Proceedings of the 4th International Congress IMAEM’87, Varna, Bulgaria, Volume 1

International

_Maritime

Association

_{of East}

Mediterranean

4

th

_{INTERNATIONAL}

_CONGRESS

Volume

1

P1987-1

Volume 1

ORGANIZERS

Bulgarian Ship Hydrodynamics Centre, Varna

Technological Centre for Marine Resources, Varna

Shipbuilding Industry-Corporation,

_Varna

Water Transport Corporation,

_Varna

Higher Institute of Machine & Electrical Eng., Varna

Rikola Vaptsarov Naval

_{Academy, Varna}

Institute of Oceanology,

_Varna

Shipbuilding Cybernetics Centre,

Varna

Bulgarian Shipping Company,

_Varna

SPONSORS

State Committee for Research and Technology

Bulgarian Shipbuilding

_{Industry Corporation}

Bulgarian Water Transport Corporation

The Union of Scientific

_{Workers in Bulgaria}

Scientific and

Technical Unions of Bulgaria

SECRETARIAT

I

'87

Dr.

P.

Bogdanov, Honoured Scientist, President IV IMAEM Congress

Mr. G. Lazarov

Bulgarian Ship Hydrodynamics Centre

Varna, Bulgaria

PREFACE

It is nearly 10 years since the first

Congress of the International Maritime

Association of East Mediterranean (IMAEM),held in Istanbul in 1978. Each of the following IMAEM Congresses,

held every 3 years (the second one in

Trieste in 1981, the third in _{Athens in 1984 and the present,}

fourth, in Varna in 1987) is _{characterized by an} in-creased number of papers and of _{participants.}

The Bulgarian Ship Hydrodynamics _{Centre, as a}

principal organizer of the IVth

IMAEM Congress - May 25 to May 30, 1987, strived to support the growing _{interest, and as a result}

all papers received _were

collected in four volumes; the late

papers will be published in an

_additional

volume shortly after the Congress. The International Maritime _{Association of East Mediterranean is}

a voluntary organization of six countries (Bul-garia, Egypt, Greece, Italy,

Turkey and Yugoslavia) established

in 1974. It is well known that _{this region has once} peen the cradle ofhumancivilization

whose formation and development

from the MO3t remote antiquity was connected with the sea and the marine

industry. It has become a tradition

to invite participants from other regions as well, in order to accomplish

more successfully the goals of the Congresses. The main goals of the Congresses

are assistance in the exchange of experience

and knowledge by means of perso -sal meetings and contacts, by

_presentation

of the latest achievements in

the development of marine science, by

tech-nical

visits and free discussions. In

this way the researchers, designers,

shipbuilders. ship operators and all

those engaged in marine industry _{are informed on the latest achievements}

in science and

technological progress,as well as on the modern and efficient

methods and equipment and the_{ways of their practical application in}

the different sectors of the many-branched marine

industry.

During the past decades _{a number of essential quantitative}

and qualitative changes has taken place in the cen-turies-old evolution of the

Ocean transportation system, _{as a result of the scientific and}

technological reloludon

ac-celeration. One of the major and

_determinant

trends is the transformation of

the Ocean transportation system into a system of integral nature, connecting

the marine transport with the other types of transport. The _new transporta-tion tasks (shipment or new types of cargo with non-traditransporta-tional

characteristics) mainly _{in geographic regions} :ith unfavourable hydro- and

meteorological conditions and a number of technical and economic

factors have led to

. _{new in principle and increased in}

number requirements to water

transportations. This has imposed a continuous improvement of the existing and

elaboration of new, more efficient

technologies for water

transportations and, consequently, creation of _{new types of floating systems. This}

process is characterized by intensification _{of the} investigations,by considerable _{sophistication and inevitable increase}

in shipbuilding costs. Hence the significant lengthening of the cycle for investigation,

design and construction regardless

of the apnlication of CAD/CAM sys-tems. Evidently, the imperfact technical

solutions can lead to financial losses,

considerable unfavourable (and in some cases tragic) economic, social

and ecological effects. That is why the choice of the most

perspective and ef-ficient directions of the investigations,experimental

and design work for scientific

aid technol4cal baakup of slip construction and operation is a task of strategic importance,

predetermining marine economy development. Barely twenty or thirty

years ago, those who supposed that

the adoption of the Ocean would become one of the most perspective activities of humanity _{with strategic and vital importance,}

were few in number. The fast

progress of the scialtific and technolocal

revolution has _{sharply changed the level and the nature of the}

tradi -tional marine industry brancnes

(fishing, water transport, _{shipbuilding and shiprepair),has}

led to the creation of oranches new in principle and

exerted a considerable influence

on the traditional ones (marine' oil,

gas and mine-ral extraction, chemical industry,

marine chemistry etc.). On the one hard, the scientific and

technehlgiciprognNs is a factor for accelerated

development of marine industry and,

on the other, the increasing social

demands stimulate its development.

Hence the grown role of the

investigations and design in marine _{industry, the need for} their

_{intensification}

on a national scale and the expedience

of their internationalization.

The global character of the accelerated development

has led to a worldwide

importance of the ecological

problems, to an increase in the role of the international

conventions and legal _{regulation, etc.} In accordance with the

_determinant

trends, the scope of Congress

topics has been selected so as to be rather comprehensive. The aim of the

team working over the preparation

of the Proceedings has been to issue volumes

com-bining

_{papers on topics close to one another}

in object of activity, methods

and means. This in its _{turn has led to} the segmentation Into eleven topical _{sections, namely:}

HYDRODYNAMICS

SHIP DESIGN AND SPECIAL TYPES OF VESSELS STRUCIVRAL PROBLEMS

SHIPBUILDING AND SHIPREPAIR _TECHNOLOGY MARINE ENGINEERING AND ONBOARD EQUIPMENT AUTOMATION AND COMPUTER TECHNIQUE

APPLICATION IN MARINE INDUSTRY MWRINE TRANSPORTATION

SAFETY AT SEA AND MARINE POLLUTION

OCEAN ENGINEERING, UNDERWATER _{TECHNOLOGY AND COASTAL PROTECTION} HISTORY, TRAINING, CalEfii:Z, _INFORMATION

RELIABILITY

Since a number of authors

were late in sending the final

texts of tneir papers, or headed _{them at registration,} an additional volume is to be

published after the Congress. A number of the topical sessions

include state-of-the-art problems and

part of the papers have the nature of reviews. The intention of the

Organizing Committee has been to cover the respective

fields and to provoke the in -termediate or close

co them, aiming at discussions

and searching for effective

ways of solving the problems. The IVth IMAEM Congress

has been organized by the Bulgarian Ship Hydrodynamics

Centre, Varna, with the assistan-ce of the following _sponsors:

State Committee for Research and Technologies; Shipbuilding Economic Corporation;

Water Transport Economic Corporation; Onion of the Scientific Workers in Bulgaria; Bulgarian Scientific and Technical Unions.

