Ewelina Wojtyś
Towards effective dictionary use by
L2 learners: in search of new
perspectives
Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature 33, 169-179
L IT E R A T U R E 33, 2009, h t t p ://w w w .l s m l l . u m c s .l u b l i n . p l
Ewelina Wojtyś
Maria Curie-Skłodowska University,
Lublin, Poland
Towards effective dictionary use by L2 learners:
in search of new perspectives
D ic tio n a r ie s a re o n e o f th e b a s ic to o ls o f r e f e r e n c e u s e d b y L 2 le a r n e r s . I f e x p lo ite d e f fe c tiv e ly , th e y c a n s e rv e a s a s o u r c e o f im p o r ta n t in f o rm a tio n o n la n g u a g e o r a s a n in s tr u m e n t f o r s e lf- s tu d y . T h e d e b a te o n e f f e c tiv e d ic tio n a ry u s e s ta r te d in th e 7 0 s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a n d in f a c t h a s n o t c e a s e d u p to n o w . T h e b a s ic q u e s tio n r e p e a te d ly a s k e d b y le x ic o g r a p h e r s a s w e ll a s la n g u a g e te a c h e r s c o n c e r n s th e k in d o f s k ills le a r n e r s n e e d to e m p lo y to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f in f o rm a tio n e n c o d e d in d ic tio n a rie s . T h e a w a re n e s s o f v a r io u s s tr a te g ie s th a t c a n im p r o v e le a r n e r s ’ d ic tio n a r y u s e is j u s t th e f ir s t s te p to e d u c a te te a c h e r s o n th e im p o r ta n c e o f d e v e lo p in g l e a r n e r s ’ d ic tio n a r y s k ills . T h e s tu d ie s in th e f ie ld o f p e d a g o g ic a l le x ic o g r a p h y c le a r ly in d ic a te th a t th e lo o k - u p p r o c e s s is c o m p lic a te d a n d r e q u ir e s d e ta ile d a n a ly s is . T h is p a p e r r e p o r ts th e c o n c lu s io n s d r a w n fro m s e le c te d s tu d ie s o n d ic tio n a ry u s e in th e la n g u a g e c la s s r o o m a n d d is c u s s e s th e k n o w le d g e g a in e d th a n k s to th e s tu d ie s o n d ic tio n a r y s k ills u s e d b y L 2 le a rn e r s . H o w e v e r , th e re is a n e w d im e n s io n to th e is s u e o f d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n , n a m e ly u s in g d ic tio n a r ie s d u r in g e x a m s . S in c e th is id e a h a s b e e n g a in in g im p o r ta n c e a n d , th e re fo r e , s h o u ld n o t b e ig n o r e d , th e fin a l p a r t o f th e p a p e r w ill b e d e v o te d to th e
r a tio n a le fo r a llo w in g d ic tio n a r y u s e d u r in g e x a m s , e s p e c ia lly w ritin g e x a m s .
1. I n e f f e c tiv e l e a r n e r s ’ d ic tio n a r y u s e a n d la c k o f s k ills
W i th th e g r o w th o f in te r e s t in th e f ie ld o f p e d a g o g ic a l le x ic o g r a p h y w ith in th e la s t f ifty y e a r s a n d n u m e ro u s p u b lic a tio n s o f p e d a g o g ic a l d ic tio n a rie s r e s e a r c h e r s b e c a m e m o r e e a g e r to p ro b e in to th e p r o c e s s o f d ic tio n a r y u s e b y s e c o n d /f o r e ig n la n g u a g e le a rn e rs . T h e ir a im w a s to a s c e r ta in th a t d ic tio n a rie s c o m p ile d b y le x ic o g r a p h e r s w e r e a u s e fu l to o l e f f ic ie n tly s u p p o r tin g th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , it w a s d is c o v e r e d th a t le a r n e r s c o n s u lte d d ic tio n a rie s m