A D A M E R IC A M
J o u rn a l o f A m e ric a n S tu d ie s V o l. 9, 2 0 0 8
ISSN 1 8 9 6 -9 4 6 1 ISBN 9 7 8 - 8 3 - 2 3 3 - 2 6 8 9 - 2
M a rcin G a b ry ś
FROM THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE TO THE C A N A D IA N INLAND WATERS:
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE C A N A D IA N ARCTIC W ATERS*
The p aper focuses on the latest developm ents of an old controversy over the status of the channels and straights of the Northwest Passage. The problem arises from the fact that the w aters w hich constitute the passage are not universally recognized as Canadian though there is an international consensus on the land area of the Arctic Archipelago. In its first part my article presents a general idea of the N orthwest Passage and outlines the history o f establishing Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic. The next parts of the article trace the roots of the controversy betw een Canada and the U nited States. The p ap e r also show s the recent developm ent of the problem and concentrates on subm arine traffic underneath the w aters of the Arctic Archipelago. Reaffirming Canada’s claim and enforcing sovereignty there is one of the m ost im portant goals o f Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Finally, the last part of the p aper show s h ow critical the controversy is becom ing. Global w arm ing has substantially changed the Arctic. It is thought that the passage is likely to be attractive as a major shipping route. Will this time Canada b e p repared to stand on guard for the “True North, strong and free” ？
T h e N o rth is o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t C a n a d ia n m y th s. N o rth e rn g e o g r a p h y a n d c o n c e r n fo r th e N o rth a re tre a te d b y C a n a d ia n s as d istin c t fe a tu re s, sy m b o ls o f th e ir c o u n try a n d a n im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e ir n a tio n a l id e n tity ( “N o rth ”). T h e th e m e o f m y p r e s e n ta tio n is a c h a n g e in th e official n a m e o f th e C a n a d ia n n o r th e r n se a ro u te th r o u g h th e A rctic A rc h ip e la g o , w h ic h c o n n e c ts th e A tlantic a n d P acific O c e a n s a n d is th e s h o r te s t w a y fro m th e e a s t to w e s t c o a sts o f N o rth A m erica. F o r c e n tu rie s th e p a s s a g e h a s b e e n r e f e r re d to as th e N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e 1 a n d h a s b e c o m e p a r t o f a n o r th e r n m y th . H o w e v e r, in 2006 th e C a n a d ia n A rm y d e c id e d to c h a n g e th e offi
cial n a m e to th e C a n a d ia n I n la n d W a te rs. T h e a lte ra tio n w a s p o litic a lly m o tiv a te d a n d h a s its ro o ts in a c o n tro v e rs y o v e r th e le g a l sta tu s o f th e c h a n n e ls a n d straits o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e , w h ic h s ta rte d a t th e e n d o f th e 1960s. A t th e b e g in n in g o f th e 21st c e n tu ry , th e d e b a te re s u rfa c e d o n c e a g a in b e c a u s e o f th e effec ts o f g lo b a l w a rm in g . T h e n o r th e r n m y th o lo g y o n c e a g a in is b e c o m in g v isible.
* This pap er w as presented at the 4th Congress of Polish Canadianists, Puławy, Poland 26-29, April 2007.
1 The Spanish called the hypothetical route betw een oceans the Strait o f A n id n .
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE C A N A D IA N ARCTIC
First, I a m g o in g to g iv e a g e n e r a l id e a o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e b y o u tlin in g th e h isto ry o f th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty in th e A rctic. T h e s e a rc h fo r th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e s ta rte d fo u r h u n d r e d y e a rs a g o . E u ro p e a n sailo rs lo o k e d fo r a c o m m e rc ia l s e a r o u te b e t w e e n th e A tlantic a n d P acific O c e a n s . T h e d e s ire to e s ta b lis h s u c h a ro u te w a s stro n g b u t e x tre m e te m p e r a tu re s w e r e th e m a in o b sta c le s. In th e A rctic, w a te r w a s c o v e re d w ith ice a lm o s t all m o n th s o f th e y e a r, a n d w e a k w o o d e n s h ip s w e r e n o t p r e p a r e d to fa c e th e q u e s t. A la c k o f s u p p lie s w a s a n a d d itio n a l difficulty. T h e s e c o n d itio n s w e r e so e x tre m e th a t n o t u n til 1906 d id th e first sh ip c o m p le te th e p a s sa g e .
T h e p o litic a l h is to ry o f th e A rctic b e g a n in 1670 w h e n K ing C h a rles II g ra n te d a R oyal O rd e r to th e H u d s o n ’s B ay C o m p a n y , g iv in g it th e title to R u p e rt’s L and (e s s e n tia lly H u d s o n ’s Bay, a n d its w a te r s h e d ). In 1821, a fte r m e rg in g w ith th e N o rth W e st C o m p a n y , th e te rrito ry w a s e x p a n d e d to in c lu d e w h a t is n o w th e N o rth w e st T e rrito rie s a n d N u n a v u t s o u th o f th e A rctic Isla n d s. T h e H u d s o n ’s B a y C o m p a n y s ig n e d o v e r s o v e re ig n ty o f its la n d s to C a n a d a in 1870. T h is s o v e re ig n ty 2 w a s n e v e r q u e s tio n e d . T h e n , in 1880, th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t tra n s fe rre d th e re s t o f its p o s se ssio n s in th e A rctic to C a n a d a , in c lu d in g all isla n d s w h e th e r d is c o v e r e d o r n o t.