We are much indebted to the International and the National Organizing Committees who have a particular contri-bution in the practical organization of the Congress.

Finally, on behalf of the International and the rational Organizing Committees, I would like to cordially ex-tend our appreciation to all those who assisted in the preparation and the holding of the Pith IMAEM Congress and to warmly congratulate the participants from all countries, wishing them a fruitful and pleasant stay in Varna.

Dr. P.BOGDANOV Honoured Scientist Director BSHC

CONTENTS

Volume

1

SECT ION

_{IITrROIDTILA.MICS}

Rept No

DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE INDUSTRY AND GROWING

ROLE OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS

P. Bogdanov

THE FORM FACTOR OR FRICTION

_l+k

2

Sy.

_{Aa. Harvald, Jan M. Hee}

HYDRODYNAMIC DESIGN OF FULL SHIP FOR SHALLOW WATER SERVICE

₃

M. Miyazawa

LOCAL FRICTION MEASUREMENTS

ON HALF-SUBMERGED PLATE

₄

N.

_Semyonov,

_{V. M.}

Kulik,

V. Atanasov,

P.

Georglev,

P.

Zlatev,

K.

Yosifov,

M.

_Stefanov

APPLICATION OF CONTINUOUS

_{MAPPING METHOD: A COMPARISON}

5

BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

M.

Mandarin°,

S.

Miranda

DEVELOPMENTS IN PROPELLER THEORY AND

6

THEIR RELEVANCE TO PROPELLER DESIGN

E. J.

Glover

PANEL METHODS VS VORTEX LATTICE

7

METHODS IN MARINE PROPELLER DESIGN

G. K.

Politis,

K.

Bellbasakis,

D.

Nakos

MEASUREMENTS OF FLUCTUATING

PRESSURE INDUCED BY CAVITATING

8

PROPELLER IN A CAVITATION TUNNEL AND PREDICTION

_{OF THAT OF SHIP}

Cal Gen-Yuan

SOME FEATURES OF COMPUTERIZED

_HIGH-SPEED

9

PROPELLER DESIGN BASED ON DATA FROM SYSTEMATIC

TESTS OF CAVITATING

_{PROPELLER SERIES}

P. Kozhukharov,

V.

_Dimitrov

SHIP DESIGN ON THE BASIS OF CALCULATED

_{SERVICE SPEED}

10

A. Bosnic, H. Vukicevic

A STATISTICAL POWER PREDICTION METHOD FOR

_FERRY-SHIPS

11

R.

Rocchl

A NEW MODEL TESTING

TECHNIQUE YIELDING HULL

12

FORMS AT SIGNIFICANTLY

LOWER PROPULSION POWERS

P.

_Thomsen

SOME ASPECTS OF HYDRODYNAMIC

BEHAVIOUR OF TWIN-SKEG FORMS

₁₃

Jiang Weichang, Xu Xuejuan, Shen Dlngan

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

INVESTIGATION OF THE MEAN VELOCITY

14

VECTOR AT THE STERN AND

_{THE NEAR WAKE OF A DOUBLE}

MODEL

0, Tzabiras, T. Loukakls,

_{J. Antonlou}

MEASUREMENTS OF NOISE RADIATED

_{BY SHIP}

_MODELS

15

M. I.

_{Taroudakis, G. Glannopoulos}

APPL/ED PROBLEMS OF SEAKEEPING IN RESTRICTED

_WATERS

16

Rept No

ON AN IMPROVED NEAR

FIELD METHOD FOR THE EVALUATION

.17

OF SECOND-ORDER

FORCES ACTING ON 3-0 BODIES IN WAVES

A.

Papanikolaou, G.

Zaraphonitis

SECOND-ORDER SLENDER-BODY

THEORY FOR

18

OSCILLATING SHIP AT FINITE FORWARD SPEED

L. Tamborski

REGRESSION ANALYSIS

APPLIED TO CHARACTERISTICS

19

OF STABILITY AMONG

WAVES OF BSRA TRAWLER

SERIES

A.

Campanile,

A.

Paclola,

G. Russo Krauss

NONLINEAR ROLLING SIMULATION

20

FOR INTACT AND

DAMAGED SHIPS

A.

Cardo,

A.

Francescl;tto,

G.

Trincas, R.

Nabergoj

ON COMPUTER-AIDED

SIMULATIONS OF LARGE AMPLITUDE

21

ROLL MOTIONS AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF

SHIPS IN WAVES

A.

Papanikolaou, G.

Taraphonitis,

P.

Perras

THE PREDICTION OF DRILLING SHIP

22

MOTION PARAMETERS IN

SEA CURRENT

Yu.

Remez,

I. Kogan

A NONLINEAR

VORTEX LATTICE METHOD FOR CALCULATING

23

HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES ON

RUDDER WITH TIP

EDGE SEPARATION

Wang Guogiang, Zang

Tianfeng

HUMAN ASPECTS OF SHIP MANOEUVRABILITY

24

Balcer,

L.

Kobylinski

ON HYDRODYNAMIC

ASPECTS OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL PREDICTION

25

OF LOADS AND MOTIONS

OF A TWIN-HULL

SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE

Atlar,

P. S.K. Lai, R.

C. McGregor

SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF THE SEAKEEPING

CHARACTERISTICS

26

OF BARGES FOR FLOATING PRODUCTION

SYSTEMS

Kokkinowrachos, A. Mitzlafl

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

DRIFT FORCES ON

27

AXISYMMETRIC BODIES IN REGULAR WAVES

S.

A. Mavrakos, L.

Bardls, C. Balaskas

SOME CONSIDERATIONS

ABOUT THE THEORETICAL AND

28

EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES

IN THE INVESTIGATION

OF THE

HYDRODYNAMIC QUALITIES

OF MOORED

OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

Aburel,

G. Lehaceanu, L.

Crudu, B.