a in ly to fin d s o m e in f o r m a tio n o n s p e llin g a n d m e a n in g , f re q u e n tly ig n o r in g d e ta ile d d a ta o n d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f lo o k e d -u p w o rd s . T h u s th e c o m p o n e n ts o f w o r d k n o w le d g e s u c h a s p r o n u n c ia tio n , s y n o n y m s , u s a g e n o te s a n d e ty m o lo g ie s in c lu d e d in th e m ic r o s tr u c tu r e te n d e d to b e a n a ly z e d le s s f re q u e n tly i f e v e r (B a r n h a rt 1 9 6 2 , Q u irk 1 9 7 3 ). T o n o (1 9 8 4 ) a s w e ll a s N e u b a c h a n d C o h e n (1 9 8 8 ) n o te d th a t d u r in g d ic tio n a ry c o n s u lta tio n s le a r n e r s r e p e a te d ly ig n o r e d p a rt o f e n trie s c o n ta in in g s y n ta c tic in f o rm a tio n n o m a tte r w h e th e r th e d ic tio n a r y u s e d w a s a b ilin g u a l o r a m o n o lin g u a l o n e . T o d is c o v e r th e m e a n in g o f a n u n k n o w n w o rd , le a r n e r s w o u ld p a r tia lly s c a n th e e n tr y a n d o p t fo r th e m e a n in g o r th e e q u iv a le n t th a t a p p e a r e d a p p r o p r ia te . S u c h a b e h a v io u r o n th e p a r t o f le a r n e r s c le a rly d e m o n s tr a te d th a t th e y w e r e h ig h ly c o n f u s e d a b o u t th e n u m b e r o f in f o r m a tio n ite m s in c lu d e d in d ic tio n a r y e n trie s . H o w e v e r , th e a m o u n t o f d a ta th e y a c c e s s e d d u r in g d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n s w a s n o t th e o n ly r e a s o n fo r th e ir in e ff e c tiv e d ic tio n a r y u se . It a p p e a r e d th a t th e la n g u a g e c h o s e n f o r th e e n trie s , e s p e c ia lly in m o n o lin g u a l d ic tio n a rie s , w a s to o d if f ic u lt ( T o m a s z c z y k 1979, B a x te r 1 9 8 0 , M ille r a n d G ild e a 1 9 8 5 ). C o n s e q u e n tly , w h e n th e s u b je c ts r e g a r d e d d ic tio n a ry u s e a s n e c e s s a ry , th e y o p te d fo r a b ilin g u a l d ic tio n a r y r a th e r th a n a m o n o lin g u a l o n e (B e n s o u s s a n e t al. 1984) a s th e f o rm e r s e e m e d to b e le s s c o m p lic a te d . It d id n o t m e a n , n o n e th e le s s , th a t le a r n e r s u s e d b ilin g u a l d ic tio n a r ie s s k illf u lly e n o u g h to f u lfill r e s e a r c h e r s ’ e x p e c ta tio n s . C o n v e rs e ly , a t s o m e p o in t it w a s d is c o v e r e d th a t d ic tio n a ry c o n s u lta tio n a s s u c h d id n o t g u a r a n te e
s u c c e s s in th e lo o k -u p p r o c e s s . W h a t tu r n e d o u t to b e e v e n m o r e d is tre s s in g f o r r e s e a r c h e rs w a s th a t th e re a p p e a r e d n o c o n s id e r a b le d if f e r e n c e in s o m e s tu d ie s (B e n s o u s s a n e t a l. 1984) b e tw e e n th e o u tc o m e s a c h ie v e d b y th e tw o g r o u p s o f s u b je c ts , o n e u s in g a d ic tio n a r y w h ile p e r f o rm in g th e ta rg e t ta s k s a n d th e o th e r o n e m a n a g in g w ith o u t d ic tio n a ry c o n s u lta tio n . T h is m o s t p r o b a b ly s te m m e d f ro m th e f a c t th a t th e le a r n e r s la c k e d a p p r o p r ia te s k ills ; e v e n w ith a d ic tio n a ry a t th e ir d is p o s a l th e y d id n o t k n o w h o w to m a k e u s e o f it.