E x p e rts sa y th a t th e B ritish h a d a d u b io u s rig h t to g iv e C a n a d a isla n d s w h ic h h a d n o t y e t b e e n d is c o v e re d , o r w h ic h h a d b e e n d is c o v e r e d b y fo re ig n e rs. N e v e rth e le ss, C a n a d a fin ally a g r e e d to ta k e s te w a rd s h ip o v e r th e still u n e x p lo r e d A rctic A rc h ip e la g o fro m G re a t B rita in .3
In th e m e a n tim e , in 1906 th e N o rw e g ia n e x p lo r e r R o a ld A m u n d s e n c o m p le te d a th re e -y e a r v o y a g e in th e c o n v e r te d h e rrin g b o a t G jfa, a n d b e c a m e th e first m a n to p a s s th r o u g h th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e . T h e v o y a g e s a n d d isc o v e rie s o f la rg e arctic isla n d s b y n o n -B ritish e x p lo re rs w e r e d a n g e r o u s to C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e A rctic. T h u s, th e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t s p o n s o r e d p e rio d ic v o y a g e s to th e e a s te rn A rctic in o r d e r to e s ta b lis h a p r e s e n c e th e re in s u p p o r t o f its claim s.4 O f far m o re im p o r ta n c e fo r th e a s s e rtio n o f C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty in th e A rctic w e re NW MP p o sts , w h ic h c o n tro lle d th e activ ities o f A m e ric a n w h a le rs in th e A rctic, e n fo rc e d C a n a d ia n law s, a n d m a d e th e flag v isib le in th e r e g io n ( “A rctic” 2006a). T h is m a d e C a n a d a ’s fo rm a l claim s e c u re sin c e th e 1930s, s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e la n d p a r t o f th e A rctic A rc h ip e la g o h a s n o t b e e n q u e s tio n e d b y a n y c o u n try .5
A lth o u g h th e v o y a g e o f R o a ld A m u n d s e n w a s a su c c e ss, th e r o u te th r o u g h th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e w a s n o t c o m m e rc ia lly p ra c tic a l： it w a s to o lo n g (3 y e a rs) a n d to o d a n g e r o u s to e x c ite m e rc h a n ts .
2 W hen I use the term sovereignty, I m ean the suprem e authority within a territory.
3 During Roald A m undsen’s voyage through the passage (betw een 1906 and 1911), Can
ada, in order to maintain sovereignty, sent Captain Joseph-Elzear Bernier on num erous trips to the North. Bernier collected license fees and duties from whalers. His lasting legacy is a bronze plaque that he ham m ered into the frozen tundra on Melville Island on July 1, 1909, officially claiming the Archipelago for Canada (Mandel-Campbell 2005: 2).
4 O ne of the expeditions in 1909 set up a plaque on Melville Island, claiming the Arctic Archipelago for Canada, from the m ainland to the North Pole.
5 Canada is in a dispute with D enm ark over the ow nership of a small island betw een Baf
fin Island and G reenland nam ed Hans Island (Huebert).
FRO M T H E N O R T H W E S T P A S S A G E T O T H E C A N A D I A N I N LA N D W A T E R S .. 51
CONTROVERSY DURING THE TRUDEAU ERA
As o f th e 1930s, s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e la n d p a r t o f th e A rctic A rc h ip e la g o w a s s e c u re . T h e iss u e o f th e w a te rs s u r ro u n d in g isla n d s w a s fa r m o re c o m p lic a te d , b u t n o o n e in C a n a d a w a s in te r e s te d in clarify in g it.6 In th e o p in io n o f e x p e rts, th e a n tic ip a te d r e a c tio n o f W a s h in g to n to th a t d e c is io n d is c o u ra g e d p o litic ia n s (M cR ae, 100). A n d lu c k ily fo r C a n a d a , u n til th e 1960s W a s h in g to n w a s n o t v e ry in te r e s te d in th e fre e d o m o f n a v ig a tio n th r o u g h th e A rctic, m a in ly b e c a u s e th is r e g io n w a s v irtu a lly un - n a v ig a b le fo r s h ip s o th e r th a n s u b m a rin e s .7 U ntil th e e n d o f th e 1960s, fo r m o s t C a n a d ia n s th e A rctic re m a in e d a n im a g in a ry p la c e far fro m th e ir d a ily re a litie s.8 T his c h a n g e d b e c a u s e o f a v o y a g e o f th e oil ta n k e r M a n h a tta n in 1969.
In 19 6 9 th e A m e ric a n s h ip M a n h a tta n su c c e ssfu lly sa ile d th r o u g h th e N o rth w e st P a ssa g e . T h e M a n h a tta n w a s a sp e c ia lly re in fo rc e d s u p e r ta n k e r s e n t b y H u m b le O il to te s t th e v ia b ility o f th e p a s s a g e fo r th e tr a n s p o r t o f o il fro m A laska to th e e a s t c o a s t o f th e U.S. O w n e rs o f th e s h ip c o o p e r a te d w ith th e U.S. g o v e r n m e n t a n d d e li
b e r a te ly d e c id e d to n e g le c t re q u e s ts m a d e b y th e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t to s e e k its a p p ro v a l b e f o r e tra v e lin g th r o u g h th e C a n a d ia n A rctic. T h e e x p e d itio n p u t C a n a d ia n ju risd ic tio n o v e r th e p a s s a g e in to q u e s tio n . C a n a d ia n p u b lic o p in io n b e g a n to d e m a n d th e d e c la ra tio n o f s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e .9
T h e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t re a liz e d th e sig n ific a n c e o f th e e v e n ts, a n d fe a re d th a t th e M a n h a tta n m ig h t r e p r e s e n t a p r e c u rs o r o f fu tu re c o m m e rc ia l v o y a g e s th a t c o u ld s e rio u s ly u n d e r m in e C a n a d a ’s cla im to so v e re ig n ty .10 P ie rre T ru d e a u a c te d in a v e ry c re a tiv e w a y . In A pril 8, 1970, th e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t p r o p o s e d th e A r c tic W aters P o llu tio n P r e v e n tio n A c t th a t im p le m e n te d p o llu tio n c o n tro l re g u la tio n in th e A rc
6 Some politicians, like Lester B. Pearson, defined the Canadian Arctic as mainland, is
lands, and the frozen sea north of the m ainland up to the North Pole. Others w ere not so sure (Charron 2005).
7 It is know n that American, Soviet, and probably British subm arines have been regularly patrolling the Arctic w aters (Granatstein, Hilmer 1991: 246).
8 In the w ords of Professor Franklyn Griffiths from the University of T oronto： “[Canadians - M.G.] are not an Arctic nation, except in a mystical sense, as part of our greatness by exten
sion, our grandeur as a p eo p le” (Mandel-Campbell 2005: 2).