Nicolescu, N. Ret1

A POSSIBILITY FOR DETERMINATION

OF FREQUENCY

CHARACTERISTICS AND

29

HYDRODYNAMIC PARAMETERS

OF FLOATING STRUCTURES

D.

Genov, V. Dimitrov,

T. Kolarov

GEOSIM TESTS CARRIED

OUT AT THE TOWING

TANK OF THE DEPARTMENT

30

OF NAVAL ENGINEERING

OF NAPLES: RESEARCH

PROGRAMME AND RESULTS

G.

Boccadamo, P.

Cassella,

G.

Lauro

STRAIN-GAUGE FORCE

MEASURING DEVICE

31

FOR AUTOMATIC

TENSIONING WINCH

AUTHORS' INDEX

21

Aburel

Antoniou

Atanasov

Atlar

Balaskas

Balcer

Bardls

Belibasakis

Boccadamo

Bogdanov

Bosnic

Campanile

Cardo

Cassella

Crudu

Dimitrov

Dimitrov

Dingan

Francescutto

Gen-Yuan

Genov

Georgiev

Giannopoulos

Glover

Guoqiang

Harvald

Hee

Kobylinski

Kogan

KoKRinowrachos

Kolarov

KozhuRharov

KuliK

Lal

Laura

Lehaceanu

LouRaKis

Mandarino

MavraRos

McGregor

Miranda

Mitzlaff

Miyazawa

Nabergoj

Nakos

Nicolescu

Paciola

Papan1Rolaou

Perras

Polltis

Remez

Reti

Rocchi

Russo-Krauss

Tamborski

Taroudakls

Thomsen

L. J. V. M. C. L.

L.

K. 0, P. A. A. A. P. L. V. V. Sh. A. C. D. P. G. E. W. Sv. J.

L.

I.

Y.

T.

P.

V.

P.

G. G. T. M. S.

R.

S.

A. M. R. D. B. A. A. P. G. Yu. N. R. G. L. M. C.

28

14

4

25

27

24

27

7

30

1 10 19

20

30

28

9

29

13

20

8

29

4

15

6

23

2 2

24

22

26

29

9

4

25

30

28

14 5

27

25

5

26

3

20

7

28

19 17, 21 7

22

28

11 19 18 15 12 21

Tianfeng

Trincas

Tsvetanov

Tzablras

Semyonov

Stanev

Stefanov

Stefanov

Vorobyov

Vukicevic

Welchang

Xuejuan

Yosifov

Zaraphonitls

Zlatev

Zh. G. Ts. G. B. B. M. .. ,..,. Yu. M. J. X. K. G. P.

23

20

31

14

4

31

4

31 16 10 13 13 4 17,

4

SECTION

KEYNOTE ADDRESS

DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE INDUSTRY AND

_GROWING

ROLE OF THE

_{SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS}

P. Bogdanov'

Bulgarian

Ship

_{Hydrodynaftics}

_Centre

Varca 9007, Pi:!94icia

INTRODUCTION

It is a well known fact

that the World Ocean _(i.e. all the seas and oceans)

and its resources have _been a factor in the development

of mankind since most an -cient times in connection_{with the water}

transporta -tion, fishing, extraction _{of salts, building}

materials, etc.

Nowadays, as a result of

the development of produc-tive forces and thanks _{to the scientific and}

technolo-gical progress, the World

Ocean, besides the traditio-nal activities, attains

vital importance tor _{the future} of mankind in connection

with the assimilation _of mine-ral, biological,

vergy, chemical and other _resources, fresh water supply, etc. _{In our days many}

countries, and especially those having

a sea outlet, are extremely interested in the utilization _of

ocean wealth.Thus, for example, while in _{the 50ies of the 20th}

century only three or four

countries and five private _compa -nies have been engaged

in research and production _of oil in the seas, _{at the end of 1981}

more than 100 coun-tries and over 120 big state

and private companies are surveying and exploiting

sea oil and gas fields in _the shelf zone of the world Ocean.

The major objective of

this paper, complex incha -racter, is to make a brief

general review and analysis of the present situation

and trends in the development of different

sectors of marine industry. _{At that} the attention is concentrated

mostly on the basic _aspects connected with the development

and role of the scien -tific and technological

progress. The basic aspects of this multiplane area with_{high level}

of technology am the object of a multitude

of particular and _general investigations. For _{most various purposes, the}

authors of the present _paper,

aided by many researchers _and experts both from BSH0 _{and from other}

Bulgarian scientific organizations, _{in the past}

few years made several

elaborations (1), _(2),

(3) (4), (S), (6), _{etc. At that, near 2000}

sources were used, but evidently it

is not possible and neces-sary to quote them here.

We will content ourselves _with pointing out the _difficulties

for covering and aria

-lysing all problems and

factors, particularly _when at-tempts are made to determine

the directions and predict the future development.

Most different, even contra -dictory evaluations _{exist, particularly}

when the quan-titative data are

treated. Unanimous is the _opinion that the major peculiarities

of modern ships and_other floating bodies,

predetermining the aims and tasks _of the development

so far and in the future,can

be sum -marized as follows:

(i) Ships are complex

engineering facilities, _composed

Honoured Scientist, Senior Research

_SelentiSt,

Director of ESHC

1 - 1

of thousands

different mechanisms, _{systems, devices} and structures (Figs. 1 _{and 2); they synthesize}

the pro-duction of almost all

industrial sectors of economy

-from the largest heat

power plants to the most _precise satellite navigation and _{communication systems.}

Ships are rather expensive

facilities whose cost can exceed even US $ 100

million, and hence their elimi-nation from the transport

production sphere means freez-ing of tremendous capital

investments, with respective economic losses which

many times exceed the _expenses for repair and maintenance.

Ships, being floating

facilities, must meet inter-national and inter-national

requirements (standards) for safe ty of shipping, preservation

of people's lives at sea,

for labour and ecological

conditions. They are _under the supervision of

classification societies and other bodies authorized for this purpose, issuing

respective certificates.

