A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S _____________________FOLIA OECONOMICA 85, 1986____________________
Je r z y O i e t l *
BEHAVIOUR OF BUYER OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS LN CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMY
( P o l i s h E x p e r ie n c e )
1. In t r o d u c tio n
The eco n o n ic r e f o r n announced in Polan d assumes: m arket o r i e n t a tio n o f com panies, t h e i r autonomy in d e cisio n - m a k in g p ro c e s s , i n d i r e c t p la n n in g and management system (by means of econo mic in stru m e n ts and not commands), d e c e n t r a liz a t io n o f the p l a nning p ro c e s s .
D e s p ite c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e changes th e re a re no symptoms i n d i c a t in g th a t assum ptions o f the economic reform are e f f e c t i v e l y put in t o p r a c t i c e . T h is i s due to s e v e r a l groups o f re a s o n s , w hich I w i l l not be a n a ly z in g h e re . In s t e a d , I s h a l l o n ly enum erate th en . They in c lu d e : s t r u c t u r e o f fix e d a s s e ts and in v e s tm e n ts not adap ted to s t r u c t u r e o f demand, e x c e s s iv e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f p r o d u c tio n , hard c u rre n c y in d eb te d n e ss and economic s a n c tio n s imposed by f o r c in g c o u n t r ie s , i n f l a t i o n , m arket d is e q u ilib r iu m . A l l o f them can be t r e a t e d as cau ses o f economic d is p r o p o r t io n s . The s e l l e r ' s m arket p red o m inates in alm ost a l l sp h e re s of economic and s o c i a l l i f e , and t h i s i s accom panied by the m o n o p o lis tic m arket s t r u c t u re w ith no e v id e n t s ig n s o f i t s change. There have been l e f t v e r t i c a l and h ie r a r c h iz e d b u r e a u c r a t ic s t r u c t u r e s f in d in g t h e i r e x p r e s s io n , among o t h e r s , in branch m i n i s t r i e s . The economic r e form tends to be p o o rly lin k e d w ith a com prehensive socio -econ om ic r e f o r n . There can be, m oreo ver, seen la c k o f c o n s is t e n c y and co h e sio n in in t r o d u c t io n o f chages in the s o c io - e c o n o n ic system , r e lu c t a n t a t t i t u d e tow ards the r e f o r n adopted by a p a r t o f a d m in i s t r a t i o n and ap ath y o f the s o c i e t y .
* P r o fe s s o r, O r, I n s t i t u t e o f M a rk e tin g , U n i v e r s i t y of Łódź (P o la n d ) .
T h is s i t u a t i o n le a d s on the one hand to c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and a d m in is t r a t iv e forms o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts , w h ile on the o th e r hand such c e n t r a li z e d d i s t r i b u t i o n system g e n e ra te s by i t s e l f c o n s id e ra b le c o n s t r a in t s f o r r e s t o r a t io n o f companies m arket o r i e n t a t i o n .
2. P ro c e s s o f Adjustm ent to S h o rta g e s and D e c is io n s o f P u rc h a s in g I n d u s t r i a l P ro d u c ts
In the s e l l e r ' s m ark et, i t i s n ot demand but s u p p ly which poses an e f f e c t i v e c o n s t r a in t f o r com panies. That i s why adapta- t iu n o f com panies to s h o rta g e s c o n s t it u t u s a b a s ic p a r t o f the a d justm ent p ro c e s s . A company s e a rc h in g l o r i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts adopts an a c t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ards s u p p ly and i t s main d e c is io n s co n ce rn n ot so much the c h o ic e o f a p ro d u c t but i t s p u rc h a s in g .
U i t h i n a s h o rt p e rio d o f tim e , the ad justm ent p ro c e s s in com p a n ie s to s h o rta g e s in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s assumes th re e fo rm s*.
1. D e te rm in a tio n o f p ro d u c tio n volume a t the l e v e l ta k in g into >* ount b o t t le n e c k s (t h e most r e s t r i c t e d r e s o u r c e s ). I t le a d s to a fre e z e o f some f ix e d a s s e t s . Such a form o f ad justm ent tends to p r e v a i l in the s i t u a t i o n o f d r a s t i c c u ts in im p o rt, s u b s t a n c ia l s t r u c t u r a l d is p r o p o r tio n s in the economy, and sudden appearance o f s h o rta g e s in s u p p ly . I t s a p p lic a t io n i s , m oreover, t y p i c a l f o r th e f i r s t s ta g e of the ad ju stm en t p r o c e s s . Such b e h a v io u r i s q u it e common in c o n d it io n s p r e v a i l i n g in Po lan d a t th e p re s e n t tim e .
2. Com pulsory s u b s t i t u t i o n . I t r e p r e s e n ts one o f m ajor causes behind d e t e r io r a t io n in q u a l i t y o f p ro d u c ts . I t sh o u ld be added, how ever, th a t in econom ics o f s c a r c i t y such com pulsory s u b s t i t u t io n p r o v id e s i n s p i r a t i o n fo r in n o v a tio n s co n c e rn in g new te c h n o lo g ie s , w hich make i t p o s s ib le to a p p ly a v a i l a b l e s u b s t i t u t e s .
3. Compulsory a d a p ta tio n o f p ro d u c tio n s t r u c t u r e to a v a i l a b l e i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts . In P o la n d , t h i s form f in d s it s e x p re s s io n , among o t h e r s , in u n d e rta k in g p ro d u c tio n o f goods, w hich i s g iv e n p r i o r i t y in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s u i t h i n the framework o f a d m in is t r a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
* S e e : J . K o r n a i , Econom ics o f S h o rta g e V o l. 1, N orth H o lla n d P u b lis h in g Company, Amsterdam 1900, p. 30-81.
S h o rta g e s in p r o v is io n o f one conpany w ith i n d u s t r i a l products g e n e ra te sup p ly gaps in o th e r com panies. C o n se q u e n tly , a m u lt i p l i e r e f f e c t appears w ith s h o rta g e s in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s being sp read o v e r the e n t i r e p ro d u c tio n .
