Such tendency m ay be explained by the fact that the effects o f facing stress are m ore subject to the coping styles th an the actual activity of stressors.

Coping with stress m ay be considered as a process, strategy or style (Heszen- Niejodek, 2000; W rześniewski, 2000). The term process concerns the whole complex and dynam ic activity that is taken up in face o f a stressor, lasts for the tim e o f its operation (often very long e.g. chronic illness) and is changeable und er the influence o f the stressful situation development. Such approach is represented by Lazarus and Folkman (1984).

(10)

Strategy is one elem ent o f the process o f coping (process is a chain o f strategies changing in tim e). U nder this concept various action and reactions are defined that hum an being takes up in a particular stress situation (Strelau et al., 2005). They are acquired w ith developm ent on the basis of general learning principles. Very often new strategies become established during the process of coping especially w hen they prove efficient.

The notion of coping style involves the individual tendency o f dealing in a specific way. It describes respectively firm habitual hum an behaviour in stress situations. Subjective factors are accented here (in the stress coping process situational factors are highlighted). People have the tendency to choose the dom inating style and follow it in stressful situations. However, there m ay happen forced situations in which applying preferable strategies can be hindered or sometim es even impossible (Heszen-Niejodek, 2000).

Over recent years stress coping in sport has become one of the m ost significant problem s dealt with by researchers. Anshel and Si (2008) notice that the process of coping that is based on applying various strategies is dependant to individual differences in the perception of the intensity of stress. M adden, Summers and Brown (1990) studying basketball players discovered that sportspeople declaring high intensity of the experienced stress took up actions and m ore often searched for inform ation and social support to deal with stressful events, in com parison to those revealing less o f the experienced stress. In another research, Rawstorne et al. (2000, at Anshel and Si, 2008) stated that coping style is subject to the type o f stressor (in case that a stressor is classified as highly intensive).

The results of the published research conducted on sportsm en related to the strategies o f coping allow for the assum ption that sportsm en engaged in various disciplines show certain specified types of strategies that steam from experiencing intensive stress during com petition (Johnston and McCabe, 1993; Anshel et al., 1998). Krohne and H indel (1988) have ascertained that the effective top table tennis players after doing a mistake, experienced considerably less anxiety and obtained better perform ance through the usage o f avoidant coping style, and not the approach coping style. In another experim ent on table tennis players, Anshel and A nderson (2002) have discovered that applying the approach coping style was connected with negative effects and lower accuracy o f trials in contrast to the avoidant coping style. Roth and C ohen (1986, at Anshel and Si, 2008) describe the approach coping style as tim e-consum ing and distractive. Thus, especially in m otoric sports, m ore effective proves the avoidant coping style in which a contestant does not pay attention to stressful stimulus what enables them to concentrate on the action and obtaining a positive result.

O n the basis of stress coping styles theory by Endler and Parker, Guszkowska (2002) has studied the differences within the spread of coping styles in students

(11)

of Physical Education Academy (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego - AWF) in Warsaw, Military Technical Academy ( Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna - WAT) in Warsaw and Polish Air Force Academy ( Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk

Powietrznych - WSOWP). The dom inant coping style in students o f PEA (AWF)

was the task-related style. At the same time, considerably less frequent (with similar incidence) behaviours were chosen that are ascribed to the avoidant and emotional styles. As it comes out o f earlier research, the obtained hierarchy o f styles (i.e. in descending sequence from task related, through avoidant to emotional approach) is characteristic for m en (Jelonkiewicz, Kosińska-Dec, 1999).

By comparing students from various types of schools it has been established that, towards, students of MTA ( WAT) and PEA (AW F) m uch m ore often apply the emotional style and less frequently seek company of other people (subscale of avoidant style). In turn, comparing to students o f PAFA (W SOW P) and PEA

(AWF) declare definitely m ore frequent use of task-related style and less frequently

- the avoidant style, especially in the form of com m itm ent to substitute actions. The author has also been checking the correlation between dealing with a difficult situation and the sense o f coherence m easured with SOC-29 questionnaire. Am ong AW F students it was observed that greater frequency of choosing actions aim ed at solving a problem and lower concentration on em otions are related to strong sense of com prehensibility and manageability.