2. THE ROTE _{OF MARINE TRANSPORTATION}

IN THE INTERNA

-TIONAL ECONOMICRELATIONS

The transportation _{factor in a broad}

sense can be

determined as a totality

of technical, organizing _and economic conditions, _{as well as kind, cost,}

technical and economic parameters _{of the transportation}

process which provides for

the international division of labour and for the intera7tion _between

the national _economic complexes (7).

The incomes and _{payments from the transportation} ac-tivities are continuously

growing and they have signi -ficant relative share in the so-called

invisible trade (nearly 1/3 of its total

volume during the period 1960-1980; the other

components of this kind of _trade are incomes and payments from

_{international}

tourism, from investments abroad,

from different types of services,in-eluding these for utilization

of international communi-cations, etc.). The

absolute amount of incomes and pay-ments from all international

transportation operations has increased during this

period from 9900 m to 98700 in

US $ and from 10600

m to 122000 m US $,

respectively. Despite the unsteady

situation in the_{transportation} service market, the _{marine transportation}

is dominating, taking 75-80% from

the physical amount of _{the interna}

-tionaltransportation.Fpr the developing

countries,because of the character of

their international _trade

connec -tions and their

geographic position, _{the relative} share of the marine

transportation is higher and it varies in the range of 90-95%. _{The amounts received}

from the ma -rine freight

are calculated in tens of

milliards of US $ and they take 10-15%

from the world trade

turnover (5).

According to the evaluations,

based on International Mo-netary Fund data, the

from c.i.f. (cost, insurance, freight)

price or 10% from

f.o.b. (freight on board) price

(7)-The dominating position

of marine transportation

in

the international relations

is explained with the

supe-rior competitiveness in

comparison with t., other

types

of transportation. The superiority of

marine

trans-portation for long prospective

period is confirMed

by

the analysis using the

methods of dynamic programming

and system analysis

approach.

The development of marine

transportation is

serious-ly influenced by the scientific and

technoingicalrevolu-tion regarding the improvement

of transportation

we

-hides and technologies, as well as to the

continuous

complicating of the international

labour division forms

and international economic

relations. The main factors,

which will determine the

tondencies and dynamics

of

the international trade till 2000 are as follows:

the marine transportation

will continue to

ensure

lowest relative expenses in comparison with the

other

types of transportation

and will not only save,

but

will increase its role

in the international trade

and

its participation in the

international transportation

will become more dominating;

Because of growing relative

share

of the developing

countries in the world industry production, their

share

in the world transportation will increase both in

rela-tive and absolute amount.

3. MAIN TRENDS AND RESTRUCTURING OF WORLD MARINE

IN

-DUSTRY

If with the term

"marine industry" we denote all

tir

human activities connected with the seas and

oceans,

then it is interesting to

know that at present the

pro-duction of mineral resources and

oil is about

40%

of

the ocean economy income, about 30-35% of the

trade

shipping and up to 10% of the

fishing, and the

rest

15-204 - of the use of

hydrochemical, hydroenergy

re-sources and sea tourism.

Marine industry becomes

increasingly important

and

wide field of human activity

and world economy and

dif-ferent new sectors and subsectors are emerging and

de-veloping very fast in the last 20 years. This

tendency

is ore of the main characteristic

and determining

fea-tures of world progress and predetermines future

social

and economic development.

3.1 The World Marine

Transportation Fleet

The world marine merchant

fleet

in

1985

amounted

to 416.3 millions gross tonnage for ships of

100

gross

tonnage and upwards

(8). The fleet distribution on

flag

basis

includes

46 countries and territories

having

under their flags tonnage

of

1 million tons or more

.Bore

and further the influence of the so-called

open-regis-try countries' fleet

is not taken into

consideration.nv

explanations are given in (11) as well as the expecta

-tion that this practice

will cease in the near

or

far

future.

The main tendencies

obtained on basis of

statistical

,;ata from 1985 and by means of comparison with

previous

periods can be reduced to the following:

in comparison with 1971

when the world fleet

had

amounted to 247203 million t,

the increase is

1.68

times, and in comparison

with 1975 (342162 million

t)

it is 1.22 times;

- while in 1985 there were 23 developing

countries

in

the list of countries an

territories with more than

1

million t, in 1971 the number of such developing noun

-tries was 7 (totally 28 coun-tries with a fleet

above

1

million t), and 11 in 1975

(from 35 countries with

a

fleet above

1 million t).

The development of

world marine fleet during

the

last 20 years is characterized

with c8rt;nuod

crisis

phenomena as a result

from the general

instability

of

world economics, affecting

after the energy crisis

in

19731974 very significantly the developed marketeco

-nomy countries, as

well as most of the

developing

coun-tries. The steady rate of

increase of total amount

of

marine transportation during

the end of sixties and the

beginning of seventies, when the annual increase was

6-81, has been replaced by a

period of reversals.

Due to

the low rates in the

freight market and many times

in-creased fuel prices, a significant laying-in

tonnage

has appeared, being in different years 8-30%

for tan

-kers and 1-8% for dry cargo ships.

Among other typical

tendencies can be pointed

out

the following ones:

increase of annual amount

of crapped ships - 40

mil-lions t dwt in 1983;

substantial reduction of prices for the so

.

called

"supporting ships". For instance

the prices of

tankers

and bulk carriers at the age

of about 5 years dropped

2-3 times;

the reduction of merchant

ships demand during

the

last 10 years gave

negative reflection on

shipbuilding:

the strong competitiveness

in the freight market has

lead to serious rearrangements

in the marine industry

has affected the types

of ships and has imposed

recon-struction of old ships, etc.

The dynamics and the

changes in the relative

share

by groups of countries

in the World Merchant

fleet (as

per UN classification (1U) are given in

Figure 3.

Long-term prognoses (up to

1990 and 2000) envisage .

restore of the dynamic

development of marine

transpor-tation and merchant fleet

(as illustrated in Fig.4)

3.2. General Outline of

World Shipbuilding

Development

During the last ten years

the development of

world

shipbuilding is characterized

by significant changes

in

its structure from viewpoint

both of its redistribution

regarding the countries and

of the changes in the

vo-lume and relative share of new

orders of ships (Tables

1,2 and Fig.3).

Table 1. Annual orders

and completions (thousand

CT)

The increased relative share of developing

countries

in world shipbuilding,

effected at the expense of

USA

and West Europe, is

explained with the global character

of economic crisis and

the decreased demand

for

ships.