The p ro c e ss of p u rc h a s in g a p ro d u c t and d e c is io n s con n ccted w ith i t a rc s tr e tc h e d in t i n e . I t i s o f a d y n a n ic c h a r a c t e r as f a c t o r s d e te rm in in g p u rc h a sin g d e c is io n s undergo changes in the co u rse o f -search f o r a p ro d u c t. There a re p o s s ib le d i f f e r e n t v a r i a n t s and s ta g e s in r e a l i z a t i o n of the p u rc h a se . Thu3, a lu c k y c o in c id e n c e a llo w s to e f f e c t a p u rch ase a t o n cc. Lack o f n e c e s s a ry pro d u ct nay ind uce the b u yer to s e a rc h f o r i t w ith a n o th er s e lle r , or r e v is e h is demand, and f i n a l l y to perform a com pulsory s u b s t i t u t io n . He nay queue to g e t th e n e c e s s a ry p ro d u ct fro n h is o r i g i n a l s u p p lie r or s e l e c t a new s u p p lie r and w a it in a queue ( i f i t i s s h o r t e r than the p r e v io u s o n e )^ .
B e fo re p a s s in g to d is c u s s io n o f f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g b e h a v io u r of co n p a n ies in the i n d u s t r i a l m ark et, I would l i k e to p o in t out the most im p o rtan t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the p re s e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts In P o la n d .
3, The Most Impor t a n t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f D is t r ib u t io n Of I n d u s t r i a l P ro d u c ts in Polan d
There nay be d is t in g u is h e d th re e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts in the s i t u a t i o n o f deep s h o rta g e s t y p i c a l f o r the p re s e n t s i t u a t i o n in P o la n d . They a ro : n o fł- p rice a l l o c a t i o n c r i t e r i a ; predom inance o f a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n o ve r i t s o th e r form s; and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f tra d e in i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts .
3.1 N o n - P ric e C r i t e r i a o f A ll o c a t io n
E x i s t in g s h o rta g e s , u n re s to re d m arket fu n c tio n s or i t s monopo l i s t i c (o r s e m i- m o n o p o lis tic ) s t r u c t u r e cau se th a t p r ic e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts do n o t r e p r e s e n t , as a r u l e , a hard c o n s t r a in t f o r com panies. P r i c e i s d e p riv e d o f i t s m arket c h a r a c t e r , and i t I s n ot an e x t e r n a l but an i n t e r n a l elem ent f o r a company.
Conse-2
q u o n tly , changes o f p r ic e s do not c a r r y e f f e c t i v e im p lic a t io n s . P ro d u c tio n demand does not respond to a change o f p r ic e s (u n s a t i s f i e d demand, co st-b a sed f i x i n g o f p r i c e s ) or i t responds to an i n s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t. Apprehension th a t companies w i l l be r a i s in g t h e i r p r ic e s e x c e s s iv e ly w ith o u t r a i s i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f f a c t o r s of p ro d u c tio n in d u ces c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of d e c is io n s co n ce rn in g p r ic e s as w e ll as c o n t r o l o ve r p r ic e s charged by com panies, and a p p lic a t io n o f an a p p ro p ria te system o f t a x a tio n (p r o g r e s s iv e t a x a t io n ) w ith a l l o f them weakening a com pany's i n t e r e s t in a p p lic a t io n of p r ic e s based dn demand c r i t e r i a .
W ith in the framework o f the economic re fo rm , th e re have been in tro d u c e d th re e p a r a l l e l c a t e g o r ie s o f p r ic e s : o f f i c i a l p r ic e s - f ix e d c e n t r a l l y ; r e g u la te d p r ic e s - f ix e d by companies but on the b a s is o f the c o s t r u l e ; and n e g o tia b le p r ic e s fix e d on the way o f fr e e n e g o tia t io n s between the b uyer and the s e l l e r (n e a r to e q u ilib r iu m p r i c e s ) 5 . A cco rd in g to i n i t i a l assu m p tio ns, the range o f o f f i c i a l p r ic e s was to be reduced g r a d u a lly in fa v o u r of p r ic e s h avin g mar k e t c h a r a c t e r . Anyway, n e g o tia b le p r ic e s were to encompass 75 p er ce n t of a l l i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s . The p r a c t ic e proved to be, h ow ever, e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t .
The range o f o f f i c i a l and re g u la te d p r ic e s and tho se d e te rm i ned by the C en tre o r , more p r e c i s e l y , c o n t r o lle d by i t , was g r a d u a lly in c re a s e d in s te a d o f b eing d e c re a s e d . Fo r exam ple, the range o f o f f i c i a l p r ic e s fo r i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s was expanded in 1983 in r e l a t i o n to 1982 from 20 per ce n t to 32 p er c e n t, w h ile t h a t of r e g u la te d p r ic e s from 5 per c e n t to 13 p er c e n t . As a r e s u l t , the range o f n e g o tia b le p r ic e s was reduced c o rre s p o n d in g ly from 75 per c e n t to 55 per c e n t . In the m arket f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c ts , the range o f o f f i c i a l p r ic e s grew from 65 per c e n t to 72 p er c e n t and th e range of n e g o tia b le p r ic e s was r e s t r i c t e d from 35 per c e n t to 28 per c e n t 4 .
5 Uchwała nr 243 Rady M in is tró w z 30 lis t o p a d a 1981 r . w s p ra w ie zasad d z i a ł a l n o ś c i p r z e d s ię b io rs tw państwowych w 1982 r . [Decree o f C o u n c il o f M in is t e r s No. 243 from 30th November 1981] , "M o n ito r P o l s k i " 1981, n r 32, poz. 287 and Ustawa o cenach i u tw o rz en iu u- rzędu m in is t r a do spraw cen z 26 lu te g o 1982 r . [D ecree on P r in c e s and O f f ic e of M in is t e r f o r P r i c e s from 26th F e b ru a ry 1982], "D z ie n n ik U staw " 1982, n r 7, poz. 53, 10.
4
R a p o rt Urzędu do spraw Cen d o ty c z ą c y wprowadzenia i konse k w e n c ji reform y g o sp o d arcze j w la t a c h 1982-1983 [R e p o rt of the Office fo r P r i c e s on In t r o d u c tio n and Consequences o f the Economic Re form in 1982 and 1983].