The results gathered by Litwie (2008) enable to describe the relationship o f stress coping styles with the sense o f coherence am ong juniors and seniors training sport shooting. The contestants declared the use of the biggest num ber of strategies classified by Endler and Parker as the task related style and the smallest num ber of those placed w ithin the scale o f em otional style by the authors of the CISS Questionnaire. Such hierarchy o f coping styles existed regardless o f gender. Moreover, wom en, as com pared to m en, tend to reveal considerably m ore behaviours proper to the style concentrated on a problem w hich is on the contrary to the earlier research on the relationship between gender and coping styles (Jelonkiewicz, Kosińska-Dec, 1999). For all exam ined competitors the high level of the sense of coherence (SOC) was related to the increased tendency to employ task-related coping style and decreased concentration on em otions. Such tendency was very clear especially am ong women. There also appeared a negative correlation with the avoidant style. Along with the raise o f com prehensibility am ong women, the tendency to ignore problem s dropped whereas m en engaged in substitute actions to a lesser degree.

The task-related style is considered to be the m ost functional i.e. allowing for the m ost effective dealing with problems. O n the other hand the em otional style, which m ain aim is to release the em otional tension, after long period of application m ay even deepen the feeling of stress or bring about the increase in

(12)

tension or depression (Endler, Parker, 1990; Jelonkiewicz, Kosińska-Dec, 1999). The desadaptative role o f this style is highlighted by Szczepaniak et al. (1996) who proved that there is a strong correlation between concentrating on emotions and neuroticism . In a great deal of previous studies, the em otional coping style gave positive correlation with negative health variables such as; depression, fear, slower recuperation. Albeit the task-oriented style gave negative correlation or there was no relationship between these variables (Endler et al., 1993; Flett et al., 1996; Zwoliński, 1999). In this respect it has to be stated that the groups of sportsm en studied by Guszkowska (2002) and Litwie (2008) declared the application of efficient m ethods o f dealing w ith stressful situations.

In the research conducted by Anshel et al. (2009) regarding coping styles used by sportsm en of various races it turned out that white sportsm en showed m uch stronger tendency to employ approach-behavioural style than Afro- Am ericans who m ore often chose avoidance-cognitive style. W om en m ore frequently com paring to m en, applied the approach-behavioural and the avoidance-cognitive styles. Furtherm ore, studies done over Chinese, Am erican and Australian sportsm en (Anshel et ah, 1997; Anshel, 2001; Anshel, Si, 2008) indicated cultural differences in the choice o f stress coping styles.

Interactions ru n in order to improve individual techniques of tackling stress m ay concern both psychological (e.g. changes in the estim ation of self com petence or difficulties im posed by the task) and physiological state of body (e.g. relief from tension) aspects. The techniques that are often applied by sportsm en unite both displays o f hum an functioning using the concept of feedback between the estim ations and the m easured physiological condition. In such areas researchers examine the effectiveness of the undertaken actions and factors that influence their efficacy.

O ne of the first studies of the effectiveness of those m ethods has been perform ed by Orlick and Partington (1988) on sportsm en com peting in the Olympic games. It has been proved that the success of the top athletes was connected with particular elements of so called m ental training concerning, above all, the developm ent o f em otional control skills through relaxation, im agination and sim ulation trainings. Relaxation exercises make use of the influence of relaxing muscles and decrease of respiratory and cardiac rhythm on the general calm and the feeling of psychic comfort. The relaxation of the muscles and m ind is b o u n d to improve the concentration skills and increase the effectiveness o f cognitive processes owing to w hich a relaxation session becomes the basis to further skills’ developm ent during m ental sport training (Nowicki, 2004). Such training is a long-term process which requires a great doze of regularity as the aim is a full autom ation o f the practiced reactions. The research suggest (Nowicki, 1987; M arkowska et al., 1989 at: Nowicki, 2004) that the first

(13)

effect may be observed already in the second week o f everyday training sessions. However the tim e necessary to practice the desired psychic characteristics varies according to the types of m ethods and individual predispositions of competitors.