T h e r e s u lts o f r e s e a r c h o n d ic tio n a ry u s e c o n d u c te d in th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s c le a r ly in d ic a te d th a t L 2 le a r n e r s tr e a te d d ic tio n a r ie s m o s tly a s a s o u r c e o f m e a n in g c o n v e y e d e ith e r th r o u g h d e f in itio n s o r b y m e a n s o f e q u iv a le n ts in th e ir n a tiv e la n g u a g e . T h is w a s n o t th e k in d o f d ic tio n a r y u s e le x ic o g r a p h e r s e x p e c te d s in c e le a r n e r s to o o fte n te n d e d to ig n o re m e tic u lo u s ly p r e p a r e d in f o r m a tio n fo r e n c o d in g d ic tio n a r y e n trie s . I t b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e re w a s a m is m a tc h b e tw e e n u s e r s ’ b e h a v io u r a n d le x ic o g r a p h e r s ’ a s s u m p tio n s o n u s e r s ’ b e h a v io u r . 2. T h e c a ll fo r d ic tio n a r y s k ills tr a in in g
F a c e d w ith L 2 l e a r n e r s ’ in e ff e c tiv e u s e o f d ic tio n a rie s r e s e a r c h e rs a n d le x ic o g r a p h e r s c o u ld c h o o s e to f o llo w tw o p o s s ib le p a th s : (1) p r o d u c in g d ic tio n a rie s a s c o m p ila tio n s o f u s e r - f r ie n d ly d e f in itio n s o r (2) e d u c a tin g u s e r s o n th e w e a lth o f in f o r m a tio n in c lu d e d in d ic tio n a rie s . In th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s it b e c a m e o b v io u s th a t th e s e c o n d o p tio n h a d to e n ta il th o r o u g h s k ills tr a in in g in u s in g d ic tio n a rie s . H o w e v e r , in o r d e r to p ro v id e le a r n e r s w ith p r o p e r tr a in in g it w a s n e c e s s a r y to g a in b e t te r u n d e r s ta n d in g in to w h a t le a r n e r s a c tu a lly do w h e n th e y c o n s u lt a d ic tio n a ry . T h e r e f o r e , a lis t o f q u e s tio n s c o n c e r n in g th e c o m p le x ity o f th e l e a r n e r s ’ lo o k -u p p r o c e s s w a s c o m p ile d :
1. How do the users identify the lexical item they want to look up? 2. How do they find what they need in the macrostructure? 3. How do they find what they need in the microstructure?
4. Do users of all societies behave similarly? If not, how do they differ? 5. When do dictionary users consider the consultation process to be
completed?
6. What makes them think they have found the information they searched for?
Bejoint (2000)
D u e to th e a p p a r e n t c o m p le x ity o f in v e s tig a tin g th e s k ills o f d ic tio n a r y u s e rs , it b e c a m e o b v io u s th a t in o r d e r to c o m e to a t le a s t s o m e in itia l c o n c lu s io n s o n th e p r o b le m s a n a ly z e d it w a s n e c e s s a r y to e lim in a te th e n u m b e r o f v a r ia b le s d e a lt w ith a s w e ll a s to s im p lif y th e e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u re s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , r e s e a r c h e rs f r e q u e n tly lim ite d th e n u m b e r s o f d ic tio n a r ie s to o n e ty p e , a n d d if fe r e n t c a te g o r ie s o f u s e r s to o n e ty p ic a l u s e r.
M it c h e l’s (1 9 8 3 ) a n d T o n o ’s (1 9 8 4 ) s tu d ie s r e v e a le d th a t th e ir s u b je c ts h a d d if f ic u lty a n a ly z in g d ic tio n a r y e n trie s . T h e y o b s e rv e d th a t th e ir lo o k - u p b e h a v io u r w a s o fte n c h a o tic a s th e y te n d e d to s e le c t p ie c e s o f in f o rm a tio n fro m d ic tio n a r y e n trie s a t ra n d o m . T h e s u b je c ts w o u ld a ls o u s e a ‘n e g a tiv e c h o ic e s tr a t e g y ’. N a m e ly i f th e y d id n o t k n o w w h a t c h o ic e to m a k e a b o u t th e m e a n in g th e y w e r e s e a r c h in g for, t h e y w o u ld s e le c t th e p a r t o f th e e n try th a t w a s n o t e x p lic itly re je c te d a n d a f te rw a r d s th e y w o u ld o f te n q u it th e lo o k - u p p r o c e d u re . T h is s o r t o f b e h a v io u r s h o w e d th a t a p p a r e n tly th e y w e r e n o t s k illf u l e n o u g h to s u c c e