9 The North suddenly becam e increasingly im portant for the national identity of a large part of Canadian society. The public pressure on Trudeau was very strong. Almost every day the press printed editorials calling for action. As a result, the majority of Canadians was even convinced that their country w as the ow ner of the North Pole (Young 1987： 118 and Kirton, M unton 1987： 86). It should be rem em bered that Canada issued official m aps w hich show ed that the Arctic w aters w ere Canadian authority. The very popular sector theory from the b e ginning of the 20th century stated that the boundaries of Canada stretched up to the North Pole. Even Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson believed the theory. All of this built up a m ythology of the Canadian Arctic (Head: T rudeau 1995: 51-52).
10 The main problem at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s was that if the voyage had suc
ceed, the lack of Canadian approval could have lessened the Canadian claim, since one could easily accuse Canada of not exercising pow er in the Northwest Passage. From the legal point of view, at the en d of the 1960s, Canadian territorial w aters w ere three miles wide. It m eant that O ttawa controlled only the m ost frequently used strait of the N orthwest Passage - the Prince of Wales Strait - because it is narrow er than six miles. The Trudeau governm ent feared that, w ith the developm ent of technique, vessels could use a route through the w ider McClure Strait.
tic .11 C a n a d a w a s n o t y e t cla im in g s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e re g io n , b u t ra th e r a s se rtin g lim ite d fu n c tio n a l ju risd ic tio n to p r e v e n t p o llu tio n b e y o n d 60 d e g r e e s o f th e n o r th e rn la titu d e .
T h e M a n h a tta n b e c a m e th e la rg e st s h ip to tra v e rs e th e le g e n d a ry p a s s a g e , b u t th e r o u te w a s e x p e n s iv e a n d im p ra c tic a l. O il c o m p a n ie s c h o s e th e A lask a P ip e lin e a s a m e a n s o f tra n s p o rta tio n o f A la sk a n oil. F o r o th e rs , th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e w a s to o c o s tly to c o m p e te w ith th e P a n a m a C anal.
THE POLAR SEA CONTROVERSY
F o r th e n e x t 16 y e a rs a fte r th e M a n h a tta n v o y a g e , n o A m e ric a n s h ip sa ile d th r o u g h th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e ( “A rctic” 2006a). It a g a in w a s th e fo c u s o f n a tio n a l a tte n tio n in 1985, w h e n th e U.S. ic e b re a k e r P o la r S ea p a s s e d th r o u g h th e P a ssa g e w ith o u t C a n a d ia n p e r m is s io n .12 T h e U.S. G o v e rn m e n t d e lib e ra te ly d id n o t a s k C a n a d ia n s, c la im in g th a t th is w a s sim p ly a c o s t effec tiv e w a y to g e t th e s h ip fro m G re e n la n d to A lask a a n d th a t th e re w a s n o n e e d to a s k p e rm is s io n to trav e l th r o u g h in te rn a tio n a l w a te rs. O n c e a g a in , C a n a d ia n so v e re ig n ty o v e r a rc tic w a te rs b e c a m e a m a tte r o f d is p u te w ith th e U.S. T h e P o la r Sea s h o w e d th a t th e C a n a d ia n ab ility to c o n tro l th e A rctic w a s d e f a c t o v e ry w e a k a n d O tta w a fe lt o b lig e d to a c t to sa v e f a c e .13
U n d e r p u b lic p re s s u re , P rim e M in ister B ria n M u lro n e y d e c la re d to ta l so v e re ig n ty o v e r th e w a te rs in 1986. S ince th e n , th e C a n a d ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a s c la im e d th a t all w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e a re in te rn a l w a te rs o f C a n a d a . H o w e v e r, th e U.S.
a n d th e E u ro p e a n U n io n re fu se to a c c e p t th e cla im a n d still s e e th e m a s in te rn a tio n a l w a te r s .14 I a m g o in g to d isc u ss th is later.
W ith th e d e c la ra tio n o f so v e re ig n ty , C a n a d a s o u g h t a c o m p ro m is e w ith th e U.S.
B o th c o u n trie s s ig n e d a n a g r e e m e n t in 1988 to p e rm it U.S. ic e b re a k e rs a c c e s s to arc tic w a te rs, b u t o n ly w ith C a n a d a ’s c o n s e n t. T h e a g re e m e n t, h o w e v e r, d id n o t se ttle th e q u e s tio n o f s o v e re ig n ty a n d th e p r o b le m o f A m e ric a n s u b m a rin e s .15
T h e p u b lic o u tc ry in th e 1970s a n d 1980s o v e r th e tw o v o y a g e s w a s sh o rt-liv e d . It w a s ra th e r a m a n ife s ta tio n o f C a n a d ia n n a tio n a lis m a n d a n ti-A m erica n ism . D e sp ite th e p la n s to b u ild th e fle e t o f m o d e r n ic e b re a k e rs a n d n u c le a r s u b m a rin e s , O tta w a
11 The objectives w ere to “assert Canada’s jurisdiction to regulate all shipping in zones up to 100 nautical miles off its Arctic coasts in order to guard against pollution of the region’s coastal and m arine resources” (Zorzetto 2006). At the same time, the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention A ct also extended to the territorial w aters from three to twelve nautical miles. It had a critical result for the Northwest Passage straits: Barrow and Prince of Wales passed u nder Canadian control.
12 Before a num ber of commercial voyages via the Northwest Passage had occured, but the ow ners had requested perm ission from the Canadian governm ent (McRae 1987).
13 The voyage of the Polar Sea was a threat to the Canadian claim to the Arctic waters, b e cause the vessel was a military ship. The U.S. Coast G uard is treated as part of the U.S. Navy (Griffiths 1987: 248).
14 The United Kingdom, acting on behalf of the European Community, issued a diplom atic protest against the decision of M ulroney’s government.
15 Usually, however, the tw o countries have ignored their differences, refusing to ac
know ledge the regular traffic of undersea nuclear subm arines that use the passage.