STRESS MODERATORS

This p art is devoted to the presentation o f studies regarding some of the factors that can significantly m odify the developm ent of stress causing the differentiation of the course and character o f stressors, stress itself together with its afterm aths and coping styles.

Experience and the level o f the competitors

Epstein in collaboration with Fenz(1963,1965,1967; Fenz, Epstein, 1962,1967, 1968) have conducted long-term observations and examinations on parachutists. They were especially interested in how the fear dynamics of the parachutists presents and in what way do they get resistant to the stress connected with jumping. In this connection they have checked what the relationship is between the experience in jum ping and their emotional involvement (Fenz, Epstein, 1967, 1968). They have been comparing the physiological arousal on the trial day and the day after. They discovered that am ong beginners there was a m uch bigger leap o f GSR measure and the reaction time than among experienced contestants. Different was the dynamics o f that arousal. The sooner was the jum p the stronger the arousal among beginner parachutists and directly after the jum p there was a sudden drop. Among experienced parachutists, however, the m axim um level of activation fell on the few to dozen hours before the jump. Then it gradually lowered until it raised again after the jump. The scientists have come to a conclusion that experienced parachutists have a practiced emotional control ability owing to which they are capable of inhibiting fear reaction in the time before the jump.

The age

Considering the differences o f the age o f com petitors, Bäckman and M olander (1986, at: M olander and Bäckman, 1994) have com pared Swedish m ini golf players of high and average skills during trainings and competitions. The num ber of shots was registered as well as the pulse, anxiety indicators and

(14)

the tim e o f concentration. A m ong all players, regardless o f age an increased pulse was observed during com petition with respect to trainings. In the groups o f older (50 - 73 years old) and less talented golf players during com petitions worsening o f m otoric perform ance appeared whereas am ong younger (15 - 35 years old) players the level o f m otoric perform ance improved. The tim e of rem aining concentrated was also shorter am ong older players. The researchers have draw n a conclusion that age has an indirect influence on the ability to tam e the com petitive arousal. O lder players are less proficient in dealing with strong stress connected with the participation in a contest because aging brings about a decrease in the level of various cognitive skills.

Professional sport may be too stressful for children whenever they feel that their value depends on their attempts. In one of A m erican studies, LeBlanc and Dicson (1997) stated that am ong 62% of children taking part in com petitions the fear o f failure and m aking a m istake appeared. 23% of them announced that the experienced stress discourages them from further professional training.

There is a certain fear that the stress existing in professional sport may h ind er em otional developm ent o f children. In response to those reproaches one could adduce the results of research carried out by Simon and M artens (1979) on groups o f children engaged and n o t engaged in sport activity. No significant difference has been noticed betw een the results of both groups. However, some discrepancies have been reported am ong the participants of team and individual sports. In sports where children compete in teams lower level of anxiety has been observed. O n the basis of these results the scientists have stated th at despite the fact that sport obviously causes stress, it is no deeper than that experienced by the child while taking an exam or perform ing in a school music band.

Studies conducted at Canadian Association of Trainers request under the m anagem ent o f Carm ichael (LeBlanc and Dickson, 1997) proved that no younger than eleven-year-old children start to effectively adapt to competitive stress. Excessive level of stress in too early age m ay lead to worse self-perception and m ay considerably h inder learning processes. Furtherm ore, the researcher points out that children ought to begin their professional career in specially designed environm ent i.e. have some, manageable deals o f stress provided by the trainer with respect to individual abilities o f young people.

Strategies sustaining self-esteem

Stress itself influences the self-assessment of com petitors. The presented researches show factors that m ay additionally affect the contestant’s self-esteem which also m eans to m odify their perception o f stress.