s s f u lly e x p lo re d ic tio n a r y e n tr ie s a n d d r a w f in a l c o n c lu s io n s o n th e b a s is o f th e in f o r m a tio n th e y m a n a g e d to id e n tify . It w a s a ls o fo u n d th a t th e s u b je c ts , w h o w e r e p r o v id e d w ith s o m e tr a in in g in d ic tio n a r y s tr a te g ie s , s e a r c h e d f o r in f o r m a tio n e n c o d e d m o r e e f f e c tiv e ly (T o n o 19 8 4 a n d K ip f e r 1 9 8 5 ). B e c a u s e o f th is o b s e rv a tio n , w h e n in te r p re tin g l e a r n e r ’s lo o k -u p b e h a v io u r , s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s (e.g. S c h o lf ie ld 1 9 8 2 , T o n o 1 9 8 4 , T o n o 1987, H e r b s t a n d S te in 1987) p o s tu la te d th e n e e d f o r s y s te m a tic tra in in g a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f d ic tio n a ry s k ills to b e in tr o d u c e d in to th e c la s s r o o m e n v iro n m e n t. 3. D ic tio n a r y u s e a n d s k ills a t in te r m e d ia te a n d a d v a n c e d le v e ls
In th e 9 0 s th e s tu d ie s in v e s tig a tin g d ic tio n a r y u s e c o n tin u e d to h ig h lig h t th e n e e d fo r s o m e im p r o v e m e n t in l e a r n e r s ’ c o n s u lta tio n s k ills . A s A tk in s a n d K n o w le s (1 9 9 0 ) c o n c lu d e d th e d if f ic u lty in a c h ie v in g th is a im b a s ic a lly lie d in te a c h e r s ’ a ttitu d e to p u p i l s ’ d ic tio n a r y u se . F irs tly , te a c h e r s r e g a r d e d it a s in f e r io r to g u e s s in g f ro m c o n te x t. S e c o n d ly , th e y d id n o t s e e it a s a c o m p lic a te d p r o c e s s r e q u ir in g w e ll-in fo r m e d b e h a v io u r o n th e p a r t o f le a rn e r s . A s r e v e a le d b y s p e c ia lis ts th e m a jo r ity o f L 2 le a r n e r s h a d s e ld o m o r n e v e r r e c e iv e d p r o p e r s tr a te g y tra in in g a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , th e y p o s s e s s e d v e r y p o o r o r n o d ic tio n a ry s k ills (N e si 1 9 9 9 ). A b r ie f a n a ly s is o f r e s e a r c h o n d ic tio n a ry u s e a n d s k ills a t in te r m e d ia te a n d a d v a n c e d le v e ls c a r rie d o u t in th e 1 9 9 0 s d e m o n s tr a te d h o w th e r e s u lts o f th e s tu d ie s o n d ic tio n a r y u s e c o n d u c te d in th e la s t th r e e d e c a d e s o f th e 2 0 th c e n tu r y in f lu e n c e d th e s itu a tio n in th e la n g u a g e c la s s r o o m a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e n e x t m ille n n iu m . In W i n g a t e ’s (2 0 0 4 ) s tu d y 17 in te r m e d ia te C h in e s e le a r n e r s o f G e r m a n w e r e p r o v id e d w ith o n e b ilin g u a l a n d tw o m o n o lin g u a l d ic tio n a rie s to c h o o s e fro m w h ile r e a d in g tw o a u th e n tic n e w s p a p e r te x ts . T h e r e s e a r c h e r a im e d a t in v e s tig a tin g th e lo o k - u p p ro c e s s , th e d if f ic u ltie s e n c o u n te r e d d u r in g d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n a n d th e p o s s ib le r e a s o n s f o r th e l e a r n e r s ’ u n s u c c e s s fu l a tte m p ts a t e x p lo rin g th e e n trie s . S h e n o tic e d th a t th e s u b je c t s ’ d ic tio n a r y u s e w a s f re q u e n tly u n s u c c e s s fu l. O n e o f th e m a jo r p r o b le m s w a s c o n n e c te d w ith th e s e a r c h f o r th e m e a n in g o f c o m p o u n d s a n d id io m s . T h e s u b je c ts w e r e u n a b le to f in d th e m in th e d ic tio n a rie s b e c a u s e th e y tr ie d to lo o k th e m u p a s w h o le s r a th e r th a n d iv id e th e m in to w o r d s th a t f u n c tio n e d a s h e a d w o rd s . T h e y a ls o f a ile d w h e n c o n f r o n te d w ith th e n e c e s s ity to lo c a te th e in f in itiv e s o f th e p a s t p a r tic ip le f o rm s o f th e v e r b s f ro m th e te x ts . T h e la s t d if fic u lty th e y e x p e r ie n c e d c o n c e r n e d a s s ig n in g th e L 1 e q u iv a le n ts to th e w o r d s fro m th e a n a ly z e d te x ts .