FRO M T H E N O R T H W E S T P A S S A G E T O T H E C A N A D I A N I N LA N D W A T E R S .. . 53
s o o n lo s t in te r e s t in th e N o rth .16 T h e p la n s w e re d r o p p e d a n d C a n a d a r e tu r n e d to its h a b it o f ig n o rin g th e c o n tro v e rs y a n d th e N o rth . T h e re w a s n o t m u c h to w o rry a b o u t sin c e u n til th e b e g in n in g o f th e 21st c e n tu r y o n ly a fe w v e s se ls h a v e c o m p le te d th e p a s sa g e .
C A N A D IA N SOVEREIGNTY OVER THE W ATERS OF THE NORTHW EST PASSAGE
T h e c o n tro v e rs y , w h ic h I in te n d to c o n c e n tra te o n , a rise s fro m th e fa c t th a t th e re is in te rn a tio n a l c o n s e n s u s o n ly c o n c e rn in g th e la n d a r e a o f th e A rctic A rc h ip e la g o . T h e c h a n n e ls a n d straits th a t c o n s titu te th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e a r e n o t u n iv e rsa lly r e c o g n iz e d as C a n a d ia n . T h e p r o b le m is e v e n m o re c o m p lic a te d b y th e fa c t th a t th e P a ssa g e is a difficu lt p ie c e o f te rrito ry to c a te g o riz e , sin c e it is n e ith e r s o le ly la n d n o r so le ly w a te r, a n d le g a l ju ris p r u d e n c e fo r re m o te , ic e -c lo g g e d , arc tic w a te rs is u n c e r ta in (C h a rro n 2005).
The position of Canada
T h e C a n a d ia n g o v e r n m e n t’s official p o s itio n is th a t th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e is C a n a d ia n h isto ric a l in te rn a l w a te rs. T h is m e a n s th a t C a n a d a a s s u m e s full s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e w a te rs a n d a s se rts c o m p le te c o n tro l o v e r all activ ity w ith in th e m . F o r e x a m p le , f o re ig n v e s se ls m u s t r e q u e s t p e r m is s io n to p a s s th r o u g h ( H u e b e r t 2 0 0 1 ).17
In 1986, C a n a d a d e c la re d stra ig h t b a s e lin e s - lin e s d r a w n b e t w e e n th e o u te r h e a d la n d s o f th e A rctic A rc h ip e la g o . U n d e r in te rn a tio n a l law , straits a n d c h a n n e ls w i
th in p r o p e r ly d r a w n b a s e lin e s c o n s titu te in te rn a l w a te rs s u b je c t to th e full fo rc e o f th e c o a sta l s ta te ’s law s. H o w e v e r, a c o u n try m a y still n o t e x e rc is e to ta l so v e re ig n ty o v e r th o s e w a te rs if th e y in c lu d e a stra it u s e d fo r in te rn a tio n a l n a v ig a tio n . D o n a ld M cR ae, a la w p r o fe s s o r a t th e U n iv ersity o f O tta w a , sa y s C a n a d a m u s t th e re fo re p r o v e tw o th in g s to w in a s o v e re ig n ty cla im o v e r its A rctic w a te rs.
1. It m u s t b e d e m o n s tr a te d th a t th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e a re th e in te rn a l w a te rs o f C a n a d a ,
2. It m u s t b e d e m o n s tr a te d th a t th e w a te rs d o n o t c o n s titu te a n in te rn a tio n a l strait - it is a f u n c tio n a l c o n d itio n (M cR ae).
O v e r th e y ea rs, C a n a d ia n o f g o v e r n m e n t officials h a v e b e e n sa y in g th a t C a n a d a c a n m e e t b o th o f th o s e re q u ire m e n ts . F o r th e first c o n d itio n C a n a d a h a s c ite d a ru lin g o f th e In te rn a tio n a l C o u rt o f J u s tic e .18 O tta w a also p o in ts o u t th a t th e w a te rs
16Because of the 1985 voyage of the Polar Sea, External Affairs Minister Joe Clark declared an increase o f the budget for the developm ent of the northern region, surveillance flights and plans for building a n ew icebreaker. It fell victim to cost-cutting and was never built. The same has been w ith plans from 1987 an d 1996 to build nuclear-pow ered subm arines capable of patrolling the Arctic w aters (McRae 1987).
17 The 1988 Canadian-American agreem ent stated that voyages of American vessels in the Arctic region claim ed by O ttawa as Canadian w ould not have any impact in lessening the Canadian claim (McRae 1987).
18 The ruling from 1951 stated that countries could draw a straight baseline across coastal areas dotted w ith m any islands and declare that all the w ater betw een that line and the m ain
s e p a r a tin g m o s t o f th e isla n d s in C a n a d a ’s A rctic a re f ro z e n o v e r m o s t o f th e y ea r.
T h e In u it h u n t a n d s p e n d la rg e a m o u n ts o f tim e w o rk in g a n d e v e n living o n th e ice - in e ffe c t tu rn in g it in to a n e x te n s io n o f th e la n d .19 In sh o rt, th e b a s e lin e s a n d th e cla im o f th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e a re s e c u r e d b y h isto ric u sa g e , in c lu d in g th e o c c u p a tio n o f th e se a -ic e b y th e In u it.
F o r th e s e c o n d c o n d itio n - d e c id in g w h e th e r th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a n in te rn a tio n a l strait u n d e r m a ritim e la w - C a n a d a h a s sta te d th a t th e re h a v e b e e n s o f e w tra n sits th r o u g h th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e th a t it is im p o ssib le to c o n s id e r it a n in te rn a tio n a l s h ip p in g r o u te .20 T h u s, it fails th e r e q u ir e d u se test.
The American and European Position
T h e U n ite d S tates a n d th e E u ro p e a n U n io n s ta n d firm o n th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e w a te rw a y s b e t w e e n th e n o r th e r n C a n a d ia n isla n d s a re a n in te rn a tio n a l strait. T h e A m e ric a n s in p a rtic u la r d o n o t a c c e p t th e a r g u m e n t th a t ice c o v e r m a k e s a d iffe re n c e fo r th e in te rn a tio n a l le g al d e fin itio n o f a n in te rn a tio n a l strait. T h e U n ite d S tates a r g u e s th a t th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e jo in s tw o in te rn a tio n a l b o d ie s o f w a te r a n d h a s b e e n u s e d fo r in te rn a tio n a l sh ip p in g , a n d th e n u m b e r o f tra n sits d o e s n o t m a tte r.