The high labour cost

in developed market-economy

count-ries made them

non-competitive in conventional

merchant

shipbuilding. For these

countries the

competitiveness

with the developing

countries in shipbuilding can

be

reached thanks to two key

factors:

increase of the level

of mechanization and

automa-tion of producautoma-tion processes

and improving the

ships

built, investing

substantial new funds;

restoring of the social attractiveness of

shipbuil-ding by means of package

of stimuli, mcre

favourable in

comparison with other

industry sectors.

West European

countries were forced to

closesomeship7

yards (including sufficiently modern ones),

to

reduce

the number of employees

in shipbuilding,etc. Only

these

succeeded

who quickly turned

towards production of

ocean structures and other non-conventioral

ships

hav-ing rich scientific

and technical potential.

As was mentioned

above during the past

20 years, the

Year _

Annual volume of

orders

placed

Annual

completions

1974 28370 33541 1976 12937 33922 1978 8026 18194 1980 18969 13101 1982 11232 16820. 1984 15594 18750 1986

12800 est.

18000 est.

1 - 2

world shipping and shipbuilding are characterized with periods of upsurge and decline. The shiptonnage has increased rapidly, and this tendency toward giantness has been typical for tankers. Their deadweight _during the period 1965-1968 rised from 103000 t (British Ad-miral) up to 550000 t (ultra-large tankers of Shell). Tankers with 1 million tdw were designed and rgspec-tive docks built. The sharp oil price _{increase and} in-flation led to diminishing of large tankers _building. Now several ships are built or repaired

simultaneous-ly in the extremesimultaneous-ly-large docks.

The most significant phenomenon in shipping _during the period under review _{proves to be the appearance of} containerships with cell holds. At the end _{of the 60-s} till the mid 70-s the ship prices _{were raising up too} quickly, influenced by inflation _{as well as by the in} crease of material and labour costs and demand _for ships, the demand exceeding the _{supply (Fig.4). At the} end of the 70s and the beginning of 80s _{the prices were} high only for nonconventional _{ships. For instance, the} cruiser "Sea Venture" with 20000 grt and capability for accommodating 767 passengers, built _{in 1971, had a} price of 7.5 million pounds; the ship_{"Royal Princess"} with 40000 grt and capacity for 1200 _passengers,

com-pleted in 1985, has a price of 80 million pounds.

As the world merchant ships reached _{400 million} re-gistered tons, it is hard

to expect considerable in-crease of activities for building large _{amount of}

new ships. New ships will be ordered _{mainly to replace the} old ones, which will lead _{to significant}

variation of ship tonnage and prices. Having _{in mind the}

different scenaria of prognosed development,_{summarized data}

for new ship types are _shown

in Table 3(18). Table 3. Aggregate newbuilding

output, 1985-1994 (most likely case) _{(million grt)}

3.3. Fishing Industry

The World Ocean is one of the most important sour-ces of various and valuable _{foods. The fishing,}

done in 210 countries and territories, _{gives more than}

60

mist t per year of fish, mussels, _{crabs, mammals,} etc. In this way mankind gets

about 20% of the necessary proteins, vitamins, microelements, etc. A number of countries meet their demands for _{animal proteins} main-ly by ocean biological _products.

The marine biological _{resources are also}

important for obtaining high-calorie

flour, medical and indust-rial raw mateindust-rials, seaweeds, etc. At present, _every person on earth gets 3 times _{more marine}

bielogical products than in 1948.

Of all more than 150 countries

and territories with a sea outlet, about 120 have fishing

fleets with ships above 100 grt. Particularly

slow is the development of the fishing fleet_ in the _{majority developing countries} in Africa.

The world fleet of trawlers, _{factories and} otherfi-shing vessels has _{grown by around 2% per annum}

since the mid-1970s to reach 29750 _{ships in mid-1985 ,with}

an aggregate tonnage of 12.9 million _{grt: vessels}

below 500 grt account for 80% _{of all ships and 28% of}

total tonnage (including 21252 trawlers _{and fishing vessels}

3

and 852 fish carriers and factories); the magnitude and geographical spread of the fishing fleet and ,

comple-tions are shown in Fig.3 and Table 4 (for _{ships of 100} grt and above) (5),(8).

Table 4. Fishing vessels: Completions 1978-1984 (in thousands of grt)

About 30 countries build fishing ships _{over 100 grt} among which a leading role during the last_{years play} the German Democratic Republic, Poland, _{the USSR}

ard Spain; since 1975 they (and later also the USA) have excelled Japan, which took the first place _{for fishing} shipbuilding at the beginning of the 70ies.

In developed market-economy countries and in de-veloping countries small shipbuilding facilities pre-vail, and in the GDR, Poland and the _{USSR the fishing} shipbuilding is presented in modern_specialized ship-yards with high productivity.

According to the evaluation of FAO _{experts for the} period till 2000, prepared in 1980, it is predicted that the demand for fish will increase annually _{with 3.5-4%,} and this for fish flour - with 3.5-3.8%. It is assumed that from about 13 millions grt, as presently _amounts the world sea fishing fleet, it will increase up to 16-18 millions grt till 1990, the relative _{share of}

fish factory ships and refrigerator-store ships reaching40% from the total tonnage.

3.4. Development of Ship Repair and _Maintenance In the 60s about 60% of the volume of world shipre-pair was in Europe; the greater _{part of the capacitywas} distributed among the North-West European

countries.The relative share of Japan amounted to 18%, _{the share of} North America to 16%, and that of the _{rest of the world} was only about 6%.