T h e r e w e r e tw o m a in r e a s o n s id e n tif ie d fo r th e lo o k -u p p r o b le m s m e n tio n e d . F irs t, th e s u b je c ts w e r e f o u n d to r e a d th e d ic tio n a r y e n trie s s u p e rf ic ia lly . T h e y s im p ly p a id s c a r c e a tte n tio n to th e in f o rm a tio n in c lu d e d in th e e n trie s . S e c o n d , th e y la c k e d p r o p e r s tr a te g ie s fo r d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n . T h e y s tu d ie d o n ly th e b e g in n in g s o f th e
e n tr ie s ig n o r in g a la rg e p a rt o f th e in f o rm a tio n in c lu d e d fu rth e r. T h e y u s e d a f a m ilia r p a rt o f th e e n tr y a s a n e q u iv a le n t fo r th e u n k n o w n w o r d w ith o u t p a y in g a tte n tio n to its a p p r o p r ia te n e s s . S u c h le a r n e r b e h a v io u r is a n e x a m p le o f a n e g a tiv e s tr a te g y c a lle d ‘k i d r u l e ’ a ls o d is c u s s e d b y N e s i a n d M e a r a (1 9 9 4 ). T h u s , e v e n th o u g h th e s u b je c ts w e r e s k illf u l d ic tio n a r y u s e rs , th e r e s u lts d is c lo s e d th a t th e y fre q u e n tly la c k e d e s s e n tia l s tr a te g ie s .
S z c z e p a n ia k ’s (2 0 0 7 ) s tu d y in v o lv e d 143 M A s tu d e n ts o f tw o f in a l y e a r s a t th e S c h o o l o f E n g lis h , A d a m M ic k ie w ic z U n iv e r s ity in P o z n a ń , P o la n d . S h e d iv id e d th e m in to tw o g r o u p s . T h e m a in a im o f h e r r e s e a r c h w a s to c h e c k h o w s ig n ific a n tly d ic tio n a r y u s e im p ro v e d c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o re s in th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e s itu a tio n . A t th e b e g in n in g th e s u b je c ts r e a d s h o r t te x ts w ith u n d e r lin e d p a rts c o n ta in in g id io m s . T h e ir ta s k w a s to w r i te p a r a p h r a s e s o f th e s e le c te d fra g m e n ts . Y e t, o n ly o n e g ro u p o f th e s u b je c ts w a s a llo w e d to c o n s u lt a m o n o lin g u a l d ic tio n a r y to te s t th e ir h y p o th e s e s a b o u t th e m e a n in g s o f id io m s . In th e f in a l s ta g e , b o th g r o u p s w e r e s u p p o s e d to c re a te d e f in itio n s o f th e v o c a b u la r y ite m s s e le c te d fo r th e s tu d y . A s d e m o n s tr a te d b y S z c z e p a n ia k (2 0 0 7 ) e v e n a d v a n c e d le a rn e r s d id n o t p o s s e s s p r o p e r s k ills to c o n s u lt d ic tio n a rie s e ff e c tiv e ly . T h e y w e r e n o t a tte n tiv e e n o u g h d u r in g th e a n a ly s is o f th e d ic tio n a ry e n trie s a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , d id n o t g a th e r s u f fic ie n t d a ta o n th e ta rg e t le x ic a l c h u n k s . D e s p ite th e fa c t th a t w h ile u s in g a d ic tio n a ry th e y g a in e d s o m e le x ic a l k n o w le d g e o n th e id io m s s tu d ie d , th e y fo u n d it d if fic u lt to s u c c e s s f u lly e x p la in th e m e a n in g s o f th o s e e x p r e s s io n s in c o n te x t. T h e y o f te n r e s o r te d to th e u s e o f ‘k id r u le ’, th e s a m e n e g a tiv e s tr a te g y a s th e o n e a p p lie d b y th e in te r m e d ia te le a r n e r s in th e s tu d y b y W in g a te (2 0 0 4 ). It s e e m e d e v id e n t th a t th e s u b je c ts re lie d to o m u c h o n d ic tio n a ry e n trie s in te rm s o f a r r iv in g a t th e m e a n in g o f le x ic a l ite m s. S u c h b e h a v io u r is a n e x a m p le o f a c o m m o n te n d e n c y a m o n g d ic tio n a ry u s e r s w h o f re q u e n tly e x p e c t to b e in s o m e w a y s p o o n - fe d . A s im ila r p h e n o m e n o n w a s o b s e r v e d in th e s tu d y b y B e n s o u s s a n (1 9 8 3 ). A s th e s u b je c ts w e r e o f te n u n a b le to u n d e r s ta n d th e le x ic a l ite m s w h e n m o r e c o m p le x a n a ly s is o f th e e n try w a s n e c e s s a r y , s h e
c o n c lu d e d th a t s o m e d ic tio n a ry u s e rs la c k e d th e s k ills o f n e g o tia tin g th e m e a n in g o f w o rd s d u r in g d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n .