(15)

W ith regards to Jones and Berglas suggestion (1978, at: Doliński i Szmajke, 1991) that sportspeople very often apply (self-discovered) strategy o f anticipatory self-ham pering for the purpose of protecting personal value, Rhodewalt and associates ( 1984) have carried out studies on a group of swimmers from Am erican university teams and professional golf players. They have stated that people that reveal the tendency to anticipatory self-ham pering before im portant events were also m uch m ore often subject to injuries, somatic and psychic illnesses than before less im portant ones. W hat is more, before im portant com petitions these sportspeople evaluated the conditions as objectively tougher and less favouring the achievem ent of a good result (e.g. pointing to the difficulties o f a golf pitch or the tem perature o f water). O n the other hand am ong people less inclined in self-ham pering such differences have n o t been observed. It shows that some com petitors de facto use this strategy in a stressful situation in order to m aintain self-assessment.

Rhodewalt and his associates (1984) have also exam ined w hether undertaking such strategy influences the level of sport achievements. Positions on the rank list o f golf players representing strong and weak tendencies towards the discussed behaviours were taken into account for the sake of the analysis. Sportsm en from the first group took slightly higher positions. Such result triggers out a presum ption that anticipatory self-ham pering strategy m ay be a successful technique o f coping with a difficult situation. Nevertheless, the differentiation m ade by Leary and Shepperd (1986, at: Doliński and Szmajke, 1991) should not be om itted. They have divided the abovem entioned strategy into two variations - behavioural and symbolic. The form er is connected with the actual behaviours th at cause real decline in the probability of success (e.g. non-sporty lifestyle) the latter deals only with talking about the obstacles connected with a trial (e.g. com plaining about the environm ental conditions). This strategy m ay tu rn out to be successful as it allows to reduce the tension related w ith predicting possible failure. Yet, as far as the first form is taken into consideration, it can not necessarily com pensate the negative consequences of the actions that would have been undertaken. Such differentiation was not done in Rhodew alts et al. m easurem ents (1984).

Likewise, Karolczak-Biernacka (1986) draws attention to application of this strategy yet n ot m entioning the self-ham pering term directly for research. She considers the perception of failures am ong com petitors before attem pts i.e. before they could actually happen as well as the defensive m echanism s that are to be the m ethod of coping before contests. She announced that sportsm en have the feeling of frustration similar to that experienced in face of difficulty simply by im agining it. The author claims that the results of the studies carried out on a group o f swimm ers which indicate that the perception o f personal competitive

(16)

anxiety as stronger than that of the opponent (statistically significant difference am ong m en, insignificant am ong women) suggest the com m onness of applying the anticipatory self-ham pering strategy.

A great num ber o f research papers confirm the im pact o f attrib utio n on the experiencing o f stress and effectiveness o f coping m ethods (i.a. Scalan and Passer, 1980; Riess and Taylor, 1984; Taylor and Riess, 1989). G audreau and Blondin (2004) proved that disposable optim ism and pessim ism correlate w ith various coping styles, achieved goals and affective states during sport com petitions. The perform ed analyses point out that task-oriented coping style partly m ediates in the relationship betw een optim ism and positive em otional state after the com petitions. O n the other hand, avoidant style fully m ediates in the relationship betw een pessim ism and anxiety m ixed with despondency after the com petition.

Research aim ed at the com parison betw een people engaged and no t engaged in sport reveal th at in causal explanations of their results com petitors m ore often refer to the effort devoted by themselves and m uch less frequently to the aleatory factors like good or bad luck (Scalan and Paser, 1980; Riess and Taylor, 1984; Taylor and Riess, 1989). Such way of thinking is evidence of the tendency to such attributions w hich enable to m aintain a strong feeling o f influence on the achievem ent o f a result. This, however, helps in stress coping in case of predicting fu rth er attempts. W ith reference to sport practice it can be stated that sportspersons com plaining on having bad luck m ay be a signal for the train er that he stops seeing the im pact of his undertakings on the obtained results.