B a sin g of r e g u la te d p r ic e s on c o s ts caused on the one hand tre n d s in companies to o v e r s t a t e or even g e n e ra te c o s ts ^ , w h ile on the o th e r hand i t le d to b u re a u c ra tiz e d c o n t r o l of th e se p r i ce s and a c o m p lic a te d p roced ure of ap p ro vin g t h e i r changes. This became an o b s t a c le on the way of a d o p tin g m arket o r ie n t a t i o n by com p a n ie s and undermined t h e i r t e c h n o lo g ic a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s 6 .
D e s p ite the f a c t th a t b u re a u c r a tiz e d p r ic e c o n t r o l was aimed, among o t h e r s , a t c h e ck in g e x c e s s iv e growth o f p r i c e s , i t proved th a t o f f i c i a l p r ic e s were growing f a s t e r than the rem ain in g ones.
The c o s t r u le in p r i c e - f i x i n g encompassed a l l c a t e g o r ie s of p r ic e s in c lu d in g n e g o tia b le p r i c e s . S e l l e r s d id not see any r e a son why they should be n e g o t ia t in g p r ic e s h o ld in g t h e i r s u p e rio r p o s it io n in r e l a t i o n to b u y e rs . M o reo ver, o ld h a b it s and tax s y stem would induce them to a cce p t c o s ts as a b a s is fo r t h e i r p r i ces adding m argins J u s t i f i e d from the v ie w p o in t o f tax system . Anyway, r e c e n t ly the o b lig a t o r y c h a r a c t e r of the s o - c a lle d " j u s t i f ie d c o s t s " has been extended to in c lu d e n e g o tia b le p r ic e s as w e ll.
Supremacy o f s h o rt- te rm d e c is io n s (im m ed iate n eed s) o ver lo n g term d e c is io n s was o b served in p r ic in g o f i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts both in m icro- and macroeconomic d e c is io n s .
In the s i t u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r iz e d w ith s c a r c i t y of i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts and i n t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r o f p r i c e s , t h e i r a l l o c a t i o n among v a r io u s d e t a ile d g o a ls i s d eterm ined by n o n - p ric e c r i t e r i a . T h is le a d s to appearance o f d i f f e r e n t p r i o r i t i e s a t the c e n t r a l l e v e l both a t the stag e of p la n n in g and im p le m e n ta tio n o f p la n s .
P ro d u c tio n p r i o r i t i e s in the form o f the s o - c a lle d o p e r a tio n a l programmes and governm ent o rd e rs a re f ix e d a t the c e n t r a l l e v e l . On the one hand, com panies a re induced to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e se p ro grammes and in e x e c u tio n of government o r d e r s , w h ile o n ' the o th e r hand such p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s a c o n d it io n o f o b ta in in g some in d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts b e in g in s h o rt s u p p ly .
5 In o rd e r to cu rb such b e h a v io u r the M in is t e r f o r P r i c e s i n tro d u ce d a con cep t o f j u s t i f i e d c o s ts and o b lig a t o r y p r i n c i p l e s o f e s t im a tin g them (R o z p o rz ą d z e n ie m in is t r a do spraw cen z 31 g ru d n ia 1982 w s p ra w ie zasad u s t a la n ia kosztów u zasad n ion ych [D ecree o f the M i n is t e r fo r P r i c e s from 31st 1982], "O z ie n n ik U staw " 1983 nr 1
poz. 1 0 ). *
T h e re fo re , th e re was in tro d u c e d a p r i n c i p l e th a t the produ c e r m a n u fa c tu rin g h is p ro d u c ts more c h e a p ly may add to h is r e g u la ted p r ic e 50 per c e n t of the d if f e r e n c e between h is c o s ts and c o s ts ( r e g u la t e d p r i c e ) o f the roost e x p e n s iv e p ro d u c e r.
O p e ra tio n .'1 programmes ( s i x of them) were in tro d u c e d in Polan d in 1981 . T h e ir number was, how ever, r a p id ly in c r e a s e d , which hampered accom plishm ent of p r i o r i t y o b je c t iv e s due to s h o rta g e s in sup p ly even f o r c o v e rin g demand r e s u l t in g from p r i o r i t y o b je c tiv e s 0. There were a ls o e s t a b lis h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s of p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s fo r o p e r a tio n a l programmes. These p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s r e s t r i c t e d autonomy o f economic u n it s as they were equipped w ith r ig h t s to impose a duty on companies to ex ecu te s p e c i f i c ta s k s fo r o p e r a tio n a l p ro grammes. In 1983, the number of o p e r a t io n a l programmes was red u ced to 6 and next to 4 in 1984 b u t, s im u lta n e o u s ly , government o r d ers were in tro d u c e d , which encompassed, i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s p ro duced w it h in the liq u id a t e d o p e r a tio n a l programmes p r e v io u s ly .
T w o - tie r p r e fe r e n c e s were in tro d u c e s in 1984. The f i r s t t i e r in c lu d e d g u aranteed i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s m a in ly f o r o p e r a tio n a l p ro grammes and government o r d e rs 9 . The second t i e r in c lu d e d o n ly p r i o r i t y in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s f o r c e r t a i n typ e s o f p ro d u c tio n g iv e n p re fe r e n c e * ® . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , g u aranteed i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s were s u b s t a n t i a l l y expanded and in 1984, they encompassed about 40 p e r c e n t of t o t a l p ro d u c tio n . The number o f asso rtm en t groups in c lu d e d w it h in governm ental o rd e rs ro se from 10 in 1983 to 111. S i m i l a r l y , th e re was l a r g e l y expanded the scope in v e s tm e n ts and e x p o r t- o r ie n te d p ro d u c tio n b e n e f i t t in g from g u aran teed s u p p lie s .
Another form o f r e a l i z i n g p ro d u c tio n p r i o r i t i e s a re c e n t r a l b a la n c e s o f m a t e r i a l s . In 1982, th ey encompassed 88 p ro d u c ts and in 1983 as many as 160.
The p aet e x p e rie n c e con n ected w ith atte m p ts to e x e cu te the eco nomic reform p roves th a t the range o f p r i o r i t y o b je c t iv e s i s
ex-7 Programme of s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f the economy and overcom ing the c r i s i s .