T h e a n a ly s is o f s o m e r e s e a r c h o n d ic tio n a r y u s e c a rrie d o u t o v e r th e la s t f o r ty y e a r s h a s s h o w n th a t th e re is n o s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e in p r a c titio n e r s ’ a ttitu d e s to th e n e e d o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d ic tio n a r y s tr a te g ie s in L 2 s e ttin g s . It a p p e a r s th a t tra in in g in d ic tio n a r y u s e is s till to a la rg e e x te n t a n in d iv id u a l d e c is io n o f a p a r tic u la r L 2 te a c h e r w h o e ith e r in tr o d u c e s s o m e in s tru c tio n in to th e c la s s r o o m o r ig n o r e s th e f a c t th a t h is /h e r p u p ils s h o u ld b e a b le to e m p lo y d ic tio n a r y e n trie s in th e p r o c e s s o f la n g u a g e le a r n in g in a n in f o r m e d w a y .
4. D ic tio n a r y u s e in te s tin g
U p to th is p o in t th e m a jo r a im o f th e p a p e r h a s b e e n to a r g u e f o r th e n e e d fo r d ic tio n a r y s tr a te g y tr a in in g a n d th e u s e o f d ic tio n a r ie s in L 2 la n g u a g e le a r n in g a n d te a c h in g c o n d itio n s . T h e la s t p a r t o f th e a r tic le w ill d e a l w ith s o m e r e c e n t f in d in g s in to th e a p p lic a tio n o f d ic tio n a rie s , e s p e c ia lly b ilin g u a l o n e s in te s tin g .
F ir s t o f a ll, w h a t n e e d s to b e f o c u s e d o n is th e c o n te x t in w h ic h th e id e a o f d ic tio n a r y u s e in e x a m s a p p e a r e d . W ith th e a d v e n t o f C L T m e th o d o lo g is ts d r e w m o r e a tte n tio n to m e a n in g f u l la n g u a g e u s e a n d g a v e s tr o n g s u p p o r t to th e c o n c e p t o f d is p o s in g o f a r tif ic ia lity in th e c la s s r o o m e n v iro n m e n t. C h a n g in g v ie w s m a d e it c le a r th a t th e C L T m e th o d o lo g y a ls o r e q u ir e s th e m o d if ic a tio n o f te s tin g p r o c e d u re s T e s tin g w a s to b e u n d e r s to o d a s m e a s u r in g p u p i l s ’ p e r f o r m a n c e b y p r o v id in g th e m w ith ta s k s a s a u th e n tic a n d r e a l-life a s p o s s ib le . C o n s u ltin g a d ic tio n a r y d u r in g a n e x a m w a s s u g g e s te d a s a n e s s e n tia l p a r t o f L 2 s tu d e n ts ’ la n g u a g e le a r n in g a n d la n g u a g e u se . It w a s a ls o r e c o g n iz e d th a t d ic tio n a rie s , e s p e c ia lly b ilin g u a l o n e s , h a v e th e ir ro le to p la y in c o m m u n ic a tio n , d is c o u r s e c r e a tio n , a n d n e g o tia tio n o f m e a n in g w h e n d if f e r e n t c u ltu r a l s e ttin g s a s in L 2 c la s s r o o m s h a v e to b e c o n s id e r e d .
T h e d e b a te o v e r a llo w in g d ic tio n a r y u s e d u r in g tim e d te s ts h a s b e e n c o n tin u e d o v e r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s . E x p e r t s ’ o p in io n s o n th is m a tte r d if fe r c o n s id e r a b ly d e p e n d in g o n h o w th e y u n d e r s ta n d th e te s t c o n s tru c t a n d w h ic h a p p r o a c h to a s s e s s m e n t th e y a r e m o r e p ro n e to
o p t fo r, th e c o n s tru c tiv is t p r o c e s s - o r ie n te d o r th e tr a d itio n a l p ro d u c t- o r ie n te d o n e . A d o p tin g th e fo rm e r, th e s p e c ia lis ts e m p h a s iz e le a r n in g a s th e m a in f a c to r in a s s e s s m e n t, w h e r e a s f a v o u r in g th e la tte r th e y p la c e p r im a r y f o c u s o n m e a s u r e m e n t tr y in g to s h o w d if fe r e n c e s in L 2 le a r n e r s ’ p e r fo rm a n c e . E v e n th o u g h n o n e o f th o s e a p p r o a c h e s is in f e r io r a s e a c h d is c lo s e s v a lu a b le in f o rm a tio n c o n c e r n in g s tu d e n ts ’ s k ills a n d k n o w le d g e , o n ly p r o c e s s -o r ie n te d a s s e s s m e n t f o r le a r n in g d o e s n o t e x c lu d e d ic tio n a ry u s e in e x a m in a tio n s . H o w e v e r , to in tr o d u c e th is k in d o f in n o v a tio n , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e to p r o v e b e y o n d d o u b t th a t a d ic tio n a r y is a n a u th e n tic a n d u s e fu l to o l e m p lo y e d b y p u p i l s ’ a t th e ir c u r r e n t p r o fic ie n c y le v e l r a th e r th a n a s o u r c e o f u n d e s ir a b le in f lu e n c e th e ir te s t s c o re s .