T h e o p p o s itio n o f th e U.S. o rig in a te s fro m th e fa c t th a t W a s h in g to n h a s c o n s i
ste n tly d e f e n d e d th e rig h t o f tra n sit p a s s a g e th r o u g h in te rn a tio n a l w a te r s .21 N aval in te re sts o f th e U n ite d States a r o u n d th e w o rld p r e v e n t th e U.S. g o v e rn m e n t fro m c o n c e d in g to C a n a d a o n th e P a ssa g e . B e fo re S e p te m b e r 11, 2001, it w a s u n lik e ly th a t th e U.S. g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld h a v e e n d e d th e p o lic y o f p ro te c tin g v ital tra d e ro u te s a r o u n d th e w o rld .
land is internal, even if it lies outside the 12-mile limit. The ruling concerned a case involving Norway. However, som e observers say Canada’s geographic case is similar (“Arctic” 2007).
19 But recently (in 2001) an official from the Legal Affairs Bureau in a presentation in W hitehorse regarding Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic argued that “Canadian sovereignty over the w aterways of the Canadian Arctic did not d e p e n d on the ice cover of the region, but that Canada’s view, then and now, is that since the 1880 [...] the w aters of the Arctic Archipel
ago have b ee n Canada’s internal w aters by virtue of historical title. These w aters have been used by Inuit, now of Canada, since time immemorial. The official also noted that Canada has not relied on the concept of ‘ice as land’ to support its claim of sovereignty. [...] Thus, he concluded, ‘even if the ice w ere to melt, Canada’s legal sovereignty w ould be unaffected’”
(H uebert 2001).
20 It is reported that there w ere about 11 foreign transits betw een 1904 and 1984 (“Arctic”
2007).
21 Some exam ples include the American refusal to accept Libya’s claim that the Gulf of Si
dra is entirely internal waters, and, in 1986, the dispatch of the cruiser Yorkton and destroyer Caron deep into the Black Sea in order to prove the point that states should not limit the access of vessels to an international strait (Charron 2005).
FRO M T H E N O R T H W E S T P A S S A G E T O T H E C A N A D I A N I N LA N D W A T E R S .. . 55
CONTROVERSY IN THE 2 1 st CENTURY
T h e re a re a t le a st tw o th re a ts to C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e in th e 21st c e n tu ry . T h e first is p o s e d b y su b s u rfa c e tran sits o f s u b m a rin e s . T h e s e c o n d is a fu tu re th re a t, b u t in m y o p in io n m u c h m o re s e rio u s - o n e o f th e e ffec ts o f g lo b a l w a rm in g is th e m e ltin g o f ice in th e A rctic re g io n s, w h ic h w o u ld o p e n th e P a s
s a g e fo r c o m m e rc ia l tran sit. Let m e sta rt w ith th e p r o b le m o f su b m a rin e s.
Submarines
As I sa id e a rlier, e x p e rts a re d iv id e d o n w h e th e r th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e c o u ld b e r e g a rd e d a s c o n s titu tin g a n in te rn a tio n a l strait, th ro u g h w h ic h a rig h t o f in n o c e n t o r tra n sit p a s s a g e ex ists. T h e re a re tw o c o n d itio n s n e c e s s a ry fo r d e te rm i
n in g w h e th e r a b o d y o f w a te r c a n b e r e g a rd e d b y la w a s a n in te rn a tio n a l strait. A ca
d e m ic s sa y th a t o f c o u r s e th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e m e e ts th e g e o g ra p h ic c o n d itio n (jo in in g tw o o c e a n s ). T h e p r o b le m lies in d e te rm in in g th e s e c o n d , fu n c tio n a l c o n d i
tio n ( w h e th e r in te rn a tio n a l s h ip s u se a strait). As I sa id e a rlier, o n ly tw o v e sse ls h a v e o v e rtly tra n s ite d th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e w ith o u t r e q u e s tin g C a n a d a ’s p e rm issio n . W h ile th e re h a s b e e n re la tiv e ly little traffic th r o u g h th e P a ssa g e d u e to ice c o n d i
tio n s, th e re is a n u n r e g u la te d tra n sit o f f o re ig n s u b m a rin e s u n d e r th e su rfa c e o f w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e . It is r e p o r te d th a t sin c e 1999, C a n a d a h a s d e te c te d a n a v e ra g e o f tw o in c u rs io n s a m o n th , b y u n k n o w n s u b m a rin e s in its A rctic w a te rs .22 T h is c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a s w e a k e n in g th e C a n a d ia n cla im to s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e se w a te rs.
T h e p r o b le m o f s u b s u rfa c e tra n sit o f s u b m a rin e s r e a c h e d th e fro n t p a g e s o f n e w s p a p e r s in C a n a d a a n d s p a r k e d o u tr a g e in la te 2005. O n ly a f e w w e e k s in a d v a n c e o f C a n a d ia n g e n e r a l e le c tio n s o n J a n u a ry 23, 2006, th e U.S. s u b m a rin e C h a r lo tte w a s r e p o r te d in th e m e d ia to h a v e v isite d th e N o rth P o le a fte r h a v in g p a s s e d th r o u g h C a n a d ia n w a te rs, w ith o u t re c e iv in g p e rm issio n . O p p o s itio n p a rtie s c a lle d it a n a tio n a l e m b a r ra s s m e n t a n d w a r n e d th a t C a n a d ia n so v e re ig n ty w a s a t risk. S om e o b s e rv e rs h a v e sa id th a t th e C b a r lo tte ’s trip w a s a sla p in th e fa c e to all C a n a d ia n s ( “U .S.” 2005).