Q
Uchwała n r 2 4 3 ... [ D ecree No.- 2 4 3 . . . ] in tro d u c e d 9 p ro g ra mmes and Uchwała nr 278 Rady M in is tró w z 30 g ru d n ia 1981 r . w s p ra w ie fun kcjon ow ania gosp o d arki w o k r e s ie stan u wojennego [D ecree of C o u n c il o f M in is t e r s No. 278 from 30th December 19 8lJ ("M o n it o r Pol s k i " 1982, n r 1, poz. 1 ), as many as 14. In 1982, t h e i r number even in c re a s e d m ain ly due to p re s s u re o f d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i a l b ran ch es.
9
G uaranteed s u p p lie s in c lu d e d a ls o p ro d u c tio n f o r n a t io n a l d efen ce purposes and fo r companies w h ich , [a s a r u l e , employ h a n d i capped peop le and, f i n a l l y , some c e n t r a l in v e s tm e n ts , th a t in t h i s s i t u a t i o n began to be implemented w it h in th e framework o f g o ve rn m ental o rd e rs .
I t r e f e r r e d to p ro d u c tio n of f u e l s , raw m a t e r ia ls and ma t e r i a l s fo r e x p o rt p r o d u c tio n , p ro d u c tio n o f f e r t i l i z e r s and p la n t p r o t e c t io n a g e n ts , as w e ll as h ousing and h o s p it a l c o n s t r u c t io n .
c e s s i v e l y w id e. M oreover, these o b je c t iv e s were o fte n tim e formu la t e d too g e n e r a l ly , which hampered a c c u ra te a l l o c a t i o n o f f a c t o r s o f p ro d u c tio n in s h o rt sup p ly (fro m the p o in t o f th e se o b j e c t i v e s ) . In p r a c t i c e , i t appeared d i f f i c u l t to c a r r y out sup p ly p r i o r i t i e s C o n se q u e n tly , the number o f p r i o r i t y o b je c t iv e s was s l i g h t l y de
c re a s e d in 1983.
3 .2 . A d m in is t r a t iv e P i s t r i b u t i on ( R a t io n in g ) .
I t i s t y p i c a l fo r the s e l l e r ' s m arket th a t th e re o p e ra te pa- r a l l e l l y s e v e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n system s such as a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n ; s a le s based on p r i o r i t i e s ; s a le s w ith o u t any r e s t r i c t io n s through a netw ork o f companies a u th o riz e d to c a r r y such s a le s (t h e s o - c a lle d com pulsory m e d ia t io n ); f r e e m arket under the s t a t e c o n t r o l, and b la c k m arket.
The n e c e s s it y o f e n s u rin g i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s fo r p r i o r i t y ob j e c t i v e s prompts a p p lic a t io n o f a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n f i r s t of a l l executed by l i m i t i n g s u p p lie s o f some i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s ^ , and d i r e c t a d m in is t r a t iv e a l l o c a t i o n s ^ . There is a ls o a p p lie d com pulsory m e d ia tio n c a r r ie d out by c a . 30 tra d e companies su b o r d in a te d to branch m i n i s t r i e s ^ .
D i s t r i b u t i o n forms o f the r a t io n in g c h a r a c t e r encompassed about 130 asso rtm en t groups o f i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s o f fundam ental
11
In P o la n d , l i m i t s have been imposed on s u p p lie s o f e l e c t r i c a l energy and gas.
12
In 1982, c e n t r a li z e d a l l o c a t i o n s encompassed 16 groups o f m a t e r ia ls and, nam ely: c o a l, cok e, l i q u i d f u e l s , m e t a llu r g ic a l p ro d u c ts from ir o n , p ro d u c ts of n o n - fe rro u s m e t a llu r g y , p ro d u c ts from p re c io u s m e ta ls , e l e c t r i c c a b le s , b a t t e r i e s , p l a s t i c s na- t u r a l and s y n t h e t ic ru b b e r, t y r e s , cem ent, sawn tim b e r, paper c a rd b o a rd , and h id e s . These groups in c lu d e q u ite o fte n numerous a sso rtm en ts of d i f f e r e n t p ro d u cts e .g . m e t a llu r g ic a l p ro d u c ts - about h a l f a m i l l i o n v a r io u s ite m s . The a l l o c a t i o n s concerned a ls o 10 groups of c o n s tr u c t io n m achines and tr a n s p o r t means, and 97 per ío S * ° f the t o t a * amount of c o n v e r t ib le c u r r e n c ie s fo r im p o rts . In 1983, w ith i n s i g n i f i c a n t changes in t h e i r s t r u c t u r e , the sęope of a l l o c a t i o n s d id not undergo any m ajor changes (C . J ó z e f i a k , Е 2 ? Г ? £ п!?о1г£1е-Э refo rm y g o sp o d arcze j i je g o r e a l i z a c j a w la t a c h 1981-1984 ^Programme o f the P o l is h Economic Reform and I t s Im p le m en tatio n Over the Y e a rs 1981-1984], tódź 1984, p. 17, t y p e s c r i p t ) Although a ttem p ts were made to pass s u p e r v is io n over a l l o c a t io n of i n d u s t r r i a l s u p p lie s to the O f f ic e o f M a t e r ia ls Manage ment, they d id not b r in g any s u c c e s s . (C . J ó z e f i a k oo
im p ortan ce fo r the n a t io n a l economy in 1983. Trade in the r e m aining i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s was c a r r ie d out through h o r iz o n t a l t i e s among companies (a g re e m e n ts ). In p r a c t i c e , how ever, th e a lr e a d y m entioned p ro d u c tio n p r i o r i t i e s , the system of a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n , m arket m o n o p o liz a tio n , and o v e r ta k in g by a p a rt o f i n d u s t r i a l a s s o c ia t io n s o f d is p o s it io n s re g a rd in g s e l l i n g and su p p lie s tended to r e s t r i c t tra d e in i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts based on f r e e h o r iz o n t a l r e la t io n s h ip s among economic u n it s to s e v e r a l per c e n t o f the e n t i r e tu r n o v e r , and only, in r a r e in s ta n c e s to 20-30
14 per c e n t o f t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s
From the p o in t o f view o f r e s t o r a t io n o f m arket f u n c t io n s , the s i t u a t i o n d id not look f a v o u r a b ly . I t was i n i t i a l l y d e cid ed th a t r a t io n in g of i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s should be abandoned by the end of 1983. I t has been p ro lo n g e d , how ever, and th a t fo r an i n d e f i n i t e p e rio d . And alth o u g h the C o u n c il o f M in is t e r s recommended r e s t r i c t io n o f i t s s co p e 15 p r a c t i c a l e x e c u tio n o f t h i s recommendation can h a r d ly be expected in the p re s e n t m arket s i t u a t i o n and the p r a c t i c e o f 1984.