5. A llo w in g d ic tio n a r y u s e in w r itin g e x a m - r e s e a r c h r e s u lts
In 1 9 9 8 b ilin g u a l d ic tio n a r y u s e w a s f irs t a llo w e d b y th e Q u a lific a tio n s a n d C u r r ic u lu m A u th o r ity (Q C A ) in th e U K ’S G e n e ra l C e r tif ic a te o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n (G C S E ) L 2 E x a m in a tio n s , th e firs t e x te r n a lly a s s e s s e d s c h o o l e x a m in a tio n ta k e n b y 1 5 -1 6 y e a r -o ld s . H o w e v e r , a f te r th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e s tu d y b y H u rm a n a n d T a ll (1 9 9 8 ) w h ic h s h o w e d th e e f f e c ts o f d ic tio n a ry u s e o n w r itin g t e s t s ’ s c o re s d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n w a s q u e s tio n e d a n d fin a lly b a n n e d b y th e a u th o r itie s in 2 0 0 3 . N o n e th e le s s , th e d is c u s s io n d id n o t e n d a t th is s ta g e s in c e s o m e o th e r s tu d ie s (B e n s o u s s a n e t a l., 1 9 8 4 ; N e s i a n d M e a r a , 1 991; Id s te in , 2 0 0 3 ) d e m o n s tr a te d n o s ig n if ic a n t d if fe r e n c e in th e te s t s c o r e s o f th e le a r n e r s w h o w e r e a llo w e d to c o n s u lt d ic tio n a rie s in th e p r o c e s s o f w ritin g .
T h e s tu d y b y H u rm a n a n d T a ll (1 9 9 8 ) w a s a ls o h e a v ily c r itic iz e d f o r th e fo llo w in g re a s o n s :
· th e p a r tic ip a n ts to o k th e ‘w ith o u t d ic tio n a r y ’ te s t a s f irs t w h ic h m ig h t h a v e g iv e n th e m s o m e p r a c tic e in d e a lin g w ith ta s k ty p e s c h o s e n ;
· th e ‘w ith d ic tio n a r y ’ te s t m ig h t h a v e b e e n e a sie r;
· th e r a te r s k n e w w h ic h te s ts w e r e ta k e n w ith d ic tio n a ry c o n s u lta tio n so th e y m ig h t h a v e a s s e s s e d th e ‘w ith d ic tio n a r y ’
te s ts m o r e f a v o u r a b ly b e c a u s e th e y e x p e c te d a b e tte r p e r f o r m a n c e d u e to th e a v a ila b ility o f d ic tio n a rie s .
In r e s p o n s e to Q C A ’s d e c is io n M a rtin E a s t (2 0 0 7 ) c o n d u c te d r e s e a r c h in o r d e r to v e r if y th e r e s u lts p r e s e n te d b y H u rm a n a n d T a ll (1 9 9 8 ). T h e s u b je c ts in v o lv e d in th e s tu d y w e r e 1 7 - 1 8 y e a r o ld s tu d e n ts in N e w Z e a la n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls p r e p a r in g fo r th e B u r s a ry G e r m a n e x a m in a tio n in 2 0 0 3 . T h e f in d in g s le d to th e c o n c lu s io n th a t th e c o n s tr u c t v a l id ity o f th e te s t w a s n o t u n d e r th re a t. M o r e o v e r, d ic tio n a ry u s e in w r itin g te s ts d id n o t c h a n g e th e te s t r e s u lts c o n s id e r a b ly r e g a r d le s s o f te s t t a k e r s ’ e x p e r ie n c e w ith d ic tio n a rie s . E a s t (2 0 0 7 ) n o tic e d th a t th e s tu d y a im e d m a in ly a t s h o w in g th a t e x p e r ie n c e d a s w e ll a s in e x p e r ie n c e d le a r n e r s d id n o t im p r o v e th e ir p e r f o r m a n c e c o n s id e r a b ly b y u s in g d ic tio n a r ie s d u r in g w r i tin g te s ts . P u p i l s ’ e x p e r ie n c e w a s a n a ly z e d o n th e b a s is o f th e ir a n s w e r s to a n o p e n - e n d e d q u e s tio n in c lu d e d in th e fin a l q u e s tio n n a ire : th e s tu d e n ts s ta te d h o w f r e q u e n tly th e y u s e d a d ic tio n a ry . Y