As a result of the intensive development during the past 20 years (and particularly the _last decade),a-pat-tern _{of world shiprepair distribution}

was created which can be determined as a serious structural change _in this sector of economy to the benifit of considerably increasing the relative share of the developing count-ries. This can be illustrated by Fig. _{6 (5).}

The increase in the cargo capacity and _{dimensions of} merchant ships, and mostly of tankers, _{combined oil-ore} carriers and bulk-carriers, posed _{new requirements}

to

the dimensions and capacity of the facilities in the world shiprepair. It became necessary _{to meet the} struc-tural and quantitative changes in the _{fleet (in 1984 the} number of ships over 30000 dwt reached

5211,whereas in 1974 this group included 3538 ships, _{and in 1984}

the number of ships over 125000 dwt reached _1017,

whereas in 1974 it incuded 636 ships). These _{changes led to the} construction of new large and ultralarge _dry docks,put-ting into operation of large floadocks,put-ting

docks,construction of deep water quay walls, expansion and modernization of the existing shiprepair yards, _{etc. As a result of} this, in the middle of 1984 about _{180 shiprepair docks} for ships of over 50000 dwt cargo capacity were ia ope-ration (5), and over 620 docks with _{capacity of more} than 20000 dwt existed, 116 of which in the developing countries. In the beginning of the 80s, _{when the crisis} phenomena in world economy most essentially_{affected the} world fleet, serious difficulties and _bitter

competi-tion arose both for shipbuilding and _{shiprepair. Due to}

YEAR OF BUILD 1978 1980 1982 1984 COUNTRY/REGION OF BUILD

_---...,

Western Europe _{40 54 37} 56 Comecon _{177 243} 191 166 USA/Canada 10 27 21 8 Japan _{45 65} 27 35 Other _{33 19} 15 8 WORLD TOTAL 305 408 291 273 No _{Vessel type} GRT Dry bulk carriers _67.0

2

Oil tankers _51.0

3

General cargo vessels 21.5

4 Containers _12.0 5 Combined carriers _9.4 6 _{Gas carriers} 4.2 7 Chemical carriers _3.5 8 Vehicle carriers _3.5 9 Fishing vessels _2.6 10 Supply vessels _1.4 11 _Other 10.0

overcapacity a number of shiprepair

yards in West Europe

and the USA reduced their activity,

and some of

them

were even closed.

Out of the most important influences on

shiprepair

activity, the grown ship CO., and the changes in ser

-vice expenses structure can be pointed out, The

grown

costs have imposed a decrease

in the duration-of

ships'

laying up for shiprepair and led to

the establishment of

a new policy for shiprepair

and maintenance. The

consi-derable increase in fuel expenses

(Fig. 7) has had

in-fluence in two directions: on the one

hand, the

ship-yards located immediately in the

regions of the

busy

shipping lanes have acquired priority, and, on the other

hand, the conversions of old ships have received

consi-derable stimuli, applying more

effective solutions

for

the propulsive system.

Among the other major trends

for

world shipre

-pair, the following ones should be

mentioned:

the grown role of scientific and

technological progres

in the advanced shiprepair countries in connection with

the harsh competition and the achievements of the

scien-tific and technological revolution,tle intensification of

research and design, the increase in the

level of me

-chanization, automation and computerization

of the

pro-duction processes and management;

the nrevailinc of

combined shipbuilding and shipre

-pair firms in West Europe, the USA,

Canada, the

GDR,

etc., simultaneously with the grown

requirements

to

specialization and cooperation;

the staff reduction and even

closure of a number

of

shiprepair yards in the European countries with market

economy (including the United kingdom, the Scandinavian

countries, FRG, Spain, France, Portugal and Italy)

as

well as in Japan, mainly due to

the decreased needs for

shiprepair, the insufficient competitive power

(despite

the government assistance), the

relatively high

labour

payment, etc.;

engagement of the shiprepair

facilities of the

USA

and some West European

countries with

a

considerable

number of navy ships (the

United Kingdom, France,Italy),

mostly

for the implementation of repairs;

the directing of the countries

with

considerable

technological potentialities, like Japan,

towards com

-plex conversions and modernizations

of ships, etc.

In conclusion to this section of the paper, the

con-siderable quantitative changes occurred

in world ship

-repair, accompanied by technical, organizational

and

geographic restructuring in this sector

of world man i

-ne industry, could be pointed out. Having in mind

the

difficulties due to the reflection of crisis

phenomena

and the bitter competition, the

successful future

deve-lopment of shiprepair and

maintenance should be

con

-nected with the increasing role of scientific

andtechno-lAicalprogress and particularly

with permanent

applica-tion of leading achievements in the

technology.

These

main requirements will be valid

for a long perspective

period.

3.5 World Ocean Resources

Extraction

It may sound paradoxical, but many

scientists

and

authors are unanimous that the World

Ocean,

covering

mote than 78% of Earth's surface (about 362 mln km2) is

explored less than the Solar System

is.

The energy and resources

problems and difficulties

connected with

the provisions and feeding

of the

in-creasing earth population

caused the intensive

investi-gation and assimilation of ocean

resources. They became

possible due to the high level of productive forces

and

scientific and technological progress

after World

War

II,

and in their turn were the resources for the eco

-nomically profitable extraction

of biological and

mine-ral resources, oil, energy, etc.

from the

ocean

.

This fact is extremely valid for the cases

where

those

resources are either

entirely or almost exhausted

on

earth.

1 - 4

Recently, the reserves (surveyed

and

prognosti

-cated) of the earth were estimated according to

the

type of the mineral resources and were

compared

with

the rate and the needs of world industry

(3). The

re-sults showed that till the end of this century

and

at

the beginning of the next one the reserves

of many

of

the nonrestorable mineral resources

will be

exhausted

(e.g. copper, tin, iron ore, oil and so

on).

Because

of this reason and due to the

development of scientific

and technological progres's,the ocean turns to be

the

most irportant mineral source.

Of practical

interest

are many other ocean resources,

from the viewpoint

of

present and future needs of

mankind (Fig. 8 is a

prin-ciple scheme of the ocean resources).

3.5.1 Energy Resources

Energy resources are oil, gas, coal and others.

The

importance of the ocean energy resources for

the

world

economy has grown substantially

due to the growth

of

world energy consumption (Table 5), on the one

hand,

and to the alarming exhaustion of the

restricted,

un

-recoverable deposits on land, on the other

hand.

Table 5. Growth of world energy consumption in the

pe-riod 1961-1980 in mln.t. relative fuel

For a period of 120 years (from 1860 to

1980)

the

world consumption

of main form of energy has

grown

about 19 times and the consumption per

capita of

the

increased population more than 6 times.

Oil and Gas Extraction

The value of oil and gas resources is about

90%

of

the total mineral resources extracted from sea

bottom

and the potential possibilities for their

future

ex

-traction are the highest. We will discuss briefly

the

state and future perspectives.

The statistical data from the beginning

of

1982

show that more than 100 countries have

carried out

in-vestigations and explored oil and gas beds

in

the

ocean shelf.