I t may be u n d e rlin e d h ere th a t th e r a t io n in g system , even when i t s scope i s l im it e d , a lw a ys p o ssesses a p r o p e n s ity to s e l f - g e n e r a tio n o f such c e n t r a li z e d a l l o c a t i o n s . T h is i s so because i t c o n s t it u t e s an e s s e n t ia l a t t r i b u t e o f power and j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r e x is te n c e o f c e n t r a li z e d b u r e a u c r a tic s t r u c t u r e s .
W ith in the framework o f the economic refo rm , th e re were a- b o lis h e d the form er i n d u s t r i a l am algam ations e s t a b lis h e d a c c o rd in g to the i n d u s t r i a l branch p r i n c i p l e c o n s t it u t in g an in te r m e d ia te l e v e l in command-type management and g roup ing a l l companies w it h in a g iv e n branch (m onopoly) in t h e i r v e r t i c a l h i e r a r c h i c s t r u c t u r e s . L iq u id a t io n o f am algam ations was fo llo w e d by e s ta b lis h m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l a s s o c ia t io n s as v o lu n ta r y o r g a n iz a tio n s p e rfo rm in g a d v is o r y - t r a in in g f u n c tio n s . W ith passage o f tim e , p a r t i c i p a t i o n in an a s s o c ia t io n became o b lig a t o r y de le g e or de f a c t o . They were s e t up a lo n g s id e the i n d u s t r i a l branch p r i n c i p l e and began to p e r form a c t i v i t i e s t y p i c a l f o r m o n o p o lis tic s t r u c t u r e s . Among o t h e r s , i r n e w ly - c re a te d a s s o c ia t io n s , th e re were e s t a b lis h e d o f f i c e s of i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s and s a l e s , which o rg a n iz e d s a le s and in d u s tr ia l s u p p lie s f o r the e n t i r e a s s o c ia t io n , q u ite o fte n p r o t e c t in g t h e i r n a rro w ly c o n c e iv e d i n t e r e s t s and u t i l i z i n g t h e i r monopo l i s t i c p o s it io n in the m arket (W. G r z e g o r c z y k , Warun k i o r i e n t a c j i rynkow ej p r z e d s ię b io rs tw w P o ls c e [C o n d itio n s o f Com p a n ie s M arket O r ie n t a t io n in P o l a n d J , Lódź 1984, p. 2, t y p e s c r i p t ) .
The recommendations concerned m a in ly : r e s t r i c t i o n o f the scope o f com pulsory m e d ia tio n ; s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the system of p r i o r i t i e s in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s by b a s in g i t m a in ly on govern- m etal o r d e rs ; and e x c u tio n o f g overnm ental o rd e rs through te n d e rs i f the p rod ucer does not h o ld a m o n o p o lis tic , p o s it io n . In f a c t
3 .3 . C e n t r a l i z a t io n o f D i s t r i b u t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l P ro d u c ts
C e n t r a liz a t io n o f t h i s tu rn o v e r does not r e s u l t o n ly from the a lr e a d y m entioned a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n , com pulsory m edia t io n c a r r ie d out by tra d e companies s u b o rd in a te d to branch m in i s t r i e s , and the o v e r ta k in g of i n d u s t r i a l procurem ent fu n c tio n s by a s s o c ia t io n s , as w e ll as p r i o r i t i e s in r e c e iv in g i n d u s t r i a l su p p l i e s . L ts major cause i s a ls o the p ro ce ss o f c o n c e n t r a t io n , m a in ly o r g a n iz a tio n a l c o n c e n t r a t io n , which has been l a s t i n g fo r many y e a rs now. I t has r e s u lt e d in fo rm a tio n o f the m arket s t r u c t u r e c h a r a c t e r iz e d w ith a c o n s id e r a b le predominance o f monopoly e le m e n ts . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s f a c t we s h a l l quote sume d a ta .
Average employment s iz e per 1 i n d u s t r i a l p la n t ( s o c i a l i z e d ) was much b ig g e r than in o th e r c o u n tr ie s and, m oreover, i t went up q u ite s i g n i f i c a n t l y from 77 person s in 1960 to 118 person s in 1981, in t h i s employment in s t a t e p la n t s ro se from 245 to 405 per sons r e s p e c t i v e l y . Employment s iz e p er 1 company rose from 700 person s in 1971 to 875 person s in 19nt. In s t a t e com panies i t was much h ig h e r (1 .3 3 0 p e rs o n s ) than in c o o p e r a tiv e companies (270 p e r s o n s ). The c o e f f i c i e n t of employment c o n c e n tr a tio n in in d u s tr y reach ed 0.67 in 1982. Over the p e rio d 1960-1981, the number o f s o c i a l i z e d i n d u s t r i a l companies d e cre a sed by 23.6 p er c e n t. In 1981, about 0.6 p er c e n t o f s o c ia liz e d i n d u s t r i a l companies ge n e ra te d 31.5 per c e n t o f n et o u tp u t, w h ile 10 per c e n t o f them had a t t h e i r d is p o s a l 70 per c e n t of the t o ( a l v a lu e o f fix e d a s e t s 16. The m o n o p o lis tic s t r u c t u r e of the m arket becomes even more d i s t i n c t i f we tak e in t o accou nt the branch c r o s a - s e c t io n .
O em o no p olization o f th e m arket fo r i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts w i l l c a l l not o n ly f o r system changes aimed a t l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f mar k e t e n t r i e s and e x i t s ( in t r o d u c t io n o f hard b u d g etary c o n s t r a in t s f o r com panies) but antim onopoly l e g i s l a t i o n as w e l l . I t i s e q u a lly im p o rta n t to s t im u la t e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s m a ll com panies, s p l i t up m u lt ip la n t com panies, and, f i n a l l y , d i f f e r e n t i a t e them w ith regard to t h e i r membership to я g iv e n ow nership s e c t o r and t h e i r le g a l form.
such te n d e rs were used to a lim it e d e x te n t in 1984 s in c e th ey r e f e r r e d to o n ly 21 asso rtm e n t groups o f i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s out of th e t o t a l number o f 111 asso rtm en t groups encompassed by govern- m e n ta lo rd e rs .