e t, th e k in d o f d a ta c o lle c te d o n th e b a s is o f th is q u e s tio n p r o v id e d n o in f o rm a tio n o n h o w s k illf u l d ic tio n a ry u s e r s th e y a c tu a lly w e re . It w a s d if fic u lt to d e te r m in e to w h a t e x te n t th e f r e q u e n c y o f d ic tio n a r y u s e w a s re la te d to th e s u b je c t s ’ a w a r e n e s s o f d ic tio n a ry s tr a te g ie s a n d th e ir s u c c e s s f u l a p p lic a tio n in p r a c tic e . In o th e r w o rd s , it is r a th e r r is k y to a s s u m e th a t a le a r n e r w h o f re q u e n tly u s e s d ic tio n a r ie s is s im u lta n e o u s ly c a p a b le o f d o in g it e ff e c tiv e ly . T h e r e f o r e , w h a t n e e d s to b e a n a ly z e d in th e f u tu re , a s r e c o m m e n d e d b y E a s t (2 0 0 7 ), is th e c o r r e la tio n b e tw e e n p u p i l s ’ d ic tio n a r y u s e tr a in in g a n d th e ir te s t p e r fo rm a n c e .
E a s t ’s s tu d y (2 0 0 7 ) a ls o e x p lo r e d l e a r n e r s ’ b e lie f s o n d ic tio n a ry u s e in w ritin g e x a m s . W h e r e a s th e m a jo r ity o f th e s u b je c ts n o tic e d th a t d ic tio n a r ie s f a c ilita te d th e lo o k - u p p r o c e s s in th e c a s e o f u n k n o w n w o r d s o r s o m e g r a m m a tic a l a n d s p e llin g p ro b le m s , f o r m a n y te s t ta k e r s u s in g d ic tio n a r ie s s e e m e d e x c e s s iv e ly tim e - c o n s u m in g . S o m e s tu d e n ts r e g a rd e d d ic tio n a ry a v a ila b ility d u r in g tim e d te s ts a s u n f a ir s in c e th e y b e lie v e d th e y d is tra c te d th e r a t e r s ’ a tte n tio n f ro m le a r n e r s ’ k n o w le d g e .
T h e s e le c te d lite r a tu r e d is c u s s e d in th is p a p e r h a s s h o w n th a t d ic tio n a r y s k ills p la y a v ita l r o le in le a r n in g , te a c h in g a n d te s tin g in L 2 c la s s r o o m s . O w in g to th e s tu d ie s c a r r ie d o u t in r e c e n t y e a r s th e c o m p le x ity o f th e lo o k - u p p r o c e s s a n d th e im p o r ta n c e o f d ic tio n a r y s k ills tr a in in g f o r L 2 le a r n e r s h a v e b e e n f u rth e r e x p lo re d . U n fo r tu n a te ly , th is k n o w le d g e h a s n o t b e e n e f f e c tiv e ly a p p lie d in p r a c tic e s o far. T e a c h e r s ’ a n d s tu d e n t s ’ e r r o n e o u s a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t th e lo o k -u p p r o c e s s o f te n le a d to th e a v o id a n c e o r in e ff e c tiv e u s e o f d ic tio n a rie s in la n g u a g e le a rn in g . A ls o , th e r e is a p r o b le m o f th e la c k o f a p p r o p r ia te s k ills tr a in in g w h ic h d e p r iv e s p u p ils o f th e c h a n c e to b e c o m e a c tiv e a n d a u to n o m o u s d ic tio n a r y u s e rs . F in a lly , th e is s u e o f d ic tio n a r y c o n s u lta tio n d u rin g w r itin g te s ts h a s n o t y e t b e e n f u lly c la r if ie d b e c a u s e o f c o n tr a d ic to ry o p in io n s a m o n g th e e x p e rts in te s tin g . T o c o n v in c e th e o p p o n e n ts o f a llo w in g d ic tio n a rie s in e x a m in a tio n s a m o n g n o t o n ly s p e c ia lis ts b u t a ls o te a c h e r s a n d s u r p r is in g ly le a r n e r s , a s th e s tu d y b y E a s t (2 0 0 7 ) h a s s h o w n , m o re r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d in th e f u tu re .
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