Self-focusing o f attention

The hitherto prevailing researches (Pennebaker and Lightner, 1980; Baum eistrer and Showers, 1986; Nideffer, 2001; LaCaille et al., 2004; Baghurst et al., 2004) show that the application o f cognitive strategies based on lowering self-concentration of attention and m oving it to external factors m ay improve the results in some sport disciplines. Self-concentration causes the subjective experiencing o f tiredness and the passage o f time. Refocusing of attention outside can bring about the increase in effectiveness o f physical effort expenditure. It is especially im portant for endurance sportspeople such as: runners, long-distance swimmers. Padget and Hill (1989) displayed that people taking part in a mile ru n who had been given an instruction to pay special attention to the changing environm ent (e.g. counting cars o r spectators) obtained m uch better tim e than people from the control group who hadn’t been given the instruction.

(17)

They have also carried out an experim ent during which the tested people who were riding an exercise were divided into two groups. Those, whose task was to concentrate on their internal states (the m ovem ents o f muscles, cardiac action and cutaneous impressions) and those who had to fill in a questionnaire about their bodies states. In spite of bo th groups being induced to thin k about their bodies, people whose attention was no t focused on filling the questionnaire experienced subjectively greater exhaustion and overestim ated the tim e o f the trial (Padget and Hill, 1989).

SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS

The principal aim of the present w ork has been to approxim ate the concept of stress in sport as well as to explain by what m eans and for what reason may various stress m echanism s appear during sporting events. Stress am ong sportspeople touches various areas o f functioning. The com petitors are exposed not only to stress connected with trainings and com petitions but also the stress of life that ordinary people come across everyday. For this reason the review also contains works not particularly related to participation in sport rivalry.

To recapitulate it m ay be stated that the analyzed research papers indicate the significance o f cultural and individual differences (i.e. gender, the level o f a contestant) to the perception o f particular situations as stressful and to the undertaken counter-m easures. Noticeable is the great diversity of results according to spo rt discipline on which the studies have been carried out. This w ould suggest further, m ore detailed analysis of research concerning particular disciplines individually w hich could enable a discovery o f regularities in the experience and coping w ith stress. It is, therefore, especially significant w ith regards to the fact th at extensive knowledge o f actual factors causing the increased level of stress is necessary for planning effective intervention and preventive program m es.

A nother problem concerns the research m odels used in the abovem entioned works. The m ajority o f studies are atheoretical. The analyses are based on the strength of the existing correlations. It is, however, well know n that in science the answers should only be obtained through experim ental research. The sport activity allows for the exam ination o f the results o f “natural experim ent” which is every single attem pt in com petitions. Providing that researches are conducted according to theoretical m odels and include a satisfactory nu m ber of variables the p henom enon of stress in sport m ay be b etter u n d ersto od in the future.

(18)

REFERENCES

Anshel M. H. (2001). Cognitive appraisals and coping strategies following acute stress am ong skilled competitive male and female child athletes. Journal o f Sport Behavior, 24,128-146.

Anshel M. H., Anderson D. I. (2002). Coping with acute stress in sport: Linking athletes’ coping style, coping strategies, affect, and m otor performance. Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An International Journal, 15, 193-209.

Anshel M. H., Kaissidis A. N. (1997). Coping style and situational appraisals as predictors of coping strategies following stressful events in sport as a function of gender and skill level. British Journal o f Psychology, 88, 263-276.

Anshel M. H., Porter A., Q uek J.J. (1998). Coping with acute stress in sport as a function o f gender: An exploratory study. Journal o f Sport Behavior, 21, 363-376.

Anshel M. H., Si G. (2008). Coping styles following acute stress in sport am ong elite Chinese athletes: a test of trait and transactional coping theories. Journal o f Sport Behavior, 31,1, 3-21.

Anshel M. H., Sutarso T. (2007). Relationships between sources of acute stress and athletes’ coping style in competitive sport as a function of gender. Psychology o f Sport and Exercise, 8, 1-24.

Anshel M. H., Sutarso T., Jubenville C. (2009). Racial and G ender Differences on Sources of Acute Stress and Coping Style Am ong Competitive Athletes. The Journal o f Social Psychology, 149, 2, 159-177.