16 Ro czn ik s t a t y s t y c z n y przem ysłu 1982 [ S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook of In d u s tr y 1982], Warszawa 1982, p. 13, 21, 30-32.
4. f a c t o r s of Companies B e h a v io u r in t he Market f or I nd u s t r i al P ro d u cts in Economics of S c a rry t^
We s h a ll now pass to d is c u s s io n of b a s ic f a c t o r s shaping a t t i tudes of companies in r e l a t i o n to sup p ly iri c o n d itio n s of i t s scar c i t y .
4.1 Ab i l i t y of a Company to Pe r c e iv e S c a r c i t y and Scope of t h is S c a r c i t y
As a r e s u l t of permanent sh o rta g e s in the c o n s c ie n c e of compa ny managers th e re has been d eveloped p e rc e p tio n of зоте kin d of "an averag e s t a t e of s h o rta g e s ", which c o n s t it u t e s an im p ortan t p aram eter in the com pany's ad justm ent p ro c e ss . Knowing in advance about main s h o rta g e s , i t was p o s s ib le to und ertake c e r t a in reme d ia l measures connected w ith a d a p ta tio n o f p ro d u c tio n tech n o lo g y and i t s assortm ent to the p re s e n t or a n t ic ip a t e d s h o rta g es in i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s , and make e f f o r t s in advance to o b ta in the n ece s s a ry i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts , and e s p e c i a l l y those which c o n s tit u t e d b o ttle n e c k s in p ro d u c tio n .
The e x is t in g scope of sh o rta g e s and knowledge about i t were e x e r t in g a marked in flu e n c e on com panies' b e h a v io u r. P a r t i c u l a r l y , th e re co u ld be observed a tre n d to amass in v e n t o r ie s la r g e ly s u r p a ssin g req u ire m e n ts of the c u rr e n t p ro d u c tio n p ro c e s s . T h is allowed to reduce the degree o f u n c e r t a in t y on the s id e o f i n d u s t r i a l sup p l i e s . A common i n c l i n a t i o n to c r e a t e e x c e s s iv e in v e n t o r ie s cou ld be seen m ainly in the case of these means of p ro d u c tio n , which a lth o u g h in d is p e n s a b le in p ro d u c tio n d id not p la y any major r o le in i t s c o s t s . They in c lu d e d , fo r exam ple, sp are p a rts fo r m achines, c e r t a in components fo r the p ro d u c tio n p ro c e s s . A company not on- c o u n te rin g any b ig g e r . d i f f i c u l t i e s in the f i e l d of f i n a n c i a l fe e d ing ( s o f t budgetary c o n s t r a in t s ) i s in c lin e d to in c re a s e i t s i n v e n t o r ie s w ith o u t reck o n in g w ith c o s ts in c u rre d in t h in wny17.
17
E f f o r t s are made, how ever, to s t i f f e n b u dg etary c o n s tr a in ts of с о т р п т е з . Thus, f o r exam ple, in 1983, banks reduced t h e ir s c a le of fin a n c in g in v e n t o r ie s as th e re was accep ted a p r i n c i p l e th a t any increm ent in com pany's in v e n t o r ie s should be co vered w ith i t s own f i n a n c i a l r e s o u rc e s . C o n se q u e n tly, the sh are of companies' own f i r a r t c i ? l re s o u rc e s in fin a n c in g t n e i r in v e n t o r ie s rose from 31.6 per cent in 198.2 to 33 per c e n t in 19B3 w ith a g e n e ra l i n c re a s e in i n v e n t o r i e s o i 1 7 .i> per c e n t.
A c c o r d i n g ly , a n t ic ip a t io n s ot' companies wittt reg ard to i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s are of utmost im portance both f o r fo rm u la tio n of sh o rt- term task and t h e ir p a r t i c i p a t i o n in e x e c u tio n of ta s k s of the c e n t r a l p la n . Such a n t ic ip a t io n s are based m a in ly on managers, e x p e rie n c e and t h ľ i r knowledge about an averag e - "n o rm a l" ą t a t e ot sh o rta g es in in d u s t r ia l s u p p lie s to which a company adjust-, i t s t a c t i c a l and s t r a t e g ic a c t i v i t i e s . D i f f i c u l t i e s ensuing from those sh o rta g es a re overcome more e a s il y by eompanior, possessing b ig g e r a b i l i t y to s w itc h over t h e ir p ro d u c tio n p r o f i l e than by those which do not possess such a b i l i t y In is a b i l i t y of companies tu s w itch over t h e ir p ro d u c tio n is 'u n d e rm in e d , however, by a c o n s id e r a b le degree of c o n c e n tra tio n of com panies, r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e n autonomy in the sphere of s u b s t it u t io n o f p ro d u c tio n f a c t o r s in p ro d u c tio n and tra d e , and f i n a l l y by v e r t i c a l branch management s t r u c t u r e s .
4 .2 . S c ope of Freedom in Choico_ of_ a _ S u ^ p lio t
The above remarks in d ic a t e th a t the scope of com pany's f r e e dom in choosing i t s s u p p lie r is r e s t r i c t e d . In the dom estic mar-ket,
th e re is o fte n o n ly one producer (n a t u r a l monopoly) or o n ly one m u lt ip la n t company c re a te d through o r g a n iz a tio n a l c o n c e n tra tio n .
As i t was a lre a d y in d ic a t e d , in d u s t r ia l a s s o c ia tio n s both vol u n tary and com pulsory, 'r e p la c in g the former am algam ations, apply m o n o p o lis tic p r a c t ic e s . (hey f in d t h e ir r e f l e c t i o n , among o th e r s , in c o n c e n tra tio n of in d u s tr ia l, procurem ent fu n c tio n s by some a sso c ia t i o n s .
But then, even i f th e re a rc s e v e r a l s u p p l i e r s and «com panies may choose f r e e l y t h e i r s u p p l i e r s , the s u p p l i e r ' s p o s i t i o n is alw ays s u p e r io r in r e l a t i o n to the buyer.