T h e N o rth b e c a m e a n im p o rta n t th e m e d u r in g th e 2006 e le c tio n c a m p a ig n . P o liti
c ia n s b e g a n to d e c la re h o w im p o rta n tly th e y tre a t C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e A rctic w a te rs. S te p h e n H a r p e r a n n o u n c e d p la n s to in c re a s e C a n a d a ’s m ilita ry p r e s e n c e in th e A rctic, d e p lo y th r e e m ilita ry ic e b re a k e rs th e re a n d in stall a r e m o te s e n sin g n e tw o rk in o r d e r to e n fo rc e C a n a d ia n s o v e re ig n ty th e re ( “H a r p e r” 2006a). O n e o f th e sy m b o ls o f th e n e w p o litic s w a s a c h a n g e in th e official n a m e o f th e N o r
th w e s t P a ssa g e . O n A pril 9, 2006, th e C a n a d ia n A rm y d e c la re d th a t th e C a n a d ia n m ilita ry w o u ld n o lo n g e r re fe r to th e r e g io n a s th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e , b u t a s th e C a n a d ia n In te rn a l W a te rs ( “N o rth w e s t”).
22 The Globe a n d M ail has inform ed that American vessels have m ade at least three incur
sions into the Northwest Passage w ithout informing Canada (“U.S.” 2006).
H o w e v e r, th e re a lity is th a t C a n a d a ’s m ilita ry p r e s e n c e in th e A rctic c o u ld n o t b e c o n s id e r e d as su fficie n t.23 T h e R a n g ers, 1,400 p a rt-tim e v o lu n te e rs , m a n y o f th e m In u it, still e q u i p p e d w ith S e c o n d W o rld W a r rifles, p ro v id e m o s t o f C a n a d a ’s m ilitary p r e s e n c e in th e A rctic. S u rv e illa n ce o f th e re g io n is left to five C o a st G u a rd ic e b r e a k e rs, w h ic h a re o ld a n d h a v e to le a v e th e A rctic fo r w in te r. Air p a tro ls o c c u r o n ly a f e w tim e s a y e a r (M a n d e l-C a m p b e ll 2 0 0 5： 3). In su m , C a n a d a h a s n o id e a if A m eri
c a n s u b m a rin e s a re p a s s in g th r o u g h u n le s s th e A m eric an s in fo rm th e C a n a d ia n s.
Global warming
T h e s e c o n d th r e a t to C a n a d a ’s s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e A rctic is p o s e d b y g lo b a l w a r m in g , w h ic h is c le a rin g th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e o f ice a n d m a k in g c o m m e rc ia l trav e l fe a sib le . S cientific r e p o rts sta te th a t th e A rctic re g io n is e x p e r ie n c in g w a rm in g a t a ra te g re a te r th a n a lm o s t a n y o th e r r e g io n o f th e g lo b e (H u e b e rt). T h e P a ssa g e is a lm o s t fre e o f ice d u r in g th e s u m m e r m o n th s (B u rk h o ld e r). N o rth e rn A b o rig in al p e o p le s c o n firm th is o b s e rv a tio n .24
S h o u ld th e P a ssa g e b e c o m e ic e-free , h o w e v e r, it is q u ite p o s s ib le th e f u n c tio n a l c o n d itio n o f a n in te rn a tio n a l stra it w ill s o o n b e sa tisfie d .25 It is th o u g h t th a t g lo b a l w a rm in g is lik e ly to o p e n th e p a s s a g e fo r in c re a s in g p e rio d s , m a k in g it a ttra c tiv e as a m a jo r s h ip p in g ro u te . T h e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e s u b sta n tia lly s h o r te n s th e d ista n c e fro m A sia to th e e a s t c o a s t o f th e U n ite d S tates a n d E u ro p e . It is m o re th a n 7,000 k ilo m e te rs s h o r te r th a n th e c u r r e n t ro u te th r o u g h th e P a n a m a C anal, a n d w o u ld sig n ific an tly s h o r te n th e v o y a g e fo r v e s se ls th a t a re to o la rg e to fit th r o u g h th e C an al a n d m u s t sail a r o u n d C a p e H o rn . E x p e rts sa y th e o p e n in g o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e c o u ld b e th e m o s t sig n ific a n t c h a n g e to o c e a n tra n s p o r ta tio n sin c e th e o p e n in g o f th e P a n a m a C a n al in 1914. H o w e v e r, if fo re ig n s h ip s b e g in u sin g th e ro u te , C a n a d a m a y lo se its cla im o f th e A rctic w a te rs.
HOW THE CONTROVERSY CAN BE SOLVED
T h e c o n tro v e rs y b e tw e e n C a n a d a a n d th e U.S. c o n c e r n in g s o v e re ig n ty o v e r th e w a te rs o f th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e is b a s e d o n th e p rin c ip le s o f la w . A rg u m e n ts o n b o th
23 Canadian Forces N orthern Area H eadquarters in Yellowknife has a staff of 150 people.
There are also tw o smaller detachm ents in W hitehorse and Iqaluit. They are responsible for a territory of four million square kilom eters (Sevunts).
24 Insects have been reported m uch further north than is the norm. Changes in animal mi
gration patterns have also been reported. Both northern Aboriginal peoples and scientists have reported significant changes in the hunting patterns of predators such as the polar bear.
Inuit hunters are falling through thinning ice and dying. There is not enough snow to build igloos for shelter during hunts (“From”).
25 As long as ice conditions rem ained hazardous to com mercial shipping, there w as little incentive for any country, the United States included, to challenge the Canadian position.
International law expert at the University of British Columbia, Michael Byers reported: “W e’ve essentially been able to avoid problem s over this in the past because the ice has b ee n too thick and too hard to m ake it a commercially viable route...But, of course, the ice is melting”
( “H arper” 2006b).
FRO M T H E N O R T H W E S T P A S S A G E T O T H E C A N A D I A N I N LA N D W A T E R S .. . 57
sid e s a re s tro n g a n d so lid . E x p e rts a re o f th e o p in io n th a t c o n tin u e d re lia n c e o n strictly le g al a rg u m e n ts is lik e ly to re s u lt in a sta le m a te . A w a y fo rw a r d m u s t b e b a s e d n o t o n la w b u t o n s o m e k in d o f p o litic a l c o m p ro m is e . Let u s lo o k a t a c h a n c e to so lv e th e d is p u te th a t h a s re c e n tly e m e rg e d .