At present about 24% of world oil production

is

from the sea beds. The sea gas production

is 20%

of

the world's total production. The number

of known

at

the moment oil-gas deposits is over 1000

and the num

-her of drillings - more than

30000.Acccording to pro

-gnosis data, the sea oil production at the

end of

this

century will be more than 50% of the

world's total

pro-duction.

Utilization of Other Energy Resources

from the

World Ocean

The energy of ocean tides is estimated by the

spe-cialists to be about

1

billion kW. For the need of

com-parison it should be mentioned that the energy of

all

rivers on the earth together is

about 850 million kW. A

number of projects exists for

development of the

elec-tric power stations in the

Netherlands, Germany,

USA,

Canada, Argentina and other countries. USA and

Canada

have a project for such station

in Tandy Gulf with

po-wer up to 60 million kW.

According to the preliminary calculations

1 m

sea

wave front carries energy

from 40 to 100 kW, and

the

wave power of the ocean

is estimated to be 2.7

billion

kW. The expedience of building

and operation of

tideel-ectric power stations is determined

by the region

pecu-liarities,

first of all by the density

of the waves,

i.e. the wave power value versus unit wave front.

For

example, for some parts of US and Japanese coast,

this

power is on the average 40 kW/m, and for the west coast

of England - up to 80 kW/m.

Period

1961-65 1966-70 1971-75

1976-80

Besides the wave power, projects are _experimented and research is carried out for the use of thermal and streams' energy. In best situation are the countries in the equator and tropical zones, with _temperature differences of 20°C for 1000 m depth.

Considerable energy possess the sea currents with speed _{in some regions up to 9-10 km/h. Different} pro-jects are under development of great turbines designed to utilize the energy of such currents like the _Gulf Stream and Curacao. The implementation of these pro-jects is expected in the period 1990-2000.

Successful energy production is accomplished _by pho-tosynthesis of sea flora. In 1974 on the USA _ _Pacific

coast special seaweeds have been cultivated growing up to 60 cm per day. These seaweeds, rich in

organic

sill:-stances, transform under the action of bacteria into gas methane. A plantation with area 40000 km2 couldpro-vide electric energy sufficient for _{a modern town with} population about 50000. This bioconversion

approach draws attention in France, USSR and other countries.

Practically unrestricted 4re the resources of ocean water with volume 1370 mm n m (98% of all the water on

earth) for obtaining hydrogenwhich,

when burnt, will give energy. The technological _{difficulties, however,} arising in this case as well _{as in the obtaining of} de-uterium, recede the implementation_{of this method to} the beginning of the next century.

3.5.2 Mineral Resources

At present about 30 countries accomplish

experiment-al or industriexperiment-al extraction of solid _{mineral resources} from the ocean bottom. The list of _{the minerals} extrac-ted from the sea (ocean) bottom is _{very long and}

pro-mising. Many mineral and metal _{dissipations are}

placed on the continental shelf - the most easily _assessed part of the ocean with surface as large _{as Asia.}

These dissipations are second in significance _{after the oil} and gas resources of the shelf.

In sea and ocean water there exist_{more than 60} di-ssolved elements, from which those of greatest concen-tration are: Cl, Na, Mg, Ca, Br and others. _Besides, thera.are a number of valuable precious ore minerals: platinum, gold, magnesite, chromite, _{cassiterite and} others.

It is supposed that the minerals' _extraction from underwater shafts in near future will _{be developed at} shelf depth up to 100 m.

Of great interest are the _{deepwater ores in the form} of ore-manganeseconcretions. _{The regions in}

which concretions are found occupy vast areas - up to mil-lions of square metres, and their density is very high. The iron-manganese concretions are distributed to

depths from 60 to 7000 m and the greatest

percentage are at depth of about 3000 m. Usually _{they contain}

20-25% of manganese, 14% iron, 1% nickel, 0.5% copper and less than 0.5% cobalt. Till 1970 _{there was no} technolo-gy for metal extraction from concretions

which restric-ted their assimilation. In 1970 _{the American scientists} developed a technology allowing

the extraction of 95% of all the concretion metals.

After that period _many countries as USA, Japan, Germany, _{France, Great}

Bri-tain, Canada, Australia and _{Belgium began}

-searching concretions. During the last years several internation-al consortiums were established _{for joint}

industrial assimilation of iron-manganese

concretions.

Except iron-manganese concretions on the ocean bo-ttom, of interest are the phosphorite

concretions as well. They are distributed _{to depths of 50-2500 matthe}

coasts of USA,Japan,Chile,

Peru, Australia, India, Mo-rocco, Guinea, Angola and other countries.

Great importance for the economy of some European American and African countries

has the extraction _of

1 - 5

magnium from sea water. In Great Britain 80% of .1 . the

magnium is extracted from seawater, and in the world -more than 40%.

Attempts are made by different countries for extrac-tion from seawater of gold, uranium, lithium,

rubidium, cesium and other rare metals with application _{in the} ele-ctronic industry.According _{to approximate estimations} if only 1% of the total ocean concretion _{deposits are} suitable for industrial utilization, _{could be extracted} 150 mm n t nickel, 150 mln copper, 30 mln cobalt. With the present production rates this means satisfaction of demands for nickel for 230 years, copper for 170 years and cobalt for 1200 years (19).

3.5.3 Biological Resources

The present and the perspective _{utilization of} mari-ne and fresh-water bio-resources is shown in _{Table 6.I1} is expected that the ocean will have growing and predo-minant importance in meeting the _{increasing demands of} mankind for food and other biological _products. Table 6. Present and Perspective _{Utilisation of Marine}

and Fresh-Water Bioresources

3.5.4 Other Resources

There are many other resources in the World Ocean and different activities for their _utilisation

have been performed since ancient times. In this section of the report activities, possibilities

and directions for utilisation of the ocean resources can be only most ge-nerally listed as follows:

extraction of cooking-salt and salts for _industrial purposes;

extraction of sand and other building _materials; obtaining fresh water by desalinating _{of sea water (at} present Mere than 800 desalinating stations

with a pro-duction of 40 mln m3 fresh water per day are put into operation and the tendency is to reach 1290 mm n m3 in 2000):

utilisation of icebergs by their _{transportation (from} Antarctica mainly) to regions short_{of water;}

utilization of the ocean for urban _{purposes (coast} protection and consolidation, building _{of floating} air-ports, hotel., artificial islands for ports and housing estates, floating factories and power stations, under-water tunnels and pipelines, etc.).

5. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC _{AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS} IN MARINE INDUSTRY

The achievements of the scientific

and technological progress have a decisive and constantly

increasing im-portance and determine the character of the _future de-velopment for all sectors of marine_{economy - for the} traditional areas, as well as for the new activities and directions.

Among the perspective new directions

ofseatransport, the following may be listed concerning _{the near and}

not very far future (end of the present and beginning _{of the}

next century);

specification of transport ships, and increasing the appli.cation of

non-conventional technical decisions;

further development of sea underwater pipe transporta-tion of oil and gas (till 1985, _{29400 km were put}

into operation as a competitive branch to sea fleet and pro-1975 2000 Growth Draught, mln t ₇₀

180 110

Including:

freshwater and passage objects

(incl. pisciculture) 10 20 +10 marine objects _{60 160} +100 Including by: fishing _{52 80} +28 fishing rationalization mariculture, biomelioration, transplantation -8 10 40 +10 +32 objects on low trophic level

jects exist for construction of a number of underwater pipelines not only for oil and gas transportation hut

for pulp as well);

development of underwater tunnels andbridges over underwater obstacles, stepping the connection between different islands and straits separating the conti-nents;

development of new types of sea transport and transr port-and-supply ships for processing of - extracted

(from operating in future rigs in ocean areas far from the shcre) oil, gas, iron-manganese concretions and other mineral resources.

The strong competition and the drastic increase of operational fuel expenses led to accelerated implemen-tation in the developed countries of the advanced sci-entific and technological achievements,and inthis res-pect five typical areas are of strategic importaece for shipbuilding and shiprepair:

development and application of ship hydrodynamics methods and means for reducing of energyresources and operational fuel bills and for improving of seagoing and manoeuvring qualities of ships (13),(18), etc.;

optimization of the technical solutions regarding engine space design, application ofmain engines with reduced fuel consumption, etc.;

automation and electronization of ships and re-ducing the crews

computer-aided design, manufacturing and

manage-ment(17).;

complex mechanization, automation and robotization of manufacturing processes, etc.

In the process of feasibility study and design of a drilling platform, main attention is paid to the problem of structure and strength, the stability and

floodability specification, the decrease of motions' amplitudes in waves, the automatic positioning above the working site ,the chdiae of main and aumaiary power units and their rational exploitation, etc. (eig.11). The problems connected with the safety of the opera-tion are controlled by the classificaopera-tion societies.

The shipowners in the advanced countries are solv-ing successfully the problems connected with the crea-tion and improverent of technical complexes,including non-conventional ships and different (about 8) types of floating structures for oil and gas production:

vessels for complex geophysical investigations,sa-tisfying the up-to-date shipping requirements, equipp-ed with high precisionnavigation systems, thrusters and roll stabilizers;

vessels for geological engineering explorations used for investigating the physical and mechanical qu-alities of the ground and equipped with systems for dynamic control of positioning above the working site: jack-up and semi-submersible floating drilling rigs, capable to drill 6500 inwith water depth of 100m and 200m respectively (Fig.9);

drill ships on dynamic principles of positioning above the drilling site at water depth of up to 300m;

crane ships with lifting capacity from 40 to 2500t designed as traditional single-hulled or the modern double-hulled, as well as semi-submersibles, capable of transporting cargoes of large dimensions and weights;

supply ships with ice-strengthened hulls, capable to tow drilling rigs;

vessels for diving and underwater technical ac-tivities, equipped with deepwater dive complexes for work on depths co 300 m, with lifting capacity for handling technological equipment mounted on the bottom and submarine multipurpose apparatuses;

pipe-laying vessels, fire and rescue ships and other special ships, etc.

For exploiting offshore ferro-manganese concretions special technical means are needed, capable of work-ing on depth 5000-6000m, water temperature 2-3°C and high 'salinity.

The problems connected with creation of such means can be classified in accordance with the hierarchy of the ocean mining enterprises, that includes as subsys-tems the following isubsys-tems:

hasic ship or drilling rig;

facility for transportation of the raw material to the surface;

concretion gathering units; lift facilities;

control system.

The developemt of the gathering unit and the trans-port facility is considered tobe most complicated task. It must be noted that thechoice of lifting system de-termines the layout of the wholecomplex and at pre-sent several types of this system have been developed; hydraulic with airlift and pump modifications; this system requires a separate unit for concretions ga-thering;

mechanized system that carries out gathering as well as lift of concretions;

autonomous system includingself-propelled, remote controlled bottom devices, gathering and lifting con-cretions in continuous mode.

In the late seventies a numberof international corporations have been organized in the developed coun-tries for testing the technical facilities for concre-tion exploitaconcre-tion in real conditions. The number of patents for different devices is growing fast.

Finally, concluding this sectionof the paper, the author would like to emphasize the great 'importance for the future of mankind of the efforts for assimila-tion of ocean resources ( including the Arctic and the Antarctic). The future results and achievements depend on great investments and on further intensive and lar-ge scale investigations, research, design and develop-. ment.

The accelerated development of scientific and tech-nological progress has led to creation of nonconventi-unal ship designs,to implementation of new types of sophisticated ocean structures (Fig.9) and to the ne-cessity for significant investments in research andde-velopment.

At present the term "ocean technology" implies all the knowledge, methods and approaches for utilization of ocean space and resources. The main directions of development in this new field can bedistributed in

four principal spheres (Fig.10), having the 'following development and immediate objectives:

(i) In space:

launching of specialized communication satellites; -- further use of space stations for studying the ocean;

development of new complex maritime navigation sys-tems;

further development of maritime aviation. (ii) On the ocean surface:

creation of new transportation means and specializa-tion of the ships servicing the extraction of oil,gas, minerals and chemicals;

- development of new types of drilling ships and plat-forms , especially for large depths;

development of floating plants and power stations; building of artificial islands.

(iii) Underwater:

development of existing and creation of new manned andummannedunderwater apparatuses with different des-tination;

implementation of projects for submerged transpert ships, for the arctic regions includingly;

improvement and development of the remote control systems;

(iv) On the bottom of the ocean:

creation of underwater stationaryresearch bases; erection of underwater storehouses;

improvement and developemnt of mechanisms and de-vices (including robots) for excavation and building of underwater industrial plants.