C e n t r a l iz e d d i s t r i b u t i o n system by r e s t r i c t i n g freedom of choo s in g the s u p p l i e r , reduces companies' in n o v a t iv e n e s s and t h e i r a d a p t a b i l i t y to c o n d i t io n s p r e v a i l i n g in t h e i r environm ent. More o v e r , i t does not seem p o s s ib le t h a t such a b ig scope of r a t i o n i n g may a llo w f o r an a c c u ra te a l l o c a t i o n of very r a r e i n d u s t r i a l prod u c ts both w ith regard to p r i o r i t i e s d e fin e d by the C en tre and a l l o c a t i o n e f f e c t i v e n e s s of these p ro d u c ts . Both t r a d in g a c t i v i t y and i n n o v a t iv e n e s s of companies are weakened. The change in the market s t r u c t u r e d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r on r e p r e s e n t s an in d is p e n s a b le p r e c o n d it io n to ensure p lu r a l is m in choosing a s u p p l i e r .
4 .3 . P o s s i b i l i t i e s of O b ta in in g a P r i v i l e g e d ( P r i o r i t y ) P o s it io n in the Агва o f . I n d u s t r i a l S u p p lie s
A company does i t s b e st to be encompassed by p r i o r i t y in ob t a in in g i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s . T h is i s n a t u r a l l y dependent upon S e v e r a l c irc u m s ta n c e s .
F i r s t , a g iv e n economic unit must have a p p ro p ria te t e c h n ic a l and o r g a n iz a t io n a l c o n d itio n s to u nd ertake p r i o r i t y p r o d u c tio n . Too g e n e ra l fo rm u la tio n o f p ro d u c tio n p r i o r i t i e s in p re v io u s p e rio d s caused t h a t many companies were u n d e rta k in g fo r m a lly p r i o r i t y p ro d u c tio n alth o u g h in r e a l i t y t h i s p ro d u c tio n was not e s s e n t ia l fo r accom plishm ent of o b je c t iv e s g iv e n p r e fe r e n c e by the C e n tre .
Second, e x e c u tio n o f p r i o r i t y o b je c t iv e s should ensure both p r o f i t a b i l i t y and, as i t p a r t l y r e s u l t s from the p r e v io u s con sid - e r a t io n , u t i l i z a t i o n of produc-tiori c a p a c i t i e s .
F i n a l l y , t h i r d , the founding organ (a p p r o p r ia te branch m in i s t r y , and lo c a l s t a t e a d m in is t r a t io n organs f o r c e r t a i n com panies) i s e n t i t l e d to impose p ro d u c tio n ta s k w it h in p r i o r i t y o b j e c t iv e s . T h is cau ses s u b ju g a tio n o f a company In r e l a t i o n to the founding org an . I f p ro d u c tio n o b ta in in g p r e fe r e n c e i s p r o f i t a b l e fo r и company, i t w i l l t r y to e x e rt i t s p re s s u re on the founding organ both in fo rm al and in fo rm a l ways in o rd e r to o b ta in ta s k s whose e x e c u tio n i s f u l l y p r o te c te d on the s id e o f i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s . On the o th e r hand, i f such p ro d u c tio n i s u n p r o f it a b le fo r a compa n y , i t s e f f o r t s w i l l be o r ie n t e d in an o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n .
4 .4 . B a rg a in in g Power in R e la t io n to the S u p p lie r and the C en tre
In the d e s c rib e d s i t u a t i o n i t i s , to a la r g e e x t e n t, a fu n c t io n o f a com pany's s iz e and volume o f i t s demand fo r in d u s tr ia l s u p p lie s , and i t s p o s it io n (o r nore p r e c i s e l y i t s management po s i t i o n ) in r e l a t i o n to l o c a l and c e n t r a l economic and p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . A company, o fte n in an in fo rm a l way, t r i e s to i n c r e a s e i t s b a rg a in in g pow er. On the s id e of com panies (b u y e r s ) , th e re e x is t s a tendency to c o n c e n t r a t io n , c o n c lu d in g v a rio u s branch ag reem ents, a p p ro v a l o f p r o v is io n o f i n d u s t r i a l s u p p lie s f o r the e n t i r e branch by i n d u s t r i a l a s s o c ia t io n s , and a cce p ta n ce o f b ig consignm ents d e liv e r e d a t one tim e . The s u p p lie r may sim p l i f y h is d e l i v e r i e s , lo w er t h e i r c o s ts and l i m i t h is s e r v ic e s
connected w ith th e se d e l i v e r i e s (postponem ent e f f e c t ) as he h old s a s u p e r io r p o s it io n tow ards the b u ye r.
C e r t a in in d u s t r ie s e .g . heavy and e n g in e e rin g in d u s t r ie s enjoy a p r i v i l e g e d p o s it io n . There has been even d eveloped some s t e r e o ty p e , w hich causes th a t the b a rg a in in g power o f some i n d u s t r i a l bran ch es i s b ig g e r than th a t possessed by o th e r com panies. M oreover, they f in d sup p ort of lo c a l a u t h o r i t i e s more e a s i l y .
4 .5 . P o s s i b i l i t y o f M o tiv a tin g the S u p p lie r and the A d m in is t r a t iv e D is t r ib u t io n System liitough In fo rm a l l i e s
N o n -p rice c r i t e r i a o f a l l o c a t i o n o f a c o n s id e ra b le p a r t of i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts c r e a t e fa v o u ra b le c o n d it io n s f o r developm ent of in fo rm a l t i e s between the s u p p lie r and the b u y e r. D if f e r e n t p r e s su re groups a re c r e a t e d . Branch lobby e t c . To some e x t e n t, th e re a re d e velo p e d : s p e c i f i c forms of c o r r u p t io n ; b a r t e r tra d e among com panies; doing d i f f e r e n t f a v o u r s ; w in nin g sympathy o f em ployees in the s u p p l i e r 's s e l l i n g departm ent and in the a d m in is t r a t iv e d i s t r i b u t i o n system e t c .