O n e o f th e first sig n s th a t th e p o s itio n o f W a s h in g to n w ith re g a rd to th e P a ssa g e is c h a n g in g w a s a s p e e c h g iv e n in la te O c to b e r 2006 b y fo rm e r U.S. a m b a s s a d o r to C a n a d a P a u l C ellucci. H e d e c la re d th a t th e d is p u te d w a te rs in th e N o rth s h o u ld b e r e c o g n iz e d a s a s o v e re ig n C a n a d ia n te rrito ry , sin c e it w o u ld b e e a s ie r fo r C a n a d a to p o lic e th e a r e a th a n fo r th e U n ite d States, a n d th e d e c is io n s h o u ld b e m a d e in th e c o n te x t o f N o rth A m e ric a n se c u rity ( “A m e ric a n s”).
S ince S e p te m b e r 11, 2001, se c u rity h a s b e c o m e th e m o s t im p o r ta n t p r o b le m fo r th e U n ite d States. A n d th e re is th e o p p o r tu n ity fo r C a n a d a to o v e rc o m e a 150-year- o ld A m e ric a n p o lic y o f s e c u rin g f re e d o m o f n a v ig a tio n in th e se a s. D u rin g th e C o ld W ar, th e U.S. w a s f o c u s e d o n m a in ta in in g o p e n a c c e ss fo r its n av y , e s p e c ia lly its s u b m a rin e s . T o d a y , W a s h in g to n is m o re c o n c e r n e d a b o u t te rro rists s n e a k in g in to N o rth A m erica, o r sta te s u sin g th e o c e a n s to tra n s p o r t “w e a p o n s o f m a ss d e s tru c tio n .” T h e U.S. w o u ld b e n e f it m o re if fo re ig n v e s se ls h a d to fulfill C a n a d a ’s r e a s o n a b le re g u la tio n s th a n b y m a in ta in in g th a t th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e is a n in te rn a tio n a l strait. T his ty p e o f r e a s o n in g is r e s p o n s ib le fo r le s s e n in g W a s h in g to n ’s o b je c tio n s to th e n e w C a n a d ia n stra te g y o f s tr e n g th e n in g its m ilitary p r e s e n c e in th e Arctic.
O f c o u rse , th e U.S. a p p r o v a l c o u ld b e o n ly tacit, if s u p p o r t fo r th e C a n a d ia n cla im h a d b e e n u s e d b y o th e r sta te s to re stric t U.S. n a v a l m o b ility e ls e w h e re in th e w o rld .26 A lso, a b a n d o n in g th e p o s itio n o f s e c u rin g f re e d o m o f n a v ig a tio n w o u ld re s u lt in p ro te s ts fro m th e U.S. N av y .27 H o w e v e r, w h e n it c o m e s to th e U.S. n a tio n a l se c u rity in te re sts in th e A rctic, n e w d e m a n d s o f h o m e la n d se c u rity a n d c o n tin e n ta l d e f e n s e h a v e b e e n m o re im p o r ta n t th a n th e tra d itio n a l n e e d fo r n a v a l m o b ility in d is ta n t a re a s. C a n a d a ’s q u e s t fo r a c c e p te d ju risd ic tio n in th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e c o u ld p a r a d o x ic a lly b e n e f it su b s ta n tia lly fro m th e e v e n ts o f S e p te m b e r 11 ( “A rctic”
2006b).
T h e n e w U.S. tactic to w a rd th e d e b a te w ith C a n a d a h a s n o t y e t re c e iv e d w id e s p r e a d s u p p o r t. T h e m a in p r o b le m fo r C a n a d a lies in c o n v in c in g th e U.S. th a t this tim e P rim e M in ister S te p h e n H a r p e r ’s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f a n e w arc tic p o lic y is d iffe
r e n t fro m p ro m is e s m a d e b y P ie rre T ru d e a u , J o e C lark, o r B ria n M u lro n ey . T h e ir in te n tio n s to b u ild a C a n a d ia n n a v a l p r e s e n c e in th e A rctic h a v e n e v e r b e e n fulfilled ( “A rctic” 2006b).
C a n a d a a n d th e U.S. h a v e a lo n g h is to ry o f c o m p ro m is e a n d w o rk in g a r o u n d a g re e m e n ts . T his m a k e s a s o lu tio n to th e d is p u te o v e r th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e m o re lik e ly to b e re a c h e d . P e rh a p s th e c o n tro v e rs y c o u ld b e s o lv e d u n d e r th e e x istin g a g r e e m e n ts fo r th e jo in t p r o te c tio n o f N o rth A m erica. A n d p r o b a b ly th e b e s t w a y fo r C a n a d a w o u ld b e to a c t a lo n g lin e s p r o p o s e d b y P ro fe s s o r M ic h ae l B y e rs： in e x c h a n g e fo r th e U.S. r e c o g n itio n o f th e C a n a d ia n claim , O tta w a w o u ld p ro v id e “o p e n a c c e s s f o r all A m e ric a n g o v e rn m e n t v essels, fac ilita te s h ip p in g b y re p u ta b le c o m p a -
26 The current U.S. am bassador to Canada, David Wilkins, has been quick to restate U.S.
insistence that the N orthwest Passage is an international strait (“Americans”).
27 Christopher Sands, a senior associate of the W ashington-based think tank Centre for Strategic and International Studies, said in N ovem ber 2006: “By suggesting that the U.S. posi
tion on a matter of international law might be changed in order to please a friendly govern
ment, the U.S. w ould o pen itself to challenges and special pleas around the world, along with charges of hypocrisy” (Berthiaume 2006: 9).
n ie s, a n d in v e s t in th e e q u ip m e n t n e c e s s a ry to p o lic e th e N o rth w e s t P a ssa g e o n a y e a r -r o u n d b a s is ” (B y ers 2007).