A rm strong L. (2003). Mój powrót do życia. (Its not about the bike: my journey back to life). Warszawa: Studio Emka.

Bäckman L., M olander В. (1986). Effects of adult age and level of skill on the ability to cope with high-stress conditions in a precision sport. Psychology and Aging. 1 (4), 334-336. Baghurst T., Thierry G., Holder T. (2004). Evidence for a Relationship Between Attentional

Styles and Effective Cognitive Strategies D uring Performance. Athletic Insight - The Online Journal o f Sport Psychology. 6, 1, 36-51, http://www.athleticinsight.com /, data uzyskania: 30.12.2009.

Baumeister R. F., Showers C.J. (1986). A review o f paradoxical perform ance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and m ental tests. European Journal o f Social Psychology, 16, 361-383.

Borkowski J. (2001). Radzenie sobie ze stresem a poczucie tożsamości. (Coping w ith stress and identity). Warszawa: D om Wydawniczy Elipsa.

Doliński D., Szmajke A. (1991). Psychologiczne reakcje na sytuację startową. (Psycho logical responses to a situation o f start), [w:] T. Tyszka (red.) Psychologia sportu. (Sport psychology), (s. 113-152). Warszawa: AWF.

Endler N. S., Parker J.D.A. (1990). M ultidim ensional Assessment of Coping: A Critical Evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58 (5), 844-854.

(19)

Endler N. S., Parker J. D., Butcher J. N. (1993). A factor analytic study of coping styles and the MMPI-2 content scales. Journal o f Clinical Psychology, 49, 523-527.

Epstein S., Fenz W. D. (1963). Steepness o f approach and avoidance gradients in hum ans as a function of experience. Journal o f Experimental Psychology, 70, 1-12.

Epstein S., Fenz W. D. (1965). Theory and experim ent on the m easurem ent o f approach- avoidance conflict. Journal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 97-112.

Epstein S., Fenz W. (1967). The detection of areas of stress through variations in perceptual threshold and physiological arousOal. Journal o f Experimental Research in Personality, 2, 191-199.

Fenz W. D„ Epstein S. (1962). The measurement o f approach-avoidance conflict by a stimu lus dimension in a test of thematic apperception. Journal o f Personality, 30,613-632. Fenz W., Epstein S. (1967). G radients of physiological arousal of experienced and

novice parachutists as a function of an approaching jum p. Psychosomatic Medicine, 29,33-51.

Fenz W., Epstein S. (1968). Specific and General Inhibitory Reactions Associated with M astery of Stress. Journal o f Experimental Psychology, 77(1), 52-56.

Flett G. L., Blanksteinb K. R., Obertynskic M. (1996). Affect intensity, coping styles, m ood regulation expectancies and depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 2,221-228

Gan Q., Anshel M. H. (2009). Sources o f Acute Stress Among Chinese College Athletes as a Function of G ender and Skill Level. Journal o f Sport Behavior, 32,1-16

Gan Q„ Anshel M. H., Kim J. (2009). Sources and cognitive appraisals o f acute stress as predictors of coping style am ong male and female Chinese athletes. International Journal o f Sport and Exercise Psychology, 40,110-130.

Gaudreau P., Blondin J. P. (2004). Differential Associations of Dispositional O ptim ism and Pessimism W ith Coping, Goal Attainm ent, and Emotional Adjustm ent During Sport Competition. International Journal o f Stress Management. 11, 3, 245-269.

Gould D., Horn T., Spreeman J. (1983). Sources of stress in junior elite wrestlers. Journal o f Sport Psychology, 5, 159-171.

Heszen-Niejodek I. (2000). Teoria stresu psychologicznego i radzenia sobie. (Psychologi cal theory o f stress and coping), [w:] J. Strelau (red.) Psychologia. Podręcznik akade micki, (Psychology. Academic handbook). Tom 3. (s. 465-492). Gdańsk: GWP. Hobfoll S. (1989). Conservation o f resources: A new attem pt of conceptualizing stress.

American Psychologist, 44, 187-197.

Holmes T. H., Rahe R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Scale. Journal o f Psychosomatic Research, 14, 121-132.

Guszkowska M. (2002). Style radzenia sobie ze stresem i poczucie koherencji jako czynni ki warunkujące odporność na stres studentów. (Styles of coping with stress and sense o f coherence as factors determ ining stress resiliency in students). Roczniki Naukowe. Warszawa : AWF, 41, 65-74.

(20)

Janis I. L. (1958). Psychological stress: Psychoanalytic and behavioral studies o f surgical pa tients. New York: Wiley.

Jelonkiewicz I., Kosińska-Dec К. (1999). O n relation between the sense o f coherence (SOC) and doping styles in senior adolescents. Polish Psychological Bulletin. 30, 4, 281-290.

Johnston B., McCabe M.P. (1993). Cognitive strategies for coping with stress in a simulat ed golfing task. International Journal o f Sport Psychology, 24, 30-48.

Junge A. (2000). The influence of psychological factors on sports injuries. The American Journal o f Sports Medicine, 28,10-15.

Karolczak-Biernacka B. (1986). Studia nad zachowaniem się sportowca w sytuacji trud nej. (Studies on athletes behaviour in a difficult situation). Warszawa: W ydawnict wo Sport i Turystyka.

Krohne H. W., Hindel C. (1988). Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and coping behavior as pre dictors of athletic performance. Anxiety Research, 1, 225-234.

LaCaille R. A., Masters K.S., Heath E.M. (2004). Effects o f cognitive strategy and exercise setting on running perform ance, perceived exertion, affect, and satisfaction. Psychol- ogy o f Sport and Exercise, 5, 4, 461-476.

Lazarus R. S., Folkman S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Verlag. LeBlanc J., Dickson L. (1997). Straight Talk about Children and Sport. Ottawa: Coaching

Association o f Canada.

Litwie К. (2008). Poczucie koherencji a style radzenia sobie ze stresem u strzelców spor towych. (Sense of coherence and styles of coping with stress in sport shooters). Byd goszcz: niepublikowana praca magisterska.

Łosiak W. (2007). Natura stresu. Spojrzenie z perspektywy ewolucyjnej. (The nature of stress. A look from evolutionary perspective). Kraków: UJ.

M adden C. C., Summers J. J., Brown D. F. (1990). The influence o f perceived stress on cop ing with competitive basketball. International Journal o f Sport Psychology, 21, 21-35. M artin C. (1998). Radzenie sobie ze stresem. (Coping with stress), [w:] T. Morris, J. Sum

mers (red.) Psychologia sportu. Strategie i techniki. (Sport psychology. Strategies and techniques), (s. 77-94). Warszawa: COS.

Molander, B. i Bäckman, L. (1994). Attention and perform ance in m iniature golf across the life span. Journal o f Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 49,35-41.

Neil R., Mellalieu S. D., Hanton S. (2004). Competitive anxiety and coping responses as a function of competitive status and experience. Journal o f Sports Sciences, 22, 309-310. Nideffer R.M. (2001). Theory of Attentional and Personal Style vs. Test of. Attentional

and Interpersonal Style (TAIS). http://www.taisdata.com /articles/tais.pdf, data uzys kania: 30.12.2009.

Nowicki D. (1987). Efekty technik relaksacyjnych stosowanych w treningu zawodników taekwondo. (Effects o f relaxation techniques used in a training of taaekwondo com petitors). Sport Wyczynowy, 1, 33-37.

(21)

Nowicki D. (2004). Poprzez psychologiczny trening do mistrzostwa. (Thanks psycholo gical training to mastery), [w:] M. Krawczyński, D. Nowicki (red.) Psychologia sportu dzieci i młodzieży. (Sport psychology of children and youth), (s. 117-144). Warszawa: COS.