In t h i s s i t u a t i o n , employees in the b u ying com pany's p ro c u re ment departm ent assume g r e a t im p o rta n ce . T h e ir c le v e r n e s s and s k i l l of e s t a b lis h in g in fo rm a l c o n ta c ts w ith sup p ly em polyees d e te rm in e , to a la r g e e x t e n t, a com pany's econom ic e f f e c t s . They s t r i v e to s ecu re p ro d u c ts n e c e s s a ry not o n ly f o r t h e i r own compa ny but a ls o fo r o th e r com panies as i t s tre n g th e n s t h e i r b a rg a in in g power.
There can be quoted h ere s e v e r a l b a s ic "arg u m en ts" on the s id e o f the b u y e r, which may induce the s u p p lie r to s e l l a p ro d u ct and in c r e a s e i t s volum e.
1. U s e le s s n e s s ( c o s t s ) o f a p u rch ase which the b uyer i s i n c l i ned to a c c e p t. I t may r e s u l t from s h i f t i n g the burden o f s e r v ic e s , which c u s to m a rily o r on a b a s is of agreem ents con clu d ed p r e v io u s ly sho uld be perform ed by the s u p p lie r , to the b u ye r.
2. I n c l i n a t i o n to a c c e p t t ie d s a l e s . I t happens t h a t the s u p p l i e r sometimes makes th e s a le o f g iv e n i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts s u b j e c t to p u rc h a sin g o f o t h e r s , w hich he has in ex cess and f o r w hich he cann ot f in d b u y e rs . T h is i s n a t u r a l l y an in fo rm a l a c t i v i t y .
com peting to secu re t h e i r s u p p lie s w ith p ro d u c ts being a t t r a c t i v e to them by the buyer (k in d o f b a r t e r d e a l s ) . O ther co n p e tin g buy e r s , h avin g o b ta in e d such p ro d u c ts from our b u ye r, may be i n c l i ned to g iv e up the p u rchase in fa v o u r o f the d e s c rib e d b u ye r.
4. P e rs o n a l c o n n e c tio n s o f in fo rm a l c h a r a c t e r sometimes su p p orted by c o r r u p t io n . Ways o f m o tiv a tin g the s u p p lie r by the buyer have not o n ly t h e i r economic dim ension but s o c ia l and moral d i mensions as w e l l . They cause u ndoubtedly d i s in t e g r a t io n o f g o a ls o f m arket ch an nel p a r t i c i p a n t s and e s p e c i a l l y macro- and m icro e co nomic g o a ls .
A
4 .6 . System of Company's T ie s M ith in the Network o f Which i t i s S it u a t e d , and i t s A b i l i t y to U t i l i z e
These T ie s to I n t e n s i f y i t s Sup p ly
The m arket in th e c e n t r a l l y p lanned economy i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d w ith c o n s id e ra b le s t r u c t u r a l i z a t i o n . A company and p la n t s b e lo n g ing to i t a re o fte n lo c a te d w it h in a netw ork w ith q u it e e k te n s iv e t i e s . These t i e s o fte n r e f e r to non-economic and in fo rm a l connec t io n s w it h in a d evelop ed h i e r a r c h i c s t r u c t u r e . Of g r e a t im portance a re a ls o c o n n e c tio n s w it h in branch groups o f com panies. F i n a l l y , o f g re a t im portance a re t h e i r t i e s w ith lo cal- p o l i t i c a l and econo mic a u t h o r i t i e s . I f a company has develop ed t i e s w it h in such a netw ork and Дэ a b le to u t i l i z e them, Ц _ can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a i t i - g a te i t s d i f f i c u l t i e s in
the*sphere of in d u s tria l supplies.
4 .7 . A b i l i t y o f a Company to P r o v id e D is t o r t e d In fo rm a tio n About i t s P ro d u c tio n C a p a c it ie s and In v e n t o r ie s
o f I n d u s t r i a l P ro d u c ts
R a tio n in g o f i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ts may be looked upon from the s id e o f a l l o c a t i o n o f s h o rta g e s . A company by g e n e ra tin g in fo rm a t i o n , w .iich does n ot co rresp o n d to i t s r e a l s i t u a t i o n , may ca u se , to some e x t e n t, th a t i t i s bypassed in " a l l o c a t i o n " o f such short ag es. I am o m ittin g h ere the m oral a s p e c t o f such d is t o r t e d i n fo rm a tio n as w e ll as i t s consequences f in d in g t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n in d i f f i c u l t i e s enco u n tered by a company in p e rfo rm in g i s t econo mic c a l c u l u s .
Je r z y D i e t l
Y ■ '
ZACHOWANIE S ią NABYWCÓW ŚRODKÓW 00 PRODUKCJI W GOSFOOARCE CENTRALNIE PLANOWANEJ NA PRZYKLADZ. Г POLSKI
W a r t y k u le z o s t a ły omówione c z y n n ik i w p ływ ające na zachowanie s ię nabywców (p r z e d s ię b io r s t w a k u p u ją ce g o ) na rynku produkcyjnym w ekonomice niedoborów . Rozważania o p a rto w c z ę ś c i na d ośw iad cze n ia c h w y n ik a ją c y c h z o s t a t n ic h prób wprowadzenia reform y systemu z a rz ą d z a n ia i p lan ow ania gosp od arki w P o ls c e .
W iększość u o g ó ln ie ń jednak o d n ie ść można do s y t u a c j i c h a r a k t e r y s t y c z n e j d la rynku sprzedaw cy. Opis z c e n tra liz o w a n e g o systemu d y s t r y b u c j i środków do p ro d u k c ji oraz prób jeg o zreform ow ania s t a nowią wprowadzenie d la : omówienia form procesu dostosowawczego p rz e d s ię b io rs tw a do niedoborów podaży, d e c y z ji zakupu i p oszu kiw a n ia p o trzeb n ych produktów z a o p a trz e n ia , a w re s z c ie czynników w p ły w a jących na p o z y c ję kupującego względem sp rz e d a ją c e g o i jeg o zacho wanie m ające na c e lu wzmożenie t e j p o z y c ji.
A n a liz a doprowadza do w niosku, że s y t u a c ja rynku sprzedawcy i w y n ik a ją c e z n i e j zachowania p artn erów wymiany p o c ią g a ją za sobą negatywne konsekw encje ekonom iczne, sp o łeczn e i e ty c z n e .