REFERENCES
“Americans Disagree over Canada’s Claim to Historic Northwest Passage,” C anadian Press, 1 N ovem ber 2006. 10.04.07, h ttp：/ / ww w.uofaw eb.ualberta.ca/govrel/news.cfm ?story=52223.
“Arctic Controversy - A Rovian M aneouvre,” The Galloping Beaver, 27 January 2006b.
30.04.06, http://w w w .pkblogs.com /thegallopingbeaver/2006/01/arctic-controversy-rovian- m aneouvre.htm l.
“Arctic Sovereignty,” [in:] The C anadian Encyclopedia, 2006a. 10.04.07,
h ttp：/ / www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC816208.
“Arctic Sovereignty： Drawing a Line in the W ater,” CBC, 2 August 2007. 10.10.07, h ttp：/ / w w w .cbc.ca/new s/background/cdnm ilitary/arctic.htm l.
Berthiaume, L., “Canada Should Control Northwest Passage： Cellucci,” Embassy: C anada s Foreign Policy Newsweekly, 1 N ovem ber 2006. 01.11.06, h ttp：/ / w w w .em bassym ag.ca/
pdf/2006/110106_em.pdf.
Burkholder, C., “The Northwest Passage O p en s： A New Canadian Security Frontier,” The Brock Press, 17 O ctober 2006. 1 7.10.06,
h ttp：/ / w w w .brockpress.com /m edia/storage/paper384/new s/2006/10/17/International/T he- Northwest.Passage.Opens.A.New.Canadian.Security.Frontier-
2371799.shtml?norewrite200611090433&sourcedomain=w w w .brockpress.com .
Byers, M., “Unfrozen Sea： Michael Byers sails the Northwest Passage,” Liu Institute for Global Issues, 22 March 2007. 10.10.07, h ttp：//w w w .ligi.ubc.ca/?p2=/m odules/liu/publications/
view.jsp&id=36.
Charron, A., “The Northwest Passage in Context,” C anadian M ilitary Journal, Vol. 6, No. 4, Winter 2005. 10.04.07, h ttp：/ / w w w.journal.forces.gc.ca/engraph/V ol6/no4/06-N orth3_e.
asp.
“From Canada’s North, A View Of Global W arming,” W cco.com 15 April 2007. 10.04.07, http：//wcco.com/local/local_story_105160333.html.
Granatstein, J.L., Hillmer, N., For Better or fo r Worse： a n d the United States to the 1990's, Mis
sissauga, O ntario： Copp Clark Pitman, 1991.
Griffiths, F., “B eyond the Arctic Sublime,” [in：] Griffiths, F. (ed.), Politics o f the Northwest Pas
sage, F. Kingston and M ontreal： McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987.
“H arper Brushes Off U.S. Criticism of Arctic Plan,” CBC, 26 January 2006a. 10.04.07, http：/ / w w w .cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/01/26/w ilkins-harper060126.htm l.
“H arper Tells U.S. to D rop Arctic Claim,” W ashington Post, 27 January 2006b. 10.04.07, http：/ / www.w ashingtonpost.com /w p-dyn/content/article/2006/01/26/A R2006012602011.
html.
Head, I.L., Trudeau, P.E., The C anadian W ay： Shaping C a n a d a s Foreign Policy 1968-1984, T oronto： McClelland and Stewart, 1995.
H uebert, R., “Climate Change and Canadian Sovereignty in the Northwest Passage,” ISUMA, Vol. 2, No. 4, W inter 2001. 10.04.07, http：/ / w w w .isum a.net/v02n04/huebert/huebert_e.
shtml.
Kirton, J., Munton, D., “The M anhattan Voyages and its Aftermath,” [in：] Griffiths, F. (ed.), Politics o f the Northwest Passage, Kingston： McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987.
Mandel-Campbell, A., “W ho Controls Canada’s Arctic?,” Walrus, D ecem ber/January 2005.
10.04.07, h ttp：/ / www.walrusmagazine.com/articles/2005.01-national-affairs-who-controls- canadas-arctic/.
McRrae, D.M., „The Negotiation of Article 234,” [in：] Griffiths, F. (ed.), Politics o f the Northwest Passage, Kingston： McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987.
FRO M T H E N O R T H W E S T P A S S A G E T O T H E C A N A D I A N I N LA N D W A T E R S .. . 59
North, [in：] The C anadian Encyclopedia 2007. 10.04.07,
h ttp：/ / www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA000579 2.
“Northwest Passage gets political nam e change,” E dm onton Journal, 9 April 2006. 10.04.07, h ttp：/ / www.canada.com /edm ontonjournal/new s/story.htm l?id=6d4815ac-4fdb-4cf3-a8a6- 4225a8bd08df&k=73925.
Sevunts, L., “As ice melts, Canada aims to reassert sovereignty,” The W ashington Times, June 12, 2005, h ttp：/ / www.highbeam .com /doc/1G 1-133195814.htm l, (10.11.07).
“U.S. scientists test w aters of Arctic sovereignty debate,” The Globe a n d M ail, 27 September 2006, 28.09.06, h ttp：/ / w w w.theglobeandm ail.com /servlet/story/RTGAM . 20060927.warktik 0927/BNStory.
“U.S. Sub May Have T oured Canadian Arctic Z one,” N ational Post, 19 D ecem ber 2005.
10.04.07, h ttp：/ / www.canada.com/nationalpost/story.html?id=fb21432a-1d28-415e-b323- ceb22d477732&k=69493.
USS Charlotte Achieves Milestone D uring Under-Ice Transit, Official W ebsite of the United States Navy, 1 D ecem ber 2005. 10.04.07, h ttp：/ / w w w .new s.navy.m il/search/display.
asp?story_id=21223.
Young, O.R., “Arctic Shipping： An American Perspective,” [in：] Griffiths, F. (ed.), Politics o f the Northwest Passage, Kingston and M ontreal： McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987.
Zorzetto, A., The Dispute over the Northwest Passage, American University, The School of In
ternational Service 2006. 10.04.07, h ttp：/ / w w w .am erican.edu/ted/ice/northw est- passage.htm .