Nowicki D. (2005). Praktyka ćwiczeń psychologicznych w rutynie treningu strzeleck iego. (The practice o f psychological exercises in a routine of shooters’ training), [w:] K. Kurzawski, (red.) Strzelectwo sportowe. Nowoczesne rozwiązania szkoleniowe. Zeszyt 2 (Sport shooting. M odern training solutions), (s. 7-20). Wrocław: AWF. Oniszczenko W. (1998). Stres to brzmi groźnie. (Stress sounds dangerously). Warszawa:

W ydawnictwo „Żak”.

Orlick T., Partington J. (1988). M ental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 2, 105-130.

Padgett V. R., Hill A. K. (1989). M aximizing Athletic Performance in Endurance Events: A Com parison o f Cognitive Strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19 (4), 331-340.

Pałka M. i Rogoziński A. (1987). Czynności oddechowe podczas strzelania z pistoletu dowolnego. (Breathing activities during shooting with the use o f a sport pistol handgun). Sport Wyczynowy, 1,12-14.

Papanikolaou Z., Nikolaidis D., Patsiaouras A. i Alexopoulos P. (2003). The freshman experience: High stress-low grades. Athletic Insight: The On-line Journal o f Sport Psychology, 5, 4, http://www.athleticinsight.com /, data uzyskania: 20.12.2009. Pennebaker J. W., Lightner J. M. (1980). Com petition of internal and external inform a

tion in an exercise setting. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 165-174. Reykowski J. (1966). Funkcjonowanie osobowości w warunkach stresu psychologicznego.

(Functioning of personality in conditions o f psychological stress). Warszawa: PWN. Rhodewalt F., Saltzman A. T„ W ittm er J. (1984). Self-handicapping am ong com peti

tive athletes: The role o f practice in self-esteem protection. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 5, 197-209.

Riess M., Taylor J. (1984). Ego-involvement and attributions for success and failure in a field setting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 536-543.

Scanlan T. K., Passer M. W. (1980) Attributional responses of young female athletes after winning, tying, and losing. Research Quarterly fo r Exercise and Sport (RQES), 51, 4, 675-684.

Selye H. (1960). Stres życia. (Stress w ithout distress), Warszawa: PWN.

Simon J., Martens R. (1979). Children’s Anxiety in Sport and Nonsport Evaluative Activities. Journal o f Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(2), 160-169.

Strelau J., Jaworowska A., Wrześniewski K. i Szczepaniak P. (2005). Kwestionariusz Radzenia Sobie w Sytuacjach Stresowych CISS. Podręcznik. (Q uestionnaire of coping in stress situations. CISS. A manual). Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psycholo gicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego.

(22)

Szczepaniak P., Strelau J., W rześniewski K. (1996). Diagnoza stylów radzenia sobie ze stre sem za pom ocą polskiej wersji kwestionariusza CISS Endlera i Parkera. (Diagno sis of styles o f coping with stress with the use o f Polish version of Endler Parker questionnaire CISS). Przegląd Psychologiczny, 39,1, 187-210.

Taylor J., Riess M. (1989). A field experim ent of “self-serving” attributions to valenced causal factors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15,337-348.

Terelak J. (2001). Psychologia stresu. (Psychology o f stress). Bydgoszcz: Oficyna Wydaw nicza Branta.

W ilson G., Pritchard M. (2005). C om paring Sources of Stress in College Student Athletes and Non-Athletes. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal o f Sport Psychology. 7, 1, 1-8, http://www.athleticinsight.com /, data uzyskania: 20.12.2009.

Wrześniewski K. (2000). Style a strategie radzenia sobie ze stresem. Problemy pom ia ru. (Styles and strategies of coping with stress. Problems of m easurem ent), [w:] I. Heszen-Niejodek, Z. Ratajczak (red.) Człowiek w sytuacji stresu. Problemy teoretyczne i metodologiczne. (A m an in a stress situation. Theoretical and m ethodological problems), (s. 44-64). Katowice: Wyd. Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Zwoliński M. (1999). Sense o f coherence (SOC) and coping styles as